U.

S FOREIGN POLICY {1919-1945}

America’s foreign policy based on three principal

a) Commercial relation with Europe. Without indulging into power politics.

b) The European countries should not indulge in the politics of America.
c) American European countries should start commercial relations with Asian countries, but jointly, they should not
participate in the politics of Asia.
 First principal is available in the Farewell speech of President Washington in the. Opening speech of Jefferson.
 Second principle was propounded in Monroe doctrine of President Monroe.
 And 3rd one was visible in the open-door policy of America.
 When the First World War broke out, America declared her neutrality. She never participated in European wars,
but during a period of First World War, she began to take enters in the world politics.
 At that time of this war, she earned a lot of money and become the richest country of the world.
 American declared war against Germany on the 6th April, 1917.

Paris settlement and America.

 President Wilson was the one of the most permanent personality of the settlement.
 He received the greatest blew of his live as a Senate of America. Did not approve the Treaty of Versailles and the
League.
The Paris Peace Conference was a set of formal and informal diplomatic meetings in 1919 and 1920 after the
end of World War I, in which the victorious Allies set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers.
Dominated by the leaders of Britain, France, the United States and Italy

Policy of neutrality and the Republican government (1919 to 1939.)

 Direction of 1920 proof beneficial for the Republicans. And they began to be considered that advocates of public
welfare.

DC Gupta has also remarked.

From 1920 to 1933 America pursued a policy of touch me not corporation.

 In 1921 President Harding summoned Washington Conference regarding the problem of disarmament and the
Far East.
 In 1927 President Calvin invited another Disarmament Conference to dissolve the problem.
 During the Treaty of Paris of 1928. The Foreign Minister, Kellogg, played a permanent role in the avoidance of
war.
 America also put signature on London naval treaty 1930.
 President, Hoover postponed the recovery of war debts for one year, again in 1932 America participants and
disarmament conference of Geneva.
 The Washington Naval Conference was a disarmament conference called by the United States and held
in Washington, D.C., from November 12, 1921, to February 6, 1922. [1] It was conducted outside the auspices of
the League of Nations.
The Kellogg–Briand Pact or Pact of Paris – officially the General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an
Instrument of National Policy a 1928 international agreement on peace in which signatory states promised not
to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may
arise among them"
 The pact was signed by Germany, France, and the United States on 27 August 1928, or 29 Aug
(mentioned in Book)

Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact is named after its authors, United States Secretary of State Frank B.
Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand. The pact was concluded outside the League of Nations.

Effective 24 July 1929

The London Naval Treaty, officially the Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament, was an
agreement between the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy, and the United States that was signed on 22 April
1930.
Seeking to address issues not covered in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, which had created tonnage limits
for each nation's surface warships, the new agreement regulated submarine warfare, further controlled cruisers
and destroyers, and limited naval shipbuilding.
The treaty was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 6 February 1931

 America passed the act of neutrality on 31st August, 1935.

 The accident of Abyssinia was one of them. The horrible army of Mussolini crushed Abyssinia altogether.
Roosevelt take stern view and stop the supply of arms. The period of neutrality was about to end.
The Abyssinia Crisis,[nb 1] also known in Italy as the Walwal incident,[nb 2] was an international crisis in 1935 that
originated in a dispute over the town of Walwal, which then turned into a conflict between the Fascist-
ruled Kingdom of Italy and the Ethiopian Empire (then commonly known as "Abyssinia")

America and her relations with other American countries.

 American army stationed in Nicaragua in Hatiti for a pretty long time. In this way, America wanted to keep these
countries under her influence. The American countries called this policy dollar imperialism.
 The central & southern states welcome Roosevelt’s policy of good neighbour

American in Second World War.

The Congress of America passed the land lease bill on the request of President Roosevelt.

In 1940, British prime minister Winston Churchill sent a plea for help to Franklin Roosevelt, saying that Great
Britain was in deep financial trouble, and would soon not be able to pay any money to America for purchasing
weaponry. In response, Roosevelt created the Lend-Lease Act to help the Allies, without creating the risk of post-
war debts.
 The Lend-Lease Act was passed on 11th March, 1941, after fierce debates and protests by isolationists. The Act
was a program created by the United States Government, which enabled the country to provide war time aid
and support to the Allied nations during World War II, while the US remained a neutral country
 On 11 December 1941, four days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Germany attacked on America.
 The Four Freedoms were goals articulated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on Monday, January 6, 1941.
In an address known as the Four Freedoms speech (technically the 1941 State of the Union address), he
proposed four fundamental freedoms that people "everywhere in the world" ought to enjoy:

i. Freedom of speech

ii. Freedom of worship

iii. Freedom from want

iv. Freedom from fear

 Roosevelt delivered his speech 11 months before the surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that caused the
United States to declare war on Japan, December 8, 1941
 The Atlantic Charter was a statement issued on 14 August 1941 that set out American and British goals for the
world after the end of World War II, months before the US officially entered the war

