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Outline/Overview Processing

GIS DATA
ACQUISITION, Vector
DATABASE

Raster Vector Raster

INPUT &
GENERATION Maps, Plans

GmE 203 Principles of GIS Surveying, Photogrammetry, Mapping

Data Collection Data Collection Techniques (Examples)

Many diverse sources

Two broad types of collection Raster Vector
Data capture (direct collection)
Data transfer Primary Digital remote GPS
One of most expensive GIS activities sensing images measurements
Up to 80% of total cost Digital aerial Survey
You need to know photographs measurements
What types of data you can use with GIS Secondary Scanned maps Topographic
How to evaluate it surveys
Where to find it DEMs from maps Toponymy data
And how to create it yourself sets from atlases

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Raster Primary Data Capture

Remote sensing
e.g. SPOT and IKONOS satellites and aerial photography
Passive and active sensors
Resolution is key consideration
Spatial
Spectral
Temporal
Radiometric

Vector Data Input: Phases Vector Primary Data Capture

acquisition Surveying
digitizing Locations of objects determines by angle and distance
maps or remote-sensing data measurements from known locations
table top or scan & vectorize Uses expensive field equipment and crews
import existing data Most accurate method for large scale, small areas
field collection GNSS
editing Collection of satellites used to fix locations on Earth’s
formatting/translating surface
linking Differential GPS used to improve accuracy

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GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE

Components of GNSS
SYSTEM (GNSS)

Navigation Satellite
Timing and Ranging
Global Positioning
System
Funded and
controlled by the
US Department of
Defense

GPS Position Determination GPS

http://www.geoplane.com/gpsneeds.html

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Raster Secondary Data Capture

Data collected for other purposes can be converted
for use in GIS
Raster conversion
Scanning of maps, aerial photographs, documents, etc
no layers (entire map is scanned)
Important scanning parameters:
Spatial resolution
Radiometric (bit depth) resolution
Others: accuracy, scan size, output format, software quality

Accuracy of tablets ranges from

Vector Secondary Data Capture Digitizing Tablet .01” to .002”

Collection of vector objects from maps, photographs,

plans, etc.
Digitizing
Manual (table)
Digitizers
Heads-up and vectorization
parts: table,
Photogrammetry – the science and technology of cursor, controller
making measurements from photographs, etc.
specifications
table size
resolution
accuracy:
stability,
repeatability,
skew

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Qualities of a Digitizer Digitizing Procedure

Stability
The ability of the
digitizer to maintain a
value as the puck
remains in one place
Repeatability
Precision
Good digitizers
accurate to 0.001”
Linearity
The ability to be within
a specified distance of
the correct value
Good digitizers have a
linearity of 0.003”
over 60”
Skew
The ability to produce
coordinates in a true
rectangle
Turn on digitizer and place map on tablet
This will let the map and tablet reach thermal
equilibrium
Tape the map to the tablet
Register the map using control points
Must have at least 4 control points with known location
Digitize the features (one layer at a time)
Fix Digitizing errors
Edit and build TOPOLOGY

Two Methods of Digitizing On Screen Digitizing

Point Mode “heads-up” digitizing
One (X,Y) Location is captured for each click of the puck
button The original is scanned and Georeferenced
More accurate Features are captured using the mouse
Requires less skill
Point mode
Stream Mode
The digitizer will send locations while the puck button is held Stream mode
down Less fatigue than using a tablet
Requires more skill
Can be faster
Slow operators will capture many more points than
necessary

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Repetitive Motion Injuries Automated Digitizing

Manual digitizing can cause repetitive motion Tools to automatically convert a raster scan to vector
lines
injuries.
Requires a very clean scan
Precautionary: Scans can be cleaned using raster cleanup tools
Work in a location that minimizes stress on wrists and The vector files usually require cleanup after
shoulders conversion
Take breaks problems: broken lines, thin lines, contrast
Use a splint to keep wrist bent Time consumption:
Seek Medical opinions at the first signs of problems
clean image “Dirty” image
Time saving! Opt to Manually digitize

