Physics Notes Combined

OLEVELS PHYSICS (5054)
Usman Bin Aslam

0336-4498087 O’ levels, IGCSE, As and A levels
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O’Levels PHYSICS (5054/0625)
Chapter 1.2: Kinematics.
Properties of motion:
Distance [1]: Length between two points. It maybe curved. It is a scalar quantity. SI Unit: Meters. (m)
Displacement [1]: Shortest distance between two points. It is always straight. Vector quantity. SI unit:
Meters (m)
distance
Speed [1]: Distance traveled per unit time interval. Scalar quantity. Formula: Speed = SI unit:
time
-1
m/s, ms .
Uniform speed [1]: If an object travels equal distance in equal time interval, its speed is called uniform
speed.
Total distance
Average speed [1] Total distance traveled per total time. Formula: 𝐴𝑣. Speed = . Note: rest
Total time
time is also added in total time.
Ex. 1:
Avg= 75/2= 37.5 or 38km/h
displacement
Velocity [1]: Displacement traveled per unit time. Vector quantity. Formula: Velocity = SI
time interval
unit: m/s, ms-1.
Note:
i. Velocity towards right is taken as positive, then towards left is considered as negative.
ii. If an object is moving in straight line in only one direction then speed is equal to magnitude
velocity.
v−u
Acceleration [1]: Change in velocity per unit time interval. Vector quantity. Formula:a = t . SI unit:
m/s2, ms-2. If “v-u” is positive, the object is speeding up. If “v-u” is negative, object is slowing down.
Deceleration/retardation/ Negative acceleration: Decrease in velocity per unit time.
Uniform acceleration [2]: If the velocity increases by equal amount in equal intervals of time, the
acceleration is said to be uniform.
Ex. 2:
1
Acceleration due to gravity:
• Earth pulls every object downwards.
• This causes the speed of a falling object to change by 10m/s (or 9.8m/s2) after every 1 second.
• This means if object falls from rest, after 1 second, its speed will be 10m/s. After 2 seconds, its speed
will be 20m/s. After 3 seconds, its speed will be 30m/s and so on.
• It remains constant if no air resistance. It decreases if we consider air resistance.
Graphical Analysis of motion:

Distance-Time Graphs Speed-Time Graphs.
Rest:
When object at rest, distance When object at rest, speed will
Speed (m/s)
remain zero as time keeps
Distance (m)
will remain zero as time keeps

increasing. Horizontal line on x- increasing. Horizontal line on x-
axis. axis.
Time (s)
Time (s)
Constant/uniform speed:
Object travels equal Speed will remain a

amount of distance fixed value as the
Speed (m/s)
in equal intervals of time keeps

Distance (m)
time. changing.
∆𝐲 𝐝 ∆𝐲 ∆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝐠= = = 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐠= =
∆𝐱 𝐭 ∆𝐱 𝐭
= 𝐀𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Time (s)
Time (s)
Uniform acceleration/ Uniform Increasing speed:
As gradient = speed As gradient =

so if speed has to acceleration so if
Speed (m/s)
acceleration has to
Distance (m)
change then graph

has to curve remain same then
upwards, i.e. graph has to be a
gradient increases. straight line, i.e.
gradient constant
Time (s) and positive.
Time (s)
2
Constant Deceleration/Uniform decreasing speed
As gradient = speed As gradient =

acceleration so if
so if speed has to
Speed (m/s)
Distance (m)
acceleration has to
decrease then
remain same and be
graph has to be negative then graph
curve curving has to be a straight
downwards, i.e. line, i.e. gradient
gradient decreases. constant and
Time (s) negative.
Time (s)
Increasing acceleration/Non-uniform increasing speed:

As gradient =
acceleration so if
acceleration has to
Speed (m/s)
increase and then
graph has to be a
curve, curving
upwards, i.e. gradient
increasing and
Time (s) positive.
Decreasing acceleration/Non-uniform increasing speed:

As gradient =
acceleration so if
acceleration has to
Speed (m/s)
decrease and then

graph has to be a
curve, curving
downwards, i.e.
gradient decreasing
Time (s) and positive.
Notes:
1. Gradient of a distance time graph is speed.
2. Gradient of a speed-time graph is acceleration.
3. Area under a speed time graph is distance
traveled.
3
Solved Examples:
Constant but negative

gradient, so constant
deceleration, i.e.
uniform decreasing
speed.
Constant but zero

gradient, zero
acceleration, i.e.
constant speed.
Constant but
gradient,
zero Constant but
zero acceleration,
gradient, zero positive gradient, so
i.e. constant speed.
acceleration, i.e. constant
constant speed. acceleration, i.e.
uniform increasing
speed.
4
O’Levels PHYSICS (5054)
Dynamics (reason of motion).
Force: [1] A push or a pull, which tends to start a stationary object and tends to stop a moving object. SI
unit: Newton (N). Vector Quantity.
Newton’s Laws:
1. A body continues its state of rest or of uniform motion, until an external force is applied on it.
2. Net (resultant) Force acting on an object is directly proportional to the acceleration produced inside an
object of mass “m”. Mass must remain constant for this proportionality to hold. 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 ∝ 𝒂
Example 1:
Example 2:
Resultant force: [1] (Net force)
A force which has the effect of

two or more forces.
It is found by the vector

addition (head to tail rule).
3. Every action acting on an object has an equal but opposite reaction. [1]
Example 3:
Frictional force: [1]