IMPORTANT POLTICIAL SCENARIO AND LEADERS

1912
Woodrow Wilson March 4, 1913 Democrati Thomas R.
28 (1856–1924) –
c Marshall
[54]
March 4, 1921
1916

Warren G. Harding March 4, 1921

29 (1865–1923) – Republican 1920 Calvin Coolidge
[55]
August 2, 1923[e]
 Vacant through
–
Coolidge August 2, 1923 March 4, 1925
[q]
Calvin
30 (1872–1933) – Republican
[56]
March 4, 1929 1924
Charles G. Dawes

Herbert Hoover March 4, 1929

31 (1874–1964) – Republican 1928 Charles Curtis
[58]
March 4, 1933

1932
John Nance Garner
Franklin D. March 4, 1933 1936
Roosevelt Democrati
32 – Henry A. Wallace
(1882–1945) c
[59] April 12, 1945[e] 1940
Harry S. Truman
1944

April 12, 1945[r] Vacant through

–
Harry S. Truman – Democrati January 20, 1949
33 (1884–1972)
[60] January 20, c
1953 1948
Alben W. Barkley
 The Foreign Policy of England {1919 to 1945}

Relation of England with France

 During the First World War, England supported France openly during the war, after the end of the First World
War, Prime Minister of both the countries, Llyod George of England and Clemenceau of France, took part in
peace settlement of Paris But after some time they were divided
 British PM ,Llyod George wanted to adopt a liberal policy towards Germany, but France wants to ruin
Germany altogether, but she was greatly terrified of a German attack.

Relation of England with Russia

 Between the two world wars, the relation between England and Russia remain strained
 England had to wage a war with Russia for the safety of Estonia between 1919-20
The Estonian War of Independence[b], also known as the Estonian Liberation War, was a defensive campaign
of the Estonian Army and its allies, most notably the United Kingdom, against the Soviet Russian westward
offensive of 1918–1919

It resulted in a victory for Estonia and was concluded in the 1920 Treaty of Tartu.

 In 1921 the British Prime Minister, Lloyd George, made commercial treaty with Russia
The Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement was an agreement signed on 16 March 1921 to facilitate trade between
the United Kingdom and the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic. It was signed by Robert Horne, Chancellor
of the Exchequer and Leonid Krasin, Commissar of Foreign Trade
According to this treaty, England assured Russia that she would not mount any propaganda against her. And
Russia also not take any action against England, but Russia did not act on her words because her 3 rd international
of Russia opposed the interest of England
 In 1924 England recognised the government of Russia.
 In 1927 the Labour Party government of England concluded a commercial treaty with Russia Now, the
attitude of Russia began to change because of some reasons over there.
 The rise of Hitler, and
 Russia was afraid of Japanese attack on Manchuria
 A Non Aggression Pact was concluded between Russia and Germany in 1939. England realised her mistake
after this pact in 1941 when Hitler attacked Russia. Russia joined hands with England and participated in a
Second World War from the side of Entente Cordiale
The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, officially the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics,[1][2] was a non-aggression pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union with a
secret protocol that partitioned Central and Eastern Europe between them.
The pact was signed in Moscow on 23 August 1939 by German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and
Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov.[3] Unofficially, it has also been referred to as the Hitler–Stalin Pact[4]
[5]
and the Nazi–Soviet Pact
 Relation with Turkey
 In the First World War, Turkey supported Germany So after the Great War in the peace settlement of
Paris, the friendly nations concluded alternative with Turkey. But Turkey did not sign this treaty.
 The allied nations gave her a right to continue her control over Constantinople. I revolt broke out in the
Turkey under the leadership of Kemal Pasha. After the First World War, the possibility of war against
Greece grew. Therefore, England concluded with Turkey in 1922.
 According to this treaty, the independence of Turkey was recognised and thus courier relations between
Turkey and England were established after this treaty and continued for pretty long time
Relation with Germany
 British P.M, Lloyd George had sympathy with Germany. So England made Germany a member of League
of Nations in 1935.
 England concluded an Anglo German naval agreement with Germany in order to check the ambitions of
Hitler. But she failed to do so In 1936 violating the treaty of Versailles, Hitler occupied the Rhine
province and made fortification there In 1938 Hitler also incorporated Austria into German Empire