Automated Tools Advantages of Digitizing

Gridline Low initial capital cost
Command line ArcInfo command Flexible and adapts to different types of data
Need a near prefect image
Easily mastered skill
Can have a large amount of cleanup after conversion
ArcScan Extension Digitizing devices are reliable
Has clean up tools Generally, the quality of data is high

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Problems with Digitizing
Paper maps are unstable, they stretch or shrink,
sometimes even while on the digitizing table.
The accuracy depends on the dedication, training,
and skill of the operator
Accuracy also depends on the quality of the source
documents
Paper maps were not prepared “digitally” correct,
but to impart information visually (e.g., exagerate
railroads, highways).
Scanning Problems
Higher resolutions aren’t always the answer to
better data; often the additional “noise” and
resulting clean up of data can cause higher
resolution to not be the best solution, a balance
between detail and additional manual clean-up
must be struck.
Paper maps are not “dimensionally stable” and a
great deal of variation occurs as the maps age.
Documents must be clean (no smudges or extra
marks or lines).
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Scanning
Converts paper maps into digital format by
capturing features as cells or pixels.
Cells are captured using a scanner head made up
of photosensitive cells.
Advanced large format scanners: 8000 photosensitive
cells.
Each sensor is able to record a pixel rated between
0 (black) and 255 (white)
Scanning Problems
Text may accidentally be scanned as line features in
automatic feature recognition.
Specialized symbols (for example marsh or asphalt)
may not be detected as such.
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Digitizer vs. Scanner Scanning and Digitizing Input Errors

Digitizer Scanners Incompleteness of the spatial data; missing points,
Labor intensive Speed and ease line segments, and polygons.
Requires skilled Raster data without Location placement errors of spatial data; careless
operator intelligence; digitizing or poor quality of the original source.
Vector (intelligent) vectorization possible
Distortion of spatial data; base maps that aren’t
data Usually produces large
scale correct over the entire image or from material
Hardware less files that need
compressor
stretch in paper maps.
expensive
Hardware is expensive

Scanning and Digitizing Input Errors Common Spatial Errors

Incorrect linkage between spatial and attribute Slivers or gaps in the line work.
data Dead ends, dangling arcs, overshoots and
misplaced labels or unique identifiers being assigned undershoots.
during manual key entry or during the initial setup.
Bow ties or weird polygons caused by
Attribute data is wrong or incomplete; missing data inappropriate closings of connecting features.
records or data records from different time periods.
Redundant information, including vertices, text,
nodes, and arcs.
Incorrect label information and placement.

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Some Considerations Attribute Data Conversion

Scanning while initially faster may not be the fastest vector data, no attributes
solution for your data input. steps to creating attribute table(s)
Source information needs to be carefully assessed define structure of data file
before a method of data conversion is selected. populate data file
The skill and motivation of staff should be manual entry
evaluated before a method is selected. add ID column to existing data table
check for errors
link to associated layers

Importing Vector Data Importing Vector Data

outside source Transformation
metadata ground coordinates
translator projection
field survey (imports points) need metadata
direct need to understand what was used (and will be used)
via table and why
CAD “event” themes (ArcView)
XY (Make Exent XY layer)
uses XY coordinates in a table
creates a point theme

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Secondary Data
Always check for existing data before creating it
Several groups of data exist
Free data from the government
Government data available for a fee
Internet map servers
Commercial data
Data from other GIS users

Interpolating to Raster Interpolating to Raster

Few sample points – to fill all cells

Interpolation to predict values for cells from a limited
number of sample data points.
Visiting every location is usually difficult or expensive.
Assumption: Spatially distributed objects are spatially
correlated. In other words, things are close together tend
to have similar characteristics (spatial autocorrelation).