• Friction is a contact force which always opposes
the motion of an object.
• Friction depends on roughness of surface and
the surface area of contact i.e. rough surfaces
have greater friction and wider base area of
contact causes greater friction.
• Friction ALWAYS impedes motion.
• Friction causes a decrease in energy of the object.
1
• Wherever there are moving parts, there is friction. E.g.
the axle of a car, the armature of the motor inside a wind mill.
• Rolling friction is always less than sliding friction.
Rolling objects have less surface area in contact with ground
as compared to sliding surfaces.
Uses of friction:
• Helps to hold things. (finger prints increase frictional
force by increasing the surface area)
• Helps to walk. (Prints on the sole of the feet causes an
increased surface area.)
• Friction can cause fire.
• Prevents slipping of tires on road. (tires have a pattern
on them called “treading” which increasing road grip. i.e.
friction)
Disadvantages of friction:
• May cause wear and tear.
• Causes wastage of energy.
• May cause unwanted fire.
Methods of reducing friction:
• Ball bearing.
• Oiling the sliding surfaces.
• Polishing the surfaces.
• Making shapes aerodynamics.
Figure 2 Effect of oil on friction.
Circular Motion: Figure 1 Ball bearing
• Motion of an object in a curved path.
• An object moving in circle has velocity tangent to its path. Velocity keeps
changing at every position.
• A force is acting perpendicular to its velocity, towards the center of its
circular path which keeps it moving in a circle. This net force is called
centripetal force.
• If centripetal force is removed, object will move tangent to its velocity.
• Centripetal force is a pseudo force. (Imagine an envelope). Different types
of forces me fulfil the role of centripetal force in different
situations.
1. Weight of a satellite acts as centripetal force when it is
revolving around the earth.
2. Tension in the string acts as centripetal force when a stone is
tied with a string and hurled around in a circle.
3. Electrostatic attraction is present between nucleus and
revolving electrons.
2
Braking of a car:
A car moving with constant speed:
• Sees an accident ahead and thinks of applying the brakes. During this time the car continues to move
at constant speed (speed time graph will be a straight line with zero gradient as acceleration is zero).
During this time the distance traveled is called thinking distance. The time interval during which he
is thinking is called thinking time.
• When brake is applied, a uniform force starts to act on the car in the opposite direction, causing a
deceleration (speed time graph a straight line and negative gradient). The distance traveled by the
car during this time is called braking distance. The time interval during which brake is being
applied, is called braking time.
Note: Thinking and braking distances are
found by area under a speed time graph.
Gradient of the graph tells deceleration.
Factors affecting thinking distance and
thinking time:
• Mental alertness.
• Physical condition.
• Age.
• Reflexes.
Factors affecting braking distance:
• Tire and road conditions.
• Frictional force between tires and
braking system.
Terminal Velocity: [2]

That maximum value of velocity at which the resultant force acting on an object is zero/ acceleration is zero/
air resistance has become equal to the weight of the object.
Notes:
• Air resistance is dependent on speed.
• Lighter objects gain terminal velocity quickly that’s why a feather appears to fall slowly.
• Heavier objects attain terminal velocity very late that’s why their falling speed is faster than the
feather.
Air resistance: It is the frictional force which air particles exert on a moving object. Always in the opposite
direction.
3
As starting from rest, speed is zero so air

resistance is zero. Net force is equal to its
weight. Acceleration is equal to
gravitational acceleration.
As some speed is gained now so some air

resistance has been gained (red arrow).
Resultant force= W+ (-R) so it will be less
than weight so acceleration will be
reduced.
Speed keeps increasing at a smaller rate.
As greater speed is gained now so greater

air resistance has been gained (longer red
arrow). Resultant force= W+ (-R) so it will
be even lesser than weight so acceleration
will be further reduced.
Speed keeps increasing at a smaller rate.
As greater speed is gained now so greater

air resistance has been gained (longer red
arrow) and become equal to weight.
Resultant force= W+ (-R) = 0 so it will be
ZERO so acceleration will be ZERO.
Speed stops increasing. This speed is called