The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18 June 1935 was a naval agreement
between the United Kingdom and Germany regulating the size of the Kriegsmarine in
relation to the Royal Navy.
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement fixed a ratio whereby the total tonnage of the
Kriegsmarine was to be 35% of the total tonnage of the Royal Navy on a permanent
basis.[1] It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 12 July 1935.[2] The
agreement was abrogated by Adolf Hitler on 28 April 1939.
The Munich Agreement[a] was an agreement concluded at Munich on 30 September 1938, by Nazi
Germany, Great Britain, the French Republic, and Fascist Italy. The agreement provided for the German
annexation of part of Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland, where more than three million people,
mainly ethnic Germans, lived.[1] The pact is also known in some areas as the Munich Betrayal

 Germany supported General Franco openly in the Civil War of Spain and helped establish autocratic rule
in Spain It annoyed England, which decided to take a stand view of ceremony. But she had to sacrifice
Czechoslovakia in 1938 due to the policy of appeasement of Lord Chamberlain. Churchill called this pact
a great blunder .And then in 1939 Germany invaded Poland and gave birth to Second World War

England’s policy of appeasement

 British adopted a suicidal policy that is the policy of appeasement

 The chief source of power of England was naval force. Hence, she always endeavoured to make her navel pose
the strongest. As a result, her foreign policy had the following aims.
 To maintain superiority of a naval power
 To Grand Freedom of seized roots for development of its trade
 To maintain the balance of power
 To safeguard the existence of pollen, Belgium, Norway, Sweden and Denmark
 The foreign policy of England can be divided into 2 parts
I. Policy of splendid isolation
II. Policy of appeasement
Policy of splendid isolation {1919 to 1930}

 The conservative government following the policy of splendid isolation did not sign the Geneva protocol in 1925
and also disapproved of the act of 1928 passed by the General Assembly of the league of Nations
The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of
Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, usually called the Geneva Protocol, is a treaty prohibiting the use
of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts. It was signed at Geneva on 17 June 1925
and entered into force on 8 February 1928. It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 7 September
1929
 Mcdonald , the Labour Prime Minister of England did not take notice of the draft of mutual assistance treaty.
And in 1929 the French Prime Minister, Briand, did not accept the proposal of European nations

Policy of Appeasement {1930-39}

 The following reasons can be adduced for the policy of appeasement

 Principle of balance of power.
 Internal weakness of England.
 Terror of rise of communism.
 Difference between the interest of England and France.
 Unfarsightedness of British politician

England’s policy of appeasement towards different nations

Japan

 On 18th September 1931 Japan taking advantage of a bomb explosion near railway line at Mukden captured
Mukden and hit the nearby territory. Soon, Japan occupied Manchuria also Simon, the Foreign Minister of
England, supported this act of Japan in the league of nation So the league of nation also failed to check them.
Aggressive step of Japan

ITALY

 Like Simon and Chamberlain Samuel Hoare and Lord Halifax adopted the policy of appeasement And
endeavoured to please France and Mussolini
 In 1935 a Secret Pact was signed between France and Italy. According to this fact, Italy was granted freedom of
action in the matter of Abyssisnia
The Hoare–Laval Pact was an initially secret pact of December 1935 between French Foreign Minister Pierre
Laval and British Foreign Secretary Sir Samuel Hoare for ending the Second Italo-Ethiopian War
 On 10th September 1935 it was decided between France and England that no military action would be taken
against Italy

Turkey
 In the First World War, Turkey fought with Germany In that peace settlement of Paris, the allied nation signed a
treaty with Turkey also. But Turkey did not sign on that feature because of to control our Constantinople. After
the first World War, an revolt erupted under the leadership of Kamal Pesha. But due to intervention of England,
it was averted. According to a treaty of 1922 between Turkey and England, the freedom of Egypt was recognised
 The handling of the Chanak Crisis (September–October 1922) between the United Kingdom and the Ankara-
based Kemalist government caused the collapse of David Lloyd George's Ministry on 19 October 1922[10] and
political autonomy of Canada from the UK

GERMANY

 In 1935 England signed a naval pact with Germany in order to check the ambitions of Hitler. This fact came to be
known as Anglo German pact
 In 1936 violating the provision of Treaty of Versailles Hitler established control on Rhineland.
 In 12 March 1938 ,Hitler occupied Austria and also captured Czechoslovakia in 1939.
 Hitler invaded Poland on 1st September 1939
 England realised has mistaken declared war against Germany on 3rd September 1939

Important political leader

 The Foreign Policy of Russia {1919-45}

Russia were ruled by autocrats and their foreign policy was also based on the principle of interference, like their home
policy The foreign policy of Russia between the two world wars can be understood during the following periods,
stepwise.

First step {1917-21}

During this. Relation between Russia and the Western countries remained tense.