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Point elevation to surface
Deterministic interpolation techniques
Globe and local
Global techniques calculate predictions using the
entire dataset: Global polynomial
Local techniques calculate predictions from the
measured points within neighborhoods, which are
smaller spatial areas within the larger study area:
Inverse Distance Weighted, local polynomial, and
radial basis functions (Spline)
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Interpolation techniques
Deterministic and geostatistical.
Deterministic interpolation techniques create
surfaces from measured points. based on either the
extent of similarity (e.g., Inverse Distance
Weighted) or the degree of smoothing (e.g., radial
basis functions).
Geostatistical interpolation techniques (e.g.,
kriging) utilize the statistical properties of the
measured points.
Inverse Distance
Weighted (IDW)
Each sample point has a local influence that
diminishes with distance.
Weights the points closer to the processing cell
more heavily than those farther away.
Operator controls how weighting is done.
Power.
High power gives more weight to closer points.
Radius type.
Considers how far away to look.
Barrier.
Search can be limited by other polygons.
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Radial basis functions (Spline)

is the value we are trying to predict for location s0 .
N is the sample points surrounding the prediction position
weights
We usually uses power functions greater than 1.
A p = 2 is known as the inverse distance
squared weighted interpolation.
DEMO !!!
Radial basis functions (RBF)
methods are a series of exact
interpolation techniques, that is,
the surface must go through each
measured sample value.
There are five different basis
functions: thin-plate spline, spline
with tension, completely
regularized spline, multiquadric
function, and inverse multiquadric
spline
RBFs are conceptually similar to
fitting a rubber membrane through
the measured sample values while
minimizing the total curvature of
the surface. IDW will never predict values above
the maximum measured value or below
the minimum measured value.
Spline can
http://www.math.ucla.edu/~baker/java/hoefer/Spline.htm

Radial basis Geostatistical interpolation techniques

functions
Geostatistical techniques create surfaces incorporating the statistical
properties of the measured data. Because geostatistics is based on
statistics, these techniques produce not only prediction surfaces but
also error or uncertainty surfaces, giving you an indication of how
good the predictions are.
kriging family: ordinary, simple, universal, probability, indicator,
and disjunctive along with their counterparts in cokriging are
available in the Geostatistical Analyst. ordinary kriging assumes
When running spline in Spatial Analyst
the constant mean is unknown, universal kriging only used for data
weight: there is a trend you know (using polynomial trend).
- regularized: 0, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 0.5
the higher the weight,
Kriging is divided into two distinct tasks:
the smoother the surface
- tension: 0, 1, 5, 10
- quantifying the spatial structure of the data and
the higher, the coarser - producing a prediction.
number of points:
- used in the calculation. the more points.
the smoother the surface

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Performing surface analysis: Contours Slope

Contours are polylines that connect points of equal
value, such as elevation, temperature, precipitation,
pollution, or atmospheric pressure.

DEMO !!!

Aspect Generating a TIN surface

To create a TIN surface, you start with a set of input points (point features, vertices of line or
polygon features) and connect the dots.
Once you have a TIN surface, you can always refine it to get a better model of natural or
manmade features such as lakes, ridgelines, graded slopes, and other distinct formations. You
can also “tag” triangle faces with attribute values, which allows you to symbolize a TIN not
only by elevation, slope, or aspect, but by any other characteristic you like (vegetation, land
use, and so on).

Rules of Delaunay triangulation methods:

1. The triangles are as equi-angular as possible, thus reducing potential numerical precision problems
created by long skinny triangles
2. A circle drawn through the three nodes of any triangle contains no other input point
3. The triangulation is independent of the order the points are processed

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Some concepts in a TIN Breaklines

Mass points
- are the nodes from which triangles are constructed
Breaklines
- are lines, telling there is a distinct change in slope on either side of line. They are
used to represent surface formations like ridges, streams, dams, shorelines, and
building footprints
Replace polygons
- create a flat area (a single elevation value) on a TIN surface. They are used to
model formations like building foundations, terraces, water body, and other graded
areas.
Clip polygons
- make the boundaries of the TIN smaller by restricting the zone of interpolation, the
area of the TIN for which elevation, slope, and aspect are calculated
Erase polygons
- is like a clip polygon. The only difference is that instead of trimming the edges of the
zone of interpolation, it cuts a hole in it
Fill polygons
Top: Without breaklines, the triangles Top: Simple mass point triangulation
- A fill polygon tags an area with an attribute value so that the TIN can be symbolized
by this value. The attribute must be an integer. Fill polygons are used to represent cross the ridge of the dam. does not adequately model the dam.
continuous surface features like land cover and land use or discrete features like flood Bottom: With breaklines (red) along both Bottom: The dam is successfully modeled
zones or endangered species habitats
sides of the ridge, the TIN is retriangulated. with breaklines.
No triangles cross a breakline