terminal speed.
4
Speed time graph:
As the acceleration keeps decreasing and then becomes zero, so the graph should be a decreasing
acceleration graph.
In case of a parachute:
When terminal velocity has been gained and a parachute is opened, the air resistance increases a large deal
because of the greater surface area of parachute. This causes a resultant force in the opposite direction
causing a deceleration. As the speed decreases, air resistance also decreases and then becomes equal to the
weight again. Object gains terminal velocity again but now at very small value.
5
Mass Weight and density.
Mass: [1]
• Amount of matter contained in an object.
• Sometimes measured in terms of number of particles (mole).
• For bigger masses, larger unit (kilogram) is used. Figure 1Triple Beam balance.
• SI unit: Kilogram (kilogram)
• Mass is always conserved. Mass of an object always remains
same unless it is broken in pieces. Total mass would still
remain conserved.
• Other units: grams (g), milli-grams (mg) are also used.
• For large objects, a new unit is made. “SOLAR MASS”. Big
objects like galaxies or stars are too massive to measure in
kilograms. So their masses are expressed in-terms of mass of
sun (2 × 1030 𝑘𝑔). Figure 2 Electronic pan balance.
• E.g. a star which is twice as massive as sun, we say it is 2 solar
masses.
• Smaller masses are measured by, pan balance, electronic pan
balance, beam balance.
Gravitational Field strength: [1]
• Amount of gravitational force acting per unit mass.
𝐹
• 𝑔=𝑚 SI unit: N/kg. Figure 3Beam Balance.
• Vector Quantity.
• Gravitational field strength varies from place to place.
• It is dependent on size and mass of the planet we are measuring it in.
• A 1kg object will experience a force of 9.8N and the same object will feel a force of
24.5N on Jupiter.
Weight: [1]
• Amount of gravitational force acting on an object.
• 𝑤 =𝑚×𝑔 Weight is a vector quantity.
• As “g” changes from place to place so weight can also change.
• It always points towards the center of the Earth.
• Weight maybe different at the ground floor and the 100th floor of a building.
• Weight of same object maybe different at different planets.
• Weight is measured by spring balance. Spring balances can be calibrated to measure
mass as well.
Volume: [1]
• Three dimensional space covered by an object. Figure 4 spring balance.
• Volume of liquid and small objects are found by measuring cylinder. (Newton meter)
• SI unit: m3. Other units: mm3, cm3.

• Volume of regular shaped objects can be found by mathematical formulas such as volume of a
cuboid can be found by 𝑉 = 𝑙 × 𝑏 × ℎ.
1
• Volume of irregular shaped objects is found by Archimedes’ “displacement method”.
Displacement Method: [2]
Pour some liquid (like water) in a measuring cylinder. Note down its volume (V1). Carefully dip the irregular
shaped object in the liquid. Making sure that the object is fully immersed in the liquid. Note down the new
volume (V2). Subtract V2-V1.
Figure 5Displacement method.

Meniscus:
• It is the curving of the liquid surface when it is poured inside a container.
• There are two types of meniscus:
i. Concave (downwards) meniscus: (diagram A) It
occurs because of liquid surface tension and
attraction between the walls of the container. If
particles are attracted more towards the wall as
compared to themselves, it climbs upwards along
the walls. E.g. water and glass. Figure 6 Types of meniscus.
ii. Convex (upwards) meniscus: (diagram B) It

occurs because of stronger attraction between liquid molecules as compared to the walls of
container. E.g. Mercury and glass.
Correct way to read meniscus:
• ALWAYS read from top or
bottom of the meniscus.
• Eye should be drawn on the side
on which the scale is present.
• Line of sight should be
perpendicular to the scale.
• Place the eye a reasonable
distance away from scale (25cm).
Density [1]:
Density is defined as mass contained per unit volume.
Mass 𝒌𝒈 𝒈
Formula: Density = Volume SI unit: . Or Nature: scalar
𝒎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Notes:
2
• Density is a material constant factor. Remains same for all the objects made of same materials.
Different for objects made of different materials.
• Density maintains a fair comparison between objects. (E.g. a wooden ship floats on water but a metal
ball sinks. That because even though a wooden ship has more mass but it also has more volume as
compared to a metal ball. But wooden boat is less dense.)
• Extra: A greater up-trust acts on the ship (due to its volume) as compared to its mass. Metal ball
being very small in volume a small up-thrust acts on it as compared to its weight
• Density of a material stays constant at a constant temperature. If heated, the density of all objects
increase.
Measurement of density of an object: [3-4]

Place a measuring cylinder with some water on an electronic pan balance. Note its reading (M1) and measure
the volume (V1). Carefully lower an object, whose mass is to be measured, into the beaker. Note the new
𝑀 −𝑀
mass (M2) and new volume V2. Calculate density of the rock by 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉2 −𝑉 1
2 1
Alternate method:
Place the rock on a measuring cylinder. Note its
reading (M1). Take water in a measuring cylinder
and note its volume (V1). Lower the rock in the
cylinder. Note down the new volume (V2).
Subtract V1 from V2 to find the volume V of the
𝑀
rock. Use formula 𝐷 = 𝑉 .
3
Turning effect of a force.
Moment of a force: [1]
• Turning effect of a force is called moment.
• It is also called torque.
• Formula: 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒇 × 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑. 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆.
• SI unit: Nm (Newton-Meter)
• Moment can be in clockwise or anticlockwise
direction.
• Moment causes any object to rotate around a fixed point called pivot (or axis of
rotation).
• Moment required to open or close something will be same.
• Factors affecting moment:
i. 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 ∝ 𝒇 ∶
If larger moment is needed we can increase the force.
ii. 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 ∝ 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑. 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆: If larger moment is needed we use a longer
handle (increase the perpendicular distance from pivot).
Everyday Examples:
• A door is rotated because of the turning effect of the force applied to it. Handle is attached at the
furthest end of the door so that the door opens and closes easily (longer perpendicular distance
means easier turning effect).
• Spanner: If a nut is tightened, a longer spanner can be used to loosen it as it creates a greater turning
effect.
Principle of moments: [2]
• Sum of clockwise moments is equal to sum of
anti-clockwise moments, if an object is in
equilibrium (balanced).
• If more than one forces are acting on an object
more than one moments will be created but object
will rotate due to their net effects.
Experiment to verify principle of moments: [4]
Place a uniform meter ruler on a knife edge (wedge) at its center and fasten a small known
weight (f1) on one side of the ruler. Measure its distance (d1) from the knife edge (pivot).
Place another object of known weight (f2) at the center and keep moving it away from the
center until the ruler balances. Note this distance (d2) from the center.
𝑓1 × 𝑑1 = 𝑓2 × 𝑑2
1
Notes: If there are more than two forces, identify which of them will create clockwise
moments and which of them will create anti-clockwise moments. Add clockwise moments
and keep them equal to anti-clockwise moments.
Centre of mass:
That point inside the symmetry of the object at which all the
mass can be assumed to be gathered.
Centre of gravity:
That point inside the body at which the force of gravity acts.
Experiment to find out the center of gravity of an