 Reasons are follows

1. The Russian Revolution of 1917
2. Initially, Russia was taking part in the First World War from the side of the allied nation But to make a revolution
successful she had withdrawn herself from the Great War and concluded a treaty with Germany The allied
nations were very much against the policy of Russia
3. The Allied nations had held Russia’s ended revolutionary forces and also tries to crush the Russian revolution
4. Russia had taken loans, but the Communist Russia had refused to honour these deaths. Besides, she had
nationalised the foreign trade
o The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a separate peace treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between Soviet
Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria), by which
Russia withdrew from World War I. The treaty, which followed months of negotiations after
the armistice on the Eastern Front in December 1917, was signed at Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus).
Second step {1921-33}

During this, Russia improved her position and try hard to establish friendly relations with the following countries
The Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement was an agreement signed on 16 March 1921 to facilitate trade between
the United Kingdom and the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic. It was signed by Robert Horne, Chancellor
of the Exchequer and Leonid Krasin, Commissar of Foreign Trade .According to this pact England recognised the
new government of Russia.
In the same year, Russia concluded a friendly alliance with Prussia. According to this treaty, they would not
enter any pact against each other.
The Treaty of Rapallo was an agreement signed on 16 April 1922 between the German Republic and Soviet
Russia under which both renounced all territorial and financial claims against each other and opened friendly
diplomatic relations. The treaty was negotiated by Russian Foreign Minister Georgi Chicherin and German
Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau. It was a major victory for Russia especially and also Germany, and a major
disappointment to France and the United Kingdom. The term "spirit of Rapallo" was used for an improvement in
friendly relations between Germany and Russia.
In the same year, Russia was invited in the World Economic Conference held in Geneva
Russia concluded a pact with China regarding Chinese eastern railway in 1924
Kemal (Turkey) countered the diplomatic reverse [9] by concluding a non-aggression pact[10] with the Soviet Union
on 17 December 1925.
Russia also made such agreements with Germany, Lithuania in 1926 and with Iran in 1927
The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated in Locarno, Switzerland, from 5 to 16 October 1925
and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers
and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, in return
for normalizing relations with the defeated German Reich (the Weimar Republic).
Baltic pact was proposed by the Russia to Germany but it was disapproved by Germany
The Baltic Entente (BalticPact) was based on Treaty of Good-Understanding and Co-operation [1] signed
between Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia on 12 September 1934 in Geneva. The main objective of the agreement
was joint action in foreign policy.
Russia concluded a non aggression pact with Afghanistan in 1931
Russia was the opponent of League of nation and used to criticise it as a Holly alliance of the Bourgeoisie for the
separation of Proletarian revolution.

Third step {1933-38}

In 1933 Roosevelt, the president of America, invited Russian representative Litvinor in Washington . As a result of their
confidence, a pact could be concluded .

 Both exchanged assurances do not make propaganda against each other

 accepted autonomous permissions of each other
 Russia granted religious freedom to all those American living within her territory and America also give
recognition to the communist government of Russia
  Owing to the effects of France in 1934 Russia was made the member of the league of Nations
 On 31st march 1938 Britain extended assurances to safeguard Poland against German attack on Russia was not
consulted on this occasion.
 Britain also assured safety to France and Romania on 13th of April 1939 without consulting Russia
 On 17th April 1939 Russia proposed to France and England that they should conclude a triple alliance against
foreign invasion, but concern England did not agree to this proposal.

Non – Aggression Pact

 England and France were not prepared to leave out Russia from their group, so they were also having talks with
Russia But at last, a non aggression packed could be signed on 23 rd August 1939. Ribbontrop played a prominent
role in the finalisation of this fact.
 September 30, 1938, the Munich Agreement was signed in the capital city of Bavaria by Nazi Germany (Hitler),
the United Kingdom (N. Chamberlain), the French Third Republic (E. Daladier) and the Kingdom of Italy
(Mussolini).
 On 10th January 1941 Russia maintaining her isolationist policy confirmed her friendship with Germany. But
Germany attacked Russia on 22nd June 1941
 The Anglo-Soviet Agreement was a declaration signed by the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union on 12 July
1941 to cooperate in the war against Nazi Germany.
 The First Moscow Conference (Codename: Caviar [1]) of World War II took place from September 29, 1941 [2] to
October 1, 1941

Participants Vyacheslav Molotov

W. Averell Harriman

Lord Beaverbrook

 The Second Moscow Conference (Codename: BRACELET) [1] between the major Allies of World War II took place
from August 12, 1942, to August 17, 1942

Participants Joseph Stalin (USSR), Winston Churchill (UK) and Averell Harriman (United

States)

 The Third Moscow Conference between the major Allies of World War II took place during October 18 to
November 11, 1943, at the Moscow Kremlin and Spiridonovka Palace. It was composed of major diplomats,
ministers and generals, who discussed cooperation in the war effort, and issued the Moscow Declaration.
 The Fourth Moscow Conference,[1] also known as the Tolstoy Conference[2] for its code name Tolstoy,[3] was a
meeting in Moscow between Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin from 9 October to 19 October 1944.