Replace
Clip polygons
polygons

Top: The light blue polygon will

be
added to the TIN as a clip
polygon.
Middle: The TIN is clipped to the
polygon extent.
Bottom: Clipping does not
actually
change the extent of the
triangulated area, only the zone
Top: The blue polygon (a creek) will be added to the
of interpolation. By default,
TIN as a replace polygon. This is necessary because Top: Simple mass point triangulation
the default triangulation wrongly represents the area
triangles outside the zone are
does not adequately model the creek.
as sloped. Bottom: The creek is modeled with
not displayed, but they can be
Bottom: The replace polygon sides become triangle a replace polygon turned on, as they are here.
edges. The area within the replace polygon has a
constant elevation (no slope).

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Erase polygons Fill polygons

Top: The light blue Top: The polygon layer will be

polygon will be added as added to the TIN as fill polygons.
an erase polygon.
Middle: The TIN is retriangulated.
Middle: The polygon
area is cut out of the TIN The blue lines, indicating
(excluded from the zone polygon boundaries, become
of interpolation). triangle edges.
Bottom: As with a clip Bottom: The TIN is symbolized by
polygon, the
uninterpolated area is the polygon attribute values.
still triangulated. The
erase polygon sides
become triangle edges

TIN to raster conversion

To convert a TIN to a raster,
all you need to do is
Metadata
choose a cell size, values
of the TIN surface can then
be interpolated at
regularly-spaced intervals
across the surface.
As you make the cell size
smaller, more points are
interpolated and the
output raster resembles the
input TIN more closely.
A TIN’s slope and aspect
values can also be
converted to rasters. Left: A 2D view of a TIN layer. Right: A raster converted from the TIN.
Since a raster’s extent must be rectangular, areas that are not
interpolated are assigned the NoData value (symbolized in gray).

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Examples of non-spatial metadata What is metadata?

Meta is defined as a change or transformation.
Data is described as the factual information used as a
basis for reasoning.
Metadata would literally mean "factual information
used as a basis for reasoning which describes a
change or transformation.“

Metadata:
What is metadata? A part of Geographic Data
In GIS, metadata is data about the data.
It consists of information that describes spatial data and is Metadata is the third
used to provide documentation for data products. component of
Metadata is the who, what, when, where, why, and
how about every facet of the spatial data. geographic data.
Procedures used to collect or compile the data Geospatial data tells
Data lineage you where it is and
Accuracy and measurement standards attribute data tells you
Coding schemes what it is. Metadata
According to the Federal Geographic Data Committee describes both
(FGDC), metadata is data about the content, quality,
condition, and other characteristics of data. geospatial and attribute
data.

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Why use and create metadata Metadata Should Include Data about
Date of data collected.
To document the history of a spatial data set
Date of coverage generated.
Bounding coordinates.
Processing steps
To help organize and maintain an organization's spatial Software used
data RMSE, etc.
From where original data came.
Who did processing
To provide information to other organizations and Projection
clearinghouses to facilitate data sharing and transfer coordinate System
Datum
Units
Spatial scale
Attribute definitions
Who to contact for more information

CSDGM (FGDC-STD-001-1998)
Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata

Metadata = Meta-data often absent (especially in secondary

Identification_Information data)
Data_Quality_Information This may lead to
Spatial_Data_Organization_Information Misinterpretation
Spatial_Reference_Information Misuse
Entity_and_Attribute_Information False perception of accuracy
Distribution_Information
Metadata_Reference_Information

Connect to http://www.fgdc.gov/metadata/csdgm/

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FGDC Clearinghouse
The FGDC developed a clearinghouse that allows
geospatial data creators to share their data
However, the FGDC Clearinghouse is not a data
repository. The data contained within the
clearinghouse is actually stored on computer servers
maintained by individual contributors. This allows
contributors to manage their own data.
http://clearinghouse1.fgdc.gov/
http://www.fgdc.gov/
Questions?
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Philippine GeoPortal Project
“The Philippine GeoPortal project will serve as the
foundation of the Philippine spatial data
infrastructure, the common infrastructure for data
sharing among all government agencies for use in
strategic planning and decision making.”
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