irregular shaped plain lamina: [4]
Make 3 holes near the boundary of the irregularly
shaped plain lamina. Hang it by using one of the holes
on a stand and wait for it to stop moving. Hang a
plumb line in front of it. Trace the shadow of the string
on the lamina. Repeat the process by hanging it using
the remaining 2 holes one by one. Where all the lines
intersect, this point is the center of gravity.
Stability:
• Ability of a material to regain its original orientation once it is tilted and released.
• Stability depends on two factors:
1
i. Height of center of mass from the ground 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶.𝑂.𝑀
ii. Base area 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Note: This is because wider base area means that the weight keeps acting through the
base for a more angle of tilt. If base area is smaller, weight will start to act out of the base
area and cause toppling of the object at a very small tilting angle.
Everyday examples:
1. Joggers are more stable as compared to heeled sandals as their height of center of mass is
small and base area is wider.
2. A 4 legged chair is more stable as compared to a 3 legged stool as base area of a chair is
wider.
3. Passengers in a double decker bus are first asked to occupy the lower level before
passengers are seated on the top deck.
4. Height of a race car is made small and its tires are far apart from each other and wider to
make it more stable.
5. Lamps have a wider base area to increase stability.
2
Deformation.
Deforming force:
A force which causes a change in shape or size when it is applied on an object.
Elasticity:
Ability of an object to regain its original shape and size once the deforming
force is removed.
Extension: [1]
Difference between the new length (l) and original length (lo) when a deforming
force is applied on an object.
𝒆 = 𝒍 − 𝒍𝟎
Hook’s Law: [2]
Extension produced in an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
deforming force applied on it until the object reaches limit of proportionality.
𝐹∝𝑒
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒
Limit of proportionality: [1]
• That value of force (load) after which the hook’s law is not obeyed.
Objects start to deform permanently.
• Different for different materials.
Spring constant (k): [1]
• Force needed to create a unit extension.
𝑭
• 𝒌=
𝒆
• SI unit: N/m or N/cm
• Also called stiffness constant.
• This value determines how easy or hard it is to
stretch a spring.
• Remains same if the material remains same.
Experiment to calculate the spring constant of a spring: [4]
• Hang the spring with a stand and hold a ruler vertical to it and note down its
original length.
1
• Hang a known weight with it. Note the
extended length. Subtract the new length from
original length to find extension.
• Repeat the process for at least 3 more loads.
• Plot a graph of Load against extension.
Gradient of the graph is equal to spring
constant.
Calculating spring constants from graphs:
1. Force-extension graph:
∆𝒚 𝑭
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = = =𝒌
∆𝒙 𝒆
As there was f on y-axis and e on x-axis.
Gradient is equal to spring constant.
2. Extension- Force graph:

∆𝒚 𝒆 𝟏
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = = =
∆𝒙 𝒇 𝒌
As there was f on y-axis and e on x-axis.
Gradient is equal to spring constant.
Parallel combination of springs:

• Load gets distributed.
• Combination becomes harder to stretch or compress.
• This combination of spring makes them stiffer. This means
they can hold and support more load as compared to a
single spring.
• Kt=K1+K2+… (This relation tells if spring constants of
each spring are added, they make a larger spring constant.)
2
Series Combination of springs:
• A single load causes all the
springs in series to be stretched.
• Series combination becomes
easier to stretch.
• This combination makes them
softer. This means the same load
can create greater extension now.
3
Pressure.
Pressure: [1]
• Force acting per unit Area.
𝐹
• Formula: 𝑃=𝐴
• SI unit: Pascal
• Other units: N/m2, mmHg, cmHg
Factors Affecting Pressure:
• If a larger force is applied on an area, the pressure is greater. 𝑃 𝛼 𝐹
• If the same force is applied on a surface of greater area then pressure is
1
smaller. 𝑃 𝛼
𝐴
Everyday Examples:
• A sharpened knife cuts easily as the edge has a smaller area so a larger
pressure is produced.
• Heeled sandals are unsuitable to walk on soft floor because they have a
smaller are so they exert a greater pressure.
• When a person stands on the ground, his body exerts a greater pressure on
the ground as compared to when he is lying on the ground because surface
area of contact with the ground is
smaller.
Atmospheric pressure:
• Air is trapped around the surface
of the earth due to gravity.
• Every air molecule has a weight
which is acting on the surface of
the Earth. Earth’s surface has an
area. So they apply a pressure on
everything present on the surface
of the Earth.
• This pressure is equal to 1.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎.
• Atmospheric pressure helps in applications like weather patterns, straws to
drink liquid and E.t.c.
1
• It is higher near the surface but lower at
an altitude.
• It is measured by a mercury barometer.
Mercury barometer:
• A one meter long calibrated tube, containing
mercury to the brim is inverted in a dish of
mercury such that no air enters the mercury
tube (column).
• The mercury starts to flow out of the tube
and liquid level starts to rise in the dish.
• When mercury level stops falling in
the tube, we measure the length
between the level in the tube and
dish.
• This length of mercury exerts the
same pressure as the atmosphere
exerts on the mercury from outside.
• If atmospheric pressure rises, the
liquid level in the dish will fall and
the mercury is pushed up the tube.
(This is observed on ground floors.)
• If atmospheric pressure decreases,
the liquid level in the dish will start
to rise as more liquid from inside the
tube will rush out and the length between the liquid levels will decrease.
(This is observed when barometer is taken to a greater height.)
Hydrostatic pressure:
• Pressure due to a liquid is called hydrostatic pressure.
• Formula: 𝑷 = 𝝆 × 𝒈 × 𝒉
• Note: “h” is not height. It is the depth under the liquid level.
• When asked for the total pressure inside the liquid surface:
𝑷𝑻 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 + 𝑷𝟎
2
Pascal’s Law: [2]
• When a pressure is applied on a liquid, it is
transmitted through every point of the liquid
without loss if the liquid is considered
incompressible.
• Its applications are, hydraulic press, hydraulic
lifts and hydraulic brakes.
• A small force can be used to produce a large
force just by using pistons of different
𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐵
areas. 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 =
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐵
Pressure due to gas: [3]

• Molecules of gas are constantly randomly moving. They collide with the calls
of the container and the movable piston. Due to collision they apply a force on
the surface of some area hence resulting in a pressure being applied.
• Pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas (IF mass
and temperature remains constant.) This is called the Boyle’s Law.
𝟏
𝑷∝ 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑽
3
• The product of pressure and volume of a gas will be equal to the product of
new pressure and new volume of a gas.
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Manometer:
• It is a U-bend tube with mercury inside it.
• The length between the liquid levels on both sides is used to calculate the
pressure of the gas above the atmospheric pressure which is acting on the
open end of the tube.
If the pressure in both If a gas of greater pressure is If a gas of smaller pressure is attached
columns of the tube equal, attached on one end then the on one end then the liquid level in that
then the mercury level will be liquid level in that column of the column of the tube will rise as the gas
same on both sides. tube will fall as the gas will push will not be able to push the liquid
the liquid downwards. downwards instead atmosphere will
push the liquid on its side downwards.
Pressure of a gas above atmospheric pressure:
𝑃 = 𝜌×𝑔×ℎ
Total pressure of a gas:
𝑃𝑡 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
4
Work Power and Energy.
Work: [1]
Work is the product of force and parallel distance traveled in that direction. 𝑊 =𝑓×𝑑
SI unit: Joule (J) other unit: N.m
Work is always done by a force or against a force.
Example of work done by a force: Work done by the force exerted by an engine of a car. Engine
exerts a force and car moves in the same direction as the force of engine.
Example of work done against a force: When a car is moving forwards air resistance acts on the
object backwards. Engine does some work against the air resistance.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
1
Energy: [1]
It is defined as the ability to do work. 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝐽)
Note: Energy of all forms have the same Unit. Other units may include kJ (kilojoule) or GJ (gigajoule).
Forms of energy:
1. Mechanical Energy • Kinetic energy
• Gravitational Potential Energy
• Elastic potential Energy
2. Chemical energy • Batteries
• Food
• Chlorophyll inside plants converts
3. Thermal energy • Produced by combustion/ friction
• Helps in cooking, heating, lighting
• Some energy in every process is converted to heat.
• If an object falls at terminal velocity his G.P.E is being
converted to thermal energy due to air resistance.
4. Sound energy • Energy produced due to vibrations.
• Helps us to hear by vibrating our ear drum.
• Needs medium like air for transfer.
5. Light energy • Produced by accelerating charges.
• Sources: tube lights, fire, lamps.
• Fastest transfer without any medium
6. Electrical energy • Energy possessed by moving charges.
• Charge particles gain energy from battery and supply to
electrical components like bulbs.
Kinetic Energy: [1]

𝟏
Energy possessed by a moving body due to its speed/motion. 𝒌 ⋅ 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎 ⋅ 𝒗𝟐
Example 1:
2
Gravitational potential Energy: [1]

Energy possessed by a body due to its height from the surface of the earth. 𝑮. 𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝒎. 𝒈. 𝒉
Example 1:
What is the height of a 300g object if it has a G.P.E inside the gravitational field is 120J?
Solution:
𝐺.𝑃.𝐸 120 300
𝐺. 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚. 𝑔. ℎ ℎ= = 0.3×10 = 40 𝑚 = 0.3 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑔 1000
Example 2:
Law of conservation of energy: [2]