LEADERS OF SOVIET RUSSIA (1917–1991)

 Vladimir Lenin (November 9, 1917 — January 21, 1924)
 Joseph Stalin (January 21, 1924 — March 5, 1953)
 Georgy Malenkov (March 5, 1953 — February 8, 1955)
 The Foreign Policy of France, {1919-45}

 Germany made military alliances with the small states situated on the border of Germany on September 7
1920 ,she entered into a military agreement with Belgium.
 The Franco-Polish (Poland) Alliance was the military alliance between Poland and France that was active
between the early 1920s and the outbreak of the Second World War. The initial agreements were signed in
February 1921 and formally took effect in 1923.
 France also made military alliance with Czechoslovakia in January 25, 1924 , Romania in June 10, 1926 and
Yugoslavia in February 11, 1927.
 The Little Entente was an alliance formed in 1920 and 1921 by Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of
Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia from 1929 on) with the purpose of common defence against Hungarian
revisionism and the prospect of a Habsburg restoration in Austria or Hungary. France supported the alliance by
signing treaties with each member country. The rapid growth of German power caused its collapse in 1938, and
it never went into wartime operation.
Collective effort for security.
France herself took several steps for her security. While on the other some efforts were also made by the European
powers for the security of France, as well as the security of European continent. Some important effort taken was under-

 Geneva Protocol

The 1925 Geneva Protocol prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons in war. The Protocol was drawn up and
signed at a conference which was held in Geneva under the auspices of the League of Nations from 4 May to 17 June
1925, and it entered into force on 8 February 1928.

STATEMENT -“Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of
Bacteriological Methods of Warfare”

Chamberlain, the new Prime Minister of England, clearly refused to sign the Geneva Protocol. He clearly declared that it
was not the model duty of England to send military help to any part of the world, wherever any conflict arose.

Thus, the conference of Geneva failed to reach any fruitful conclusion.

 Locarno Pact

The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated in Locarno, Switzerland, from 5 to 16 October 1925 and
formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new
states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, in return for normalizing
relations with the defeated German Reich (the Weimar Republic).

Signatory

1. England
2. France
3. Belgium
4. Germany
5. Italy
6. Poland
7. Czechoslovakia

According to this Germany was. Germany was granted the membership of the League of Nations.

NOTE – The Kellogg – Briand Pact have done earlier.

 France made a military alliance with her only friend, England, on April 29. 1938

The Spanish Civil War.

Background of the Spanish Civil War

Spin had declared her neutrality in the war but the people were displeased with the decision of the government. They
wanted that Spain should also participate in the war from either side.

After the First World War, the government of the Bourbon King, Alfonso 13th had to suffer bumper crop of troubles

In 1923, a military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera came to power An established his dictatorship with the consent
of King Alfonso 13th.

On 12 April 1931, the Republicans won the elections and the Spanish Second Republic was proclaimed two days later.
King Alfonso XIII went into exile.

Consequently, the ‘Democratic Republic of workers of all classes’ was established in Spain.

The Army revolt in Spain

The banner of revolt was raised by the army of Spain in Morocco on July 17. 1936 under the leadership of General
Francisco Franco . He was with his army attacked the Republican government to overthrow it.

In this civil war, Italy and Germany gave military help and full support to General Franco, while Russia helped the
Republicans.

England, France and America adopted the policy of neutrality towards this event.

On January 28th 1939, Barcelona fell into the hands of General Franco.

Thus, Franco achieved victory over the Republican government.

England and France gave recognition to the government of Franco on February 27, 1939 and America also accepted it on
1st April. 1939

Attitude and interest of the European powers

Attitude of Italy
Italy also gave harmful support to General Franco against the Republican government of Spain

 Benito Mussolini joined the war to secure fastest control of the Mediterranean, supporting the nationalist
 The Royal Indian Navy,(Italian Regia) Marania played a substantial role in the military blockade.
 Italy also hated the Democratic principles

Attitude of Germany
 Hitler, the dictator of Germany, gave full military support to General Franco because he hated the Republican
system of government . He saw good opportunity to uproot the Republicans government of France
 Nazi Germany’s action included a formation multitasking Condor Legion , A unit compose of volunteers from the
Luftwaffe and the Germany army here from July 1936 to March 1939
 The Condor Legion proved to be especially useful in 1936 battle of the Toledo.
 The bombing of Guernica, which on 26th April. 1937 killed 200 to 300 civilians
 Hitler's policy for Spain was shrewd and pragmatic. The minutes of a conference at the Reich Chancellery
in Berlin on 10 November 1937 summarised his views on foreign policy regarding the Spanish Civil War
Attitude of Portugal

The Estado Novo regime of Portuguese prime minister, Antonio de Oliveria Salazar, play an important role in supplying
Francisco Francis forces with ammunitions and logistical help.

