Notes:

COVERAGE OUTLINE
● Intramolecular force - force is happening
1. The States of Matter within or inside a molecule
2. Intermolecular Forces
3. Properties of Liquid o Ex: Ionic and Covalent Bonds
4. Properties of Water
5. Phase Change ● Intermolecular force - force between
6. Solutions molecules
7. Colligative Properties of Solutions
8. Thermochemistry

THE STATES OF MATTER

GASSES
➔ Total disorder; much empty space
➔ Particles have complete freedom of motion;
particles are far apart
➔ The average kinetic energy of the gas
molecules is much larger than the average
energy of the attractions between them.
LIQUIDS
➔ In disorder
➔ Particles or clusters of particles are free to
move relative to each other
➔ The intermolecular attractive forces are strong
enough to hold the molecules close together,
but without much order.
● In the image, H is 𝛿+ (partially positive) since it
is part of Group 1A.
● Cl is 𝛿- (partially negative) since it is from the
Group 7
● Opposite attracts therefore, partially negative
Cl connects or attracts with partially positive H
Notes:
● To identify the partial charge of an atom, look
at the electronegativity value.
o The more electronegative atom is
the partially negative, while the least
is partially positive

SOLIDS
➔ Ordered arrangement of particles
Types of Intermolecular Forces
➔ Particles are essentially in fixed positions;
particles are close together
➔ The intermolecular attractive forces are strong DIPOLE-DIPOLE
enough to lock molecules in place (high order). ➔ Polar molecules have dipole-dipole attraction
for one another
➔ The higher the dipole moment, the more polar
the substance and the greater the strength of
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES the dipole-dipole attraction.
● Between molecules and the temperature
(kinetic energy) of the molecules.
● Involves partial changes; depends on what
charges are exhibited
● Easy to “break”
● The attractive forces holding particles
together in the condensed (liquid and solid)
phases of matter
● Result from coulombic attractions ➔ Oxygen is partially negative so it attracts with
○ Dependent on the magnitude of the Sulfur which is partially positive
charge and distance between
charges
● Weaker than forces of ionic bonding

General Chemistry II 1 | BACUDO, R.M.

 LONDON DISPERSION FORCES (LDF)
Molecule Molecular Melting Boiling
Mass Point (°C) Point (°C) ➔ Non polar
➔ Instantaneous dipole moment
HCl 36.5 -114 -85 ➔ Also referred to as van der Waals forces
➔ Electrons are shifted to overload one side of
HBr 81.0 -87 -66 an atom

HI 128.0 -51 -35

➔ The higher the dipole moment, the stronger
the dipole-dipole attraction and the higher the
boiling point and molecular mass.
➔ Factors which Influence London Dispersion
More examples: Forces:
● Molecular size – Greater mass =
Molecule Molecular Mass greater LDF
● Molecular shape – more bulky or
H2 2.02 branches/larger size = lower boiling
point lower LDF
N2 28.02
HYDROGEN BONDING
Cl2 70.9
➔ A special case of very strong dipole-dipole
HCl 36.46 interaction
➔ Strongest intermolecular force
➔ Arrange according to ascending boiling points: ➔ Hydrogen bonded to the most
H2 < N2 < HCl < Cl2 electronegative elements
● H-F, H-O, H-N
Molecule Molecular Mass

CH4 16.05

CI4 519.61

CCl4 153.81

CF4 88.01
➔ Arrange according to ascending boiling points: Notes:
CH4 < CF4 < CCl4 < Cl4
● Cl is not included under hydrogen bonding
since the basis is the trend of
ION-DIPOLE
electronegativity on the periodic table (top
➔ Such as a salt dissolved in water; salt is right is the most electronegative).
partially positive
➔ Ion dissolves in polar substance ● Arrangement from strongest to weakest:
➔ Intermolecular force of attraction between a
charge ion (cation or anion) and a molecule o Hydrogen > Ion-Dipole >
Dipole-Dipole > LDF

General Chemistry II 2 | BACUDO, R.M.