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another.
Examples:
1. A falling ball • At height when ball is dropped, it has v=0 so its K.E is 0.
• But it has a height so P.E is max. as the ball falls, height keeps
decreasing so P.E keeps decreasing.
• Where does that P.E go?
• It is converted to K.E.
• If object falls with terminal velocity, (constant v) so K.E
constant, but height keeps decreasing. Where does this P.E
go? It is converted to thermal!
2. A tube light • It converts electrical energy to light energy.
• Some heat is also produced, but that is not the major energy
change.
3. A Loudspeaker • Converts electrical energy to sound.
• Some heat is also produced, but it is not the major energy
change.
4. A car • Petrol has chemical energy which is converted to K.E.
• A car produces heat as well, but we don’t use the car to warm
our food or hands, so it is NOT a major energy change.
5. A waterfall • Gravitational Potential energy converts to Kinetic energy and sound
+ heat but that is not major energy change.
6. Rubbing hands • Chemical energy in body converted to heat + kinetic
3
Entropy: (optional)
“Disorder” of energy is always increased.
Energy remains useful until it is concentrated in a place, once it spreads out, it is useless.
Examples:
1. Take a glass of hot water put it in a bucket of cold water, will not appear hot anymore as
energy has now spread out. ENERGY HAS NOT BEEN DESTROYED! But it has been shared
equally amongst all the molecules of water in the basket.
2. A car when it combusts petrol, it releases the energy to the environment. ENERGY IS NOT
DESTROYED! It has just spread out in the environment. There’s no way to recollect it and use
it.
Energy sources:
There are two basic types of energy sources
Renewable [1] Non-Renewable [1]
Those energy sources, which may never run out Those energy sources, which may run out if used
or they get replenished over time. (any one) excessively over time or they are not
replenished over time. (any one)
E.g. tides, wind, solar, hydroelectric power, E.g. coal, oil, gas, nuclear
Geothermal
Production of electricity:
1. Coal/oil/gas • Fuel (coal/oil/gas) is burnt.
• Energy which is released is used to boil water.
Figure 1 • Boiling water rises hence it gains P.E which collides with a turbine
and turns it.
• Turbine is connected to a generator, which produces electricity.
2. Tides (water waves) • Water level rises at night due to gravity of moon.
• It can be used to fill a reservoir built inside the water body.
Figure 2 • In the morning water retreats. But the water trapped in the reservoir
cannot retreat.
• When it is allowed to retreat, its G.P.E can be used to turn the
turbine and convert it into electrical energy.
3. Solar energy • Sun light falls on specially designed cells.
• Which absorb this energy.
Figure 3 • Electrons inside them start moving due to this energy hence
producing electricity.
4
4. Wind energy • Wind mills with long blades.
• Experience wind on the blades which turns them.
Figure 4 • Inside there is a generator which turns to convert
• K.E. of wind is converted to electrical energy.
5. Nuclear fission • Radioactive nuclei break to emit large amount of energy.
• Energy absorbed by water to convert to convert to steam.
• Steam turns a turbine.
• Turbine turns a generator to create electrical energy.
6. Geothermal energy • Earth’s core is very hot. Molten rocks.
• Pipes are inserted till very deep in the earth.
Figure 5 • Cold water goes down, heats up and turns to steam and rises.
• Steam turns the turbine and generator generates electricity.
7. Hydropower • Glaciers melt and water runs down towards the sea.
Figure 6 • Dams store them. Water has a height so it has P.E. when allowed to
come out, it turns a turbine which generates electricity
Notes:
All the energy sources (except, nuclear, tidal and geothermal) are dependent on sun.
Fossil fuel Plants and animals died millions of years ago. They get buried under surface of the earth due to
weather patterns. All plants and animals need energy from sun.
Hydropower Glaciers melt due to heat coming from sun. Water fills our dam. The glaciers are also
replenished by precipitation which takes place due to sun. (water cycle)
Wind Wind blows from a region of high pressure to low pressure. Low pressure is created at a region
energy because sun has heated that particular region (towards which the wind blows).
Figure 1: Fossil Fuel Power plant.
5
Figure 2: Tidal Power plant.
Figure 3: Solar panels
Figure 4: Wind mills.
6
Figure 5: geothermal energy
Figure 6: Hydropower
Hazards of these sources:

• Fossil fuel power stations create a lot of pollution. Not sustainable, method will become useless if fossil
fuel runs out.
• Hydropower cannot operate at full capacity as if too much water is allowed to run out of dams, dams
will become empty and water shortage may occur if rainfall doesn’t occur as predicted.
• Areas near the dams will remain water logged.
7
Efficiency: [1]
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
It is the ratio between the useful energy output and the total energy input. 𝐸𝑓𝑓. = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Note:
• It has no unit as it’s just a ratio. However percentage efficiency is stated in percentage.
• No process can give out energy more than the energy it has taken. So efficiency can never be more
than 1 or 100%.
• In real life processes, some part of the total energy is wasted due to frictions and resistances. So
efficiency is always less than 1 or 100%.
• For example, if a motor is taking 300J of energy, it will always do work less than 300J. NOT EVEN equal
to 300J. Always less as moving parts of the motor will waste some of the input energy to heat.
Example 1
Example 2
8
Mechanical Power: [1]