 On 8 September 1936, a naval revolt took place in Lisbon. The crews of two naval Portuguese vessels, the
 NRP Afonso de Albuquerque and the NRP Dão, mutinied.

 On 17 march 1939 Portugal and Spain signed the Iberian pact a non aggression treaty that marked the beginning
of new phase of Iberian relation.

Attitude of Russia

Russia supported the Republicans of Spain in the Civil War She made her best effort to prevent the Italian and German
assistant to general Franco. Russia decided to entertain the civil war in favour of the Republicans-

Russia has already signed a mutual assistance pact with France in 1935

Stalin(General secretary) also created section 10 th of the Soviet Union military to head the weapons shipment operation
called Operation X

The Republic paid for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain court reserves 176 tonnes of which was transferred through
France at 510 directly to Russia, which was card Moscow gold

Attitude of Great Britain

Great Britain thought Russia more dangerous for her than Dictator like Hitler Mussolini. That is why she did not want to
behave with Franco in a hostile way

She was much afraid of bolshevism of Russia. She, therefore did not want to Encourage to Russia by cooperating with
her in this event

Attitude of France

France, the leftist popular front government in France, did not send direct support to the Republicans French Prime
Minister Leon Blum was sympathetic to the Republic fearing that the success of Nationalist in Spain would result in the
creation of an ally state of Nazi ceremony and fastest its Italy analyse that would nearly encircle France

On 21st August 1936 France signed the non intervention agreement

Disarmament{1932-34}
The Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments, generally known as the Geneva Conference or World
Disarmament Conference, was an international conference of states held in Geneva, Switzerland, between February
1932 and November 1934 to accomplish disarmament in accordance with the Covenant of the League of Nations

It was attended by 61 states, most of which were members of the League of Nations, but the USSR and the United
States also attended.

Consequently, Hitler withdrew his representative from the conference on October 19. 1933 and left the league of nation
forever.

Nations involved

 The Geneva Conference involved all of the nations signatory to the Covenant of the League of Nations, which
included the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Japan as permanent members of the League of Nations Council.
 It included all the Allies that had signed the Treaty of Versailles with Germany[9] and all neutral countries such
as Switzerland that had vested interests in disarmament in Europe specifically
 Article 8 of the Covenant stated that "the members of the League recognise that the maintenance of peace
requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the
enforcement by common action of international obligations"

Negotiation

The conference convened on the 1 February 1932 in Geneva, Switzerland, with the intention of implementing strategies
to fulfil Article 8 of the Covenant of the League of Nations

The negotiations can be split into five distinctive categories or periods. As classified by the military historian Arther
Steiner,

1st Period - emphasis on security,

2nd Period - appointment of commissions,

3rd Period - the general commissions,

4th Period - the technical commission

5th Period - the Hoover Proposals"

Negotiations: Emphasis on Security:

o The negotiations emphasized geopolitical relations and the development of relationships to reassure
France in its disarmament efforts.

o The efforts were focused on developing American-French and Anglo-French relationships.

Negotiations: Appointment of commissions:

 o Efforts were made to appoint representatives from each state to form the General Commission, which
then delegated into the Naval and Air Commissions.

o This stage concluded by 18 March 1933.

Negotiations: Classifying weaponry:

o The Conference aimed to differentiate between offensive and defensive weapons, with disagreements
arising on the technicalities of certain weaponry.

o The inability to agree on the classification of weapons halted the progression of the conference.

Negotiations: Fortifications:

o The discussions involved armed fortifications, resulting in the unanimous agreement to abolish most
fortifications remaining from the First World War.

o Additional discussions included wartime applicability, the establishment of a nonpolitical body to

monitor disarmament, and the absence of specific demilitarized zones.

General Commission's Progress:

o The General Commission made some progress with having nations agree on terms for disarmament.

o However, it was unsuccessful in having individual nations implement its terms.

Technical Commission

o This period was known for its high levels of debate, disagreement and technical issues. [3] Essentially no
agreement or progress occurred during this session.[11]

Hoover's proposals

o Portrait of President Herbert Hoover

o The US then sent a delegate to Geneva and became heavily involved in the Conference.[11]

o US President Herbert Hoover acknowledged the failure and the lack of progress for the conference and
proposed for the US to take the lead on disarmament. [14] As argued by Marlies ter Borg, the proposal that
Hoover presented to the conference on the 22 June 1932 was a "potential turning point" [12] by suggesting
that the US would abolish all aircraft, submarines, military aviation, tanks, poison gas and one third of the
battleships.[14]

o The involvement of the United States "injected life into a nearly dead conference". [11] However, these
proposals were never passed through the US Congress, and although they showed the promise and the
spirit of disarmament, they did not resonate in the conference

Non - aggression pact with Russia

  The Soviet–French Non–Aggression Pact was a Non–Aggression Pact concluded on November 29, 1932 between
the Soviet Union and France. The agreement was preceded by lengthy negotiations, which began back in 1928
 In 1932 France and Russia signed Treaty of Neutrality.