 VAPOR PRESSURE
Remember:
➔ The pressure exerted by a vapor in
● To identify the polarity, use electronegativity
equilibrium with its liquid
value and find the difference:
➔ It depends on the magnitude of intermolecular
o 0 - 0.4: Nonpolar forces and on temperature
➔ Volatility – the ability of a substance to
o 0.5 - 1.9: Polar vaporize (e.g. alcohol, acetone)
o 2.0 - above: Ionic BOILING POINT
➔ The temperature at which the vapor pressure
of a liquid is equal to the external pressure
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID ➔ Increases when there is a presence of solute
called boiling point elevation
● Kinetic energy content
● Molecular structure of liquid
FREEZING POINT
● Shape and volume of liquids
➔ Presence of solute lowers freezing point called
VISCOSITY freezing point depression
➔ The ability of a fluid to resist flowing
➔ Viscometer - a device used to measure the PROPERTIES OF WATER
viscosity
➔ As temperature increases, viscosity decreases Physical Properties
➔ Factors: ● Odorless and tasteless liquid
● Intermolecular forces between the ● Standard atmospheric pressure – 760mmHg
molecules of the liquid; intermolecular or 760 torr
of liquid is stronger ● Freezing point - 0°C (32°F)
● Size molecules is larger than other ● Boiling point - 100°C (212°F)
states of matter ● Density
● Temperature of the liquid
○ Water is less dense in solid form since
➔ Examples:
● Syrup, magma ice has a more stable hydrogen
bonding compared with water.
SURFACE TENSION ○ While melting, hydrogen bonds slowly
➔ The resistance of a liquid to spreading out break causing ice to float.
and increasing its surface area ○ As it change state, density changes as
➔ The energy required to increase the surface well: gas > liquid > solid
area of a liquid
● Specific heat
CAPILLARITY ● Solvent action
➔ The rising of blood, or any liquid in a tube ● Surface tension
➔ Also because of gravity
➔ Water absorption Chemical Properties
➔ There is adhesive and cohesive forces ● Very stable substance
● Presence of concave means ● Part in many chemical reactions
stronger adhesive force ○ Reacts with metals, nonmetals,
● Presence of convex means stronger metallic oxides, and nonmetallic
●
cohesive force oxides
Notes: ● Hydrates - presence of water
● Cohesive – interaction of the same type of ○ CuSO4 · 5 H2O (Copper sulfate
molecule pentahydrate)

● Adhesive – interaction of different types of

Uses
molecule
● Industrial Uses
○ Part of the product
○ Used in processing of the products
EVAPORATION
○ Used for cooling the product
➔ An indication of the escape of molecules
from the surface of the liquid ● Agricultural Uses
➔ Liquid to gas ● Domestic Uses

PHASE CHANGE
General Chemistry II 3 | BACUDO, R.M.
 Notes:
● Flat line (—) represents the phase change
that is occurring
● Slanting lines (╱ and╲) represent the phase
or state of matter

CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS
● In deposition, heat energy absorption occurs; SOLUTIONS
endothermic ➔ Has two components: solute and solvent
● In sublimation, heat energy release occurs; ● Solute - the one being dissolved; in
exothermic lesser amount
● Solvent - the one dissolving; in greater
Phase Change Diagrams amount
● Heating Curve Qualitatively
● Diluted – less solute; greater solvent
● Concentrated – stronger taste or darker color;
greater solute; less solvent
Quantitatively

𝑚
PERCENT BY MASS (% 𝑚
)
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔ % 𝑚
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 100

𝑣
PERCENT BY VOLUME (% 𝑣 )
𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔ % 𝑣
= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 100

● Cooling Curve
MOLARITY (𝑀)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔ 𝑀= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿)

MOLALITY (𝑚)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔ 𝑚= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)

MOLE FRACTION (𝑋)

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔ XA= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
; mole fraction
of solute
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
➔ XB= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 ;mole fraction of
solvent
➔ XA + XB = 1
● Triple point – where the three phases coexist ➔ No rounding off for the final answer
in an equilibrium ➔ If only ‘mole fraction’ is asked, you will solve
● Critical point – highest temperature and
both XA and XB
pressure
DILUTION
➔ M1V1 = M2V2

PARTS PER MILLION (ppm)

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 6
➔ 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 10

PARTS PER BILLION (ppb)

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 9
➔ 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 10

PROOF NUMBER (PN)

●
𝑣
➔ 𝑃𝑁 = % 𝑣
×2

General Chemistry II 4 | BACUDO, R.M.

 EXAMPLES:

QUIZ ITEM #1:

General Chemistry II 5 | BACUDO, R.M.

 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF
SOLUTIONS
● Presence of solute in a solvent causes boiling
point to elevate and freezing point to lower

Boiling Point Elevation

● ∆Tb = kbm
wherein:
∆Tb is the boiling point elevation
kb is the molal boiling point constant
m is the molality
● BPsolution = BPsolvent + ∆Tb

Freezing Point Depression

● ∆Tf = kfm
wherein:
∆Tf is the freezing point depression
kf is the molal freezing point constant
m is the molality
● FPsolution = FPsolvent – ∆Tf

Chemical BP kb FP (°C) kf
(°C) (°C/m) (°C/m)

H2O 100 0.51 0 1.86 ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION

(Water)
➔ if solute is ionic
➔ Van't Hoff Factor (𝑖) is used. This counts the
CCl4 76.5 5.03 -22.99 30.00 number of ions present in the solute.
(Carbon
tetrachloride)

CHCl3 61.2 3.63 -63.5 4.70

(Chloroform)

C6H6 80.1 2.53 5.5 5.12

(Benzene)

CS2 46.2 2.34 -111.5 3.83

(Carbon
disulfide)

C4H10O 34.5 2.02 -116.2 1.79

(Dimethyl
ether) EXAMPLES:

NON-ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION
➔ if solute is covalent

EXAMPLES:

General Chemistry II 6 | BACUDO, R.M.