Relation with Italy

In the outset, France and Italy were not good friends

 The Franco-Italian Agreements, also known as the Mussolini-Laval Accord, were signed in Rome on January 7,
1935, by the French Foreign Minister Pierre Laval and the Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini.
 Italy invaded Abyssinia (now known as Ethiopia) during the night of October 2-3, 1935. The invasion was
triggered by an incident that occurred on December 5, 1934,
 Nazi leader Adolf Hitler broke the rules of the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pact by sending German
military forces into the Rhineland {March 7, 1936}., which was supposed to be a demilitarized zone along the
Rhine River in western Germany.

Predecessor Conferences of Disarmament

Washington Naval Conference

 The Washington Naval Conference was a disarmament conference held in Washington, D.C., from
November 12, 1921, to February 6, 1922.

 It was conducted outside the auspices of the League of Nations and attended by nine nations,
including the United States, Japan, China, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands,
and Portugal1.

 The conference was called to address the naval arms race that existed among Britain, Japan, and the
United States.

 The conference resulted in three major treaties: the Four-Power Treaty, the Five-Power Treaty (more
commonly known as the Washington Naval Treaty), and the Nine-Power Treaty, as well as several
smaller agreements.

 Germany was not invited to the conference as restrictions on its Navy had already been set in the
Versailles treaty.

 Soviet Russia was also not invited to the conference.

 It was the first arms control conference in history, and it is still studied by political scientists as a model
for successful disarmament movement.

 It was held at Memorial Continental Hall in downtown Washington

PURPOSE OF THESE MEETINGS WAS TO TRY TO IMPROVE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE USA AND JAPAN.
It resulted in three major treaties

FOUR POWER TREATY

 The Four-Power Treaty was a treaty signed by the United States, Great Britain, France, and Japan at the
Washington Naval Conference on December 13, 19211.

 The treaty aimed to maintain peace in the Pacific by respecting the Pacific territories of the other
countries signing the agreement, not seeking further territorial expansion, and mutual consultation
with each other in the event of a dispute over territorial possessions1.

 The treaty replaced the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 19021.

 The Four-Power Treaty was one of seven treaties that emerged from the Conference on Limitation of
Armaments held in Washington from November 12, 1921, to February 6, 1922 1.

FIVE POWER TREATY

 The Five-Power Treaty was a treaty signed in 1922 among the major Allies of World War I to prevent an
arms race by limiting naval construction 1.

 The treaty was negotiated in Washington, D.C. and signed by the governments of the United Kingdom,
United States, France, Italy, and Japan 1.

 It limited the construction of battleships, battlecruisers, and aircraft carriers by the signatories. The
treaty fixed the respective numbers and tonnages of capital ships to be possessed by the navies of each
of the contracting nations 1.

 The treaty also called on all five signatories to stop building capital ships and reduce the size of their
navies by scrapping older ships. Cruisers, destroyers, and submarines were not limited in numbers by
the treaty but were limited to 10,000 tons displacement 1.

NINE POWER TREATY

 The Nine-Power Treaty was a treaty signed by the United States, Japan, and other major powers at the
Washington Naval Conference on February 6, 19221.

 The treaty affirmed the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Republic of China as per the Open
Door Policy1.

 The treaty obliged all parties to respect “the sovereignty, the independence, and the territorial and
administrative integrity of the state of China” and the commercial Open Door2.

The treaty was one of several treaties that checked Japanese aggression in China and stimulated the Second
Sino-Japanese War
Geneva Conference

 The Geneva Conference of 1927 was a conference held in Geneva, Switzerland from June 20 to August
4, 1927
 The conference was a gathering of the United States, Great Britain, and Japan
 The conference's goal was to extend the limits on naval construction agreed to in the Washington
Naval Treaty
 The conference was unsuccessful as the parties did not reach an agreement.
 This was the brainchild of the British prime minister Lloyd George

London Naval Conference

London Naval Conference, (Jan. 21–April 22, 1930), conference held in London to discuss naval disarmament and to
review the treaties of the Washington Conference of 1921–22. Hosted by Great Britain, it included representatives of
the United States, France, Italy, and Japan

Resulted Into –

 The London Naval Treaty, officially the Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament
 An agreement between the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy, and the United States
 Signed on 22 April 1930
 Ratifications were exchanged in London on 27 October 1930, and the treaty went into effect on the same day
 The treaty was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 6 February 1931

World War 2nd

Introduction

World War Second or the Second World War was a global conflict that lasted from
1 September 1939 to 2 September. 1945.

Allies- principal members by the end of 1941 were the "Big Four" – United
Kingdom, United States, Soviet Union, and China.

AXIS - The Axis powers,[nb 1]

originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis[1] and
also Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis

principal members were Nazi Germany, the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of
Japan

CAUSE OF WAR DEBATED

 Germany under Adolf Hitler invaded Poland on 1 Sep 1939.

 United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany on 3 September.
 The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, officially the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics,[1][2] was a non-aggression pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union with a
secret protocol that partitioned Central and Eastern Europe between them. The pact was signed in Moscow on
23 August 1939 by German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav
Molotov.[3] Unofficially, it has also been referred to as the Hitler–Stalin Pact[4][5] and the Nazi–Soviet Pact
 The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18 June 1935 was a naval agreement between the United
Kingdom and Germany regulating the size of the Kriegsmarine in relation to the Royal Navy.
It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 12 July 1935.[2] The agreement was abrogated by Adolf
Hitler on 28 April 1939 & won back the Saar (1935)
 Germany remilitarized the Rhineland on March 7, 1936
 The Anti-Comintern Pact,[1] officially the Agreement against the Communist International[2] was an anti-
Communist pact concluded between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan on 25 November 1936

 In March 1939, breaking The Munich Agreement, German troops invaded Prague, and with the Slovaks declaring
independence ,Czechoslovakia disappeared as a country. The
entire ordeal ended the French and British policy of
appeasement.

 The Battle of Lake Khasan (29 July – 11 August 1938), also known
as the Changkufeng Incident

 The German–Polish non-aggression pact, was an agreement between Nazi Germany and the Second Polish
Republic that was signed on 26 January 1934 in Berlin
 The USS Panay incident on December 12, 1937, was a Japanese bombing attack on the U.S. Navy river
gunboat Panay and three Standard Oil Company tankers on the Yangtze River.
 The Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937.
The Second Sino-Japanese War, also known in Japan as the Second China–Japan War, and in China as
the Chinese War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, was fought between the Republic of
China and the Empire of Japan from 1937 to 1945
 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931
 The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of
aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937. In Ethiopia it is
often referred to simply as the Italian Invasion.
 The Franco-Thai War
 The Battle of Britain

 A military campaign ,in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) of the Royal
Navy defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force,
the Luftwaffe

 The British officially recognise the battle's duration as being from 10 July until 31 October 1940, which
overlaps the period of large-scale night attacks known as the Blitz, that lasted from 7 September 1940 to
11 May 1941

 The US was brought into the European war when on December 11, 1941, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared
war on the United States

The Battle of the Atlantic

 The longest continuous military campaign[11][12] in World War II, ran from 1939 to the defeat of Nazi
Germany in 1945
Date September 3, 1939 – May 8, 1945
(5 years, 8 months and 5 days)
Result Allied victory

 The attack on Pearl Harbor[nb 3] was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon
the United States against the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Hawaii, just before 8:00 a.m.
(local time) on Sunday, December 7, 1941+
 The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI,[nb 4] and
as Operation Z during its planning

The Battle of Midway

 A major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place 4–7 June 1942, six months
after the Empire of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea

Result American victory

Belligerents

United States Japan

The Battle of the Coral Sea

 Battle of Frankfurt

 German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945.

The Battle of West Hunan (Chinese: 湘 西 會 戰 ), also known as the Battle of Xuefeng Mountainswas the
Japanese invasion of west Hunan and the subsequent Allied counterattack that occurred between 6 April and 7
June 1945, during the last months of the Second Sino-Japanese War

The Potsdam Declaration, or the Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender, was a statement
that called for the surrender of all Japanese armed forces during World War II. On July 26, 1945, United
States President Harry S. Truman, United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill,
and Chairman of China Chiang Kai-shek issued the document, which outlined the terms of surrender for
the Empire of Japan.
But Japan refused to potsdam declaration.
 As a result, the US dropped the first atomic bombs
on Hiroshima on 6 August and Nagasaki on 9 August.

Then , On 15 August 1945 Japan surrendered with the surrendered document

finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS
Missouri on to September 1945 ending the war.

Aftermath

 East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Albania became Soviet satellite states.

 Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war territory among the eastern territories ,Silesia, Newmark and post of
Pomerania were taken over by Poland and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union,
followed by the expulsion to Germany of the 9 million generals from these provinces, as well as 3 million
gentlemen from this Sudentenland in Czechoslovakia.

 In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western
Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands
 The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative enacted in 1948
to provide foreign aid to Western Europe. The United States transferred $13.3 billion (equivalent to $173 billion
in 2023) in economic recovery programs to Western European economies after the end of World War II.

 Korea, formerly under Japanese colonial rule, was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and
the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948.

 In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel
marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict

 At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-
war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group

 The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973