 EXAMPLES:

Notes:
● To know if electrolyte or non-electrolyte:
o Ionic: Metal + Nonmetal
o Covalent: Both Nonmetal
● If solvent is not specified then, water is the
solvent.
● Dimethyl ether is the next most common
solvent next to water
Vapor Pressure Lowering/Reduction
● Vapor pressure of solvent is the pressure
exerted by solvent molecules at vapor phase
● Vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is
always lower than vapor pressure of the pure
solution
Osmotic Pressure
● observed using a semipermeable membrane,
a barrier with pores small enough to allow
solvent molecules to pass through but not
solute molecules or ions
● Higher if there is a presence of electrolytes
● π = MRT
π is the osmotic pressure
M is the molarity
𝑎𝑡𝑚·𝐿
R is the gas constant (0. 0821 𝑚𝑜𝑙·𝐾 )
T is the temperature in Kelvin

RAOULT’S LAW EXAMPLES:

➔ P = XBP°
wherein:
P is the vapor pressure of solvent in a solution
XB is the mole fraction of solvent
P° is the vapor pressure of pure solvent

General Chemistry II 7 | BACUDO, R.M.

 ➔ Heat Change Sign Convention:
Notes:
● If solute is an electrolyte, you will multiply the Direction of Heat Flow Sign Reaction Type
Van't Hoff Factor (𝑖), so:
o Vapor Pressure Lowering: Heat flows OUT of the - ∆H Exothermic
P = XBP°𝑖 system
o Osmotic Pressure:
π = MRT𝑖 Heat flows INTO of the + ∆H Endothermic
system

THERMOCHEMISTRY WORK
● It is the study of heat changes that occur ➔ The force applied over a given distance.
during chemical reactions and physical ➔ It is the energy transfer between a system and
changes of state. the surroundings.
● The law of conservation of energy states that
in any chemical or physical process, energy is Assigned Convention of Work, w
neither created nor destroyed.
System does work -w Expansion
THE FLOW OF ENERGY on the surroundings
➔ Energy is the capacity to do work or supply
heat. Surroundings do +w Compression
➔ Energy has no mass or volume. work on the system
➔ Chemical potential energy is energy stored
in chemicals. SURROUNDINGS
➔ The kinds of atoms and the arrangement of
the atoms in a substance determine the
amount of energy stored in the substance. Heat added to the → heat evolved
system → by the system
HEAT
➔ Heat is a form of energy that always flows (+q) (-q)
from a warmer object to a cooler object. SYSTEM
➔ Heat is represented by Q. Work done on the → work done
system → by the system

Assigned Convention of Heat, Q (+w) (-w)

System absorbs heat +Q Endothermic

System releases heat -Q Exothermic Types of System

EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC
➔ Thermochemistry is concerned with the flow of
heat between a chemical system (reaction)
and its surroundings.
➔ A system is the specific part of the universe on
which you focus your attention.
➔ The surroundings include everything outside
the system.
➔ The system and the surroundings constitute
the universe.
➔ Changes in temperature happen between the
system and surroundings.
➔ In thermochemical calculations, the direction
of the heat flow is given from the point of view
of the system.
➔ Endothermic process – a process that
absorbs heat from the surroundings
➔ Exothermic process – a process that loses
heat from the surroundings
OPEN SYSTEM
➔ Transfer of matter and energy occurs between
the system and surroundings
➔ Fastest change of heat and energy occurs
here
CLOSED SYSTEM
➔ Only energy can transfer between the system
and the surroundings
➔ Transfer of energy occurs if the system is
‘opened’
ISOLATED SYSTEM
➔ Matter and energy cannot transfer between
the system and surroundings
Enthalpy
● It refers to the energy transferred under
constant pressure.
● It is represented by the symbol, H.
∆H = ∑Hproducts – ∑Hreactant
● The sign of ∆H indicates the direction of heat
transfer.

General Chemistry II 8 | BACUDO, R.M.

 Reaction Sign Reaction Type

Exothermic q = ∆H > 0 ∆Hproducts > ∆Hreactant

(+)

Endothermic q = ∆H < 0 (-) ∆Hproducts < ∆Hreactant

HESS’ LAW
➔ It states that when reactant converted to
products, the change in enthalpy is the same
whether the reaction takes place in onse step
or a series of steps provided the initial and
final conditions are the same.
➔ Enthalpy change is independent of the route
taken.

EXAMPLES: USING THE FORMULA

General Chemistry II 9 | BACUDO, R.M.