𝑊
• Power is defined as work done (or energy consumed) per unit time. 𝑃=
𝑡
• SI unit for power is J/s or Watt (W).
𝑊 𝐸
• As work and energy are inter convertible so 𝑃 = can also be written as 𝑃=
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑔ℎ
• When an object is lifted 𝑃= 𝑡
Example 1:
Example 2:
9
Chapter 2.2: Thermal Properties and Temperature
2.2.1 Thermal Expansion:
 Gradual increase in length/volume of an object when it absorbs heat.
 This happens because the gap between molecules increases upon heating.
 This idea is generally applied when external pressure remains constant.
 Expansion is maximum in gases. This is because the intermolecular forces in gas molecules is
weakest and gas molecules are free to move further away from each other.
 Expansion is least in solids. This is because the intermolecular forces in a solid are strongest.
Applications of thermal expansion:
1. Liquid-in-glass thermometer: liquids (mercury, alcohol) expand on heating. This Property is used
to measure temperature inside a thermometer.
Figure 1 Thermometer
2. Bimetallic strip: It is a strip two different metals (one expands more than the other), joined together
length wise. Upon heating one expands more than the other to bend the strip. This strip can be used to
switch on and off electrical circuits e.g. electric iron, thermostats etc.
Figure 2 Bimetallic strip behavior under heat and cold.
Figure 3 Bimetallic strip used as thermal switch.
1
3. Opening tight jars: When the cap on the tight jar is heated by running it under hot water, it
expands and gets loosened and becomes easier to open.
Note:
 Do NOT put the whole jar in the hot
water because glass jar will also
expand and may not open.
Question:
 Why do you think it gets tightened
in winters?
Figure 4 Metal jar with its lid under hot water.
4. Rivet and plates: Metal plates can be attached by drilling a hot rivet through the plates hammering
it from the other end. When it cools down and contracts, it holds the plates very tightly together.
Figure 5 Rivets
Practical situations where thermal expansion needs to be considered:

1. The overhead power cables expand in summers. If they are loose, they
may sag too much and come closer to the ground and be a life-hazard.
If they are attached very tightly to the poles, they may snap during
winters when they contract.
2. Metal and concrete bridges Have gaps between them to allow for
thermal expansion during summers.
3. The railway tracks have little gaps in between them to allow for
thermal expansion of the steel track during summers.
4. While boiling milk, it overflows due to thermal expansion of milk. Figure 6 Electricity cables.
Figure 9 Milk is boiling. Figure 8 Concrete bridges have gaps. Figure 7 Railway Tracks have gap.
2
2.2.2 Measurement of temperature.

Temperature: [1]
Degree/amount of hotness or coldness. SI unit: Kelvin. Other Units: Degree Celsius, Degree
Fahrenheit.
Thermometric material:
 A material which is used for measuring temperature in a thermometer.
 When heated, one of the physical properties of a thermometric material varies linearly
according to the change in temperature. This property is called thermometric property.
Types of thermometers and their thermometric material and properties:
Types of Thermometer Thermometric material Thermometric Property
Liquid-in-glass thermometer Liquid (mercury, alcohol) Volume
Thermocouple Two metallic wires Potential difference
Resistance thermometer Resistors wires, carbon Resistance.
resistors.
Crystalline Thermometer Crystals of colored salts Volume of crystals.
Ex 1.
Liquid-in glass thermometers:
Structure:
 It consists of a long stem/pipe/bore/capillary tube.
 Capillary tube is surrounded by thick glass to protect it.
 The tube is connected to a large bulb/reservoir which holds thermometric liquid.
 There is a scale marked along the tube.
 Liquid expands upon heating through the bore.
Ex. 2:
3
Types of Liquid-in- glass thermometer:
(a) Laboratory thermometer (b) Clinical thermometer
 Gives reading in Degree  Gives reading in Degree Celsius and
Celsius (widely used) and degree Fahrenheit (widely used)
degree Fahrenheit both. both.
 Long Ranged=120oC ( from -  Short Ranged=7oC ( from 35oC –to
10oC –to 110oC) 42oC)
 Used in laboratories to measure  Used for measuring human body
temperature of chemicals. temperature.
 May use mercury or alcohol.  Mostly use mercury.
 Upon cooling, the mercury  It has a little kink/ constriction
level falls back on its own. present in the mercury bore to
 Does not need to be flicked. prevent rapid back flow of liquid so
reading can be taken easily.
 Needs to be flicked before next
reading.
Note: Cross-section of clinical thermometer may be pear-shaped. This

helps to magnify the scale for easy reading of temperature.
Melting point: [1]

That temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid. (Its value is same as freezing
point).
Melting point for ice/water is 0oC/32oF or 273K.
Boiling point: [1]
That temperature at which a liquid turns into a gas.
Boiling point for water is 100oC/212oF or 373K.
Properties of a good thermometer/thermometric liquid:
 It should be cheap.
 It shouldn’t contain toxic liquid.
 Liquid should be visible.
 The liquid inside it should have a low melting point and high boiling point.
 It should have linear expansion.
 The scale on the thermometer should be clear and linear (Equal distance between each interval).
Ex. 3
4
Making scale on a thermometer:

 Lower fixed point (ice point): [1] Place an unmarked
thermometer inside pure melting ice. The level of
mercury shown in the thermometer is called ice point.
 Upper fixed point (steam point): [1] Place the same
unmarked thermometer inside pure steam or boiling
water. The level of mercury shown in the thermometer
is called steam point.
 Procedure of calibration: [3] after the upper and
lower fixed points are marked, divide the length
between them into equal intervals. We consider ice
point to be the reference and all other temperatures are
measured either below or above that point.
100
Properties of a thermometer:
1. Range: [1]
 It is the difference between the highest
and lowest temperature marked on the thermometer. E.g. if a thermometer has lowest -10oC
and highest 110oC then the range will be
 Larger ranged thermometer are usually longer.
 For increasing the range we need more liquid.
2. Sensitivity:
 It is the ability of a thermometer to give small intervals of measurement. E.g.
Figure 8 Insensitive thermometer Figure 7 Sensitive thermometer.
 Sensitivity depends on the thickness of the bore/capillary tube. Thermometers with thin bore will
make the liquid move longer distances inside it for equal amount of heat absorbed as compared
to a thermometer with thick bore.
 More sensitive thermometers will be longer in length. They will have longer distance between
each interval.
Ex. 4
5
3. Response time:
 This refers to how quickly a thermometer gives a stable reading.
 It depends on the type of liquid used inside and thickness of the walls of the
bulb/reservoir. If a thermometer has a bulb with thick walls, it will take more time for
heat to be conducted through the walls.
Thermocouple thermometer:
Structure:
Working: Two wires of different metals are attached at the end. One end is dipped inside pure
melting ice as reference. Other end is immersed inside a hot junction (steam). Due to this difference of
energy a Potential difference is created across both ends. A deflection occurs on the galvanometer. We
can divide this deflection in equal intervals to calibrate the scale for temperature measurement.
Advantage:
 Can be operated from a distance.
 Measures rapidly varying temperature.
 Reading can be captured in digital thermocouples.
 It has very large range.
 It can tolerate extreme temperatures. That is why it is used for measuring temperature of lava.
6
Thermal Properties of Matter.

Internal Energy: [1]
• Sum of Kinetic and potential energy between the particles of a material.
• Kinetic energy is because of movements and Potential energy is because of positions.
Heat capacity: [1]
• Energy absorbed or emitted when the temperature of a body changes by 1 oC or 1 K.
𝑸
• Formula: 𝑪=
∆𝑻
𝑱
• Unit: 𝑲
• Every object has the ability to hold heat energy inside it. Objects which are large in size have a larger heat
capacity.
Specific Heat capacity: [1]
• Energy absorbed or emitted when the temperature of a 1kg body changes by 1 oC or 1 K.
𝑸
• Formula: 𝒄=
𝒎∆𝑻
𝑱
• Unit:
𝒌𝒈.𝑲
• It is a material dependent property. It will always remain the same for two objects made of same material.
Melting: [1]
• Process of conversion of a solid into liquid.
• Heat energy is always absorbed while
melting.
• During melting, the temperature of the
mixture does not change.
• Reverse process is solidification/ freezing.
Energy is needed to be removed.
• The average kinetic energy of the material
particles DOESNOT change so the
temperature does not change.
• This means ice at 0oC and water at 00C will
always have equal average kinetic energy of particles. But their Potential energy will be different, as for
liquid, gap between particles increases.
• While melting every portion of the solid will be at the same temperature.
Boiling: [1]
• Process of conversion of a liquid in to a gas.
• Heat energy is always absorbed while boiling.
• During boiling, the temperature of the mixture does not change.
• Reverse process is condensation. Energy is needed to be removed.
• The average kinetic energy of the material particles DOESNOT change so the temperature does not change.
• This means steam at 100oC and water at 1000C will always have equal average kinetic energy of particles.
But their Potential energy will be different for gases as the gap between particles increases.
• While boiling every portion of the liquid will be at the same temperature.
Melting point: [1]

• That temperature at which a solid converts to liquid without changing temperature.
• Melting point of ice is 00C and for gold it is 10630C.
1
Boiling point: [1]
• That temperature at which a liquid converts to a gas without changing temperature.
• Boiling point of water is 1000C and 2700 0C.
NOTE: Whenever heat is supplied, it can

EITHER change its temperature OR change its
state, but not BOTH!
Latent heat:
• Energy needed to be supplied (or removed) to change the state of an object at constant temperature.
• Every material has the ability to melt. Objects which are large in size have a larger latent heat.
Specific latent heat: [1]
• Energy needed to be supplied (or removed) to change the state of 1kg mass at constant temperature.
𝑸
• Formula: 𝒍=𝒎
𝑱
• Unit: 𝒌𝒈
• It has two types:
i. Specific latent heat of fusion: Energy needed to melt a 1kg object at constant temperature.
ii. Specific latent heat of vaporization: Energy needed to boil a 1kg liquid at constant
temperature.
Note: Formula for both types of Latent heats remain the same. Only the value changes.
Why doesn’t the temperature change when the state changes?

Once an object reaches its melting or boiling point, temperature stops increasing. Temperature remains constant until all
the material has changed state. This is because while state is being changed, any energy absorbed is used to break
the bonds between atoms and particles move away (Potential energy increases).
Heating curves:
• Imagine a solid is being supplied with heat.
• A: Its temperature will continue to rise up until it
reaches its melting point. State will not change.
Specific heat capacity is absorbed here.
• B: Now its state starts to change and temperature
remains constant until all of the material has melted.
Latent heat of fusion is absorbed here.
• C: Now its temperature starts to rise up until its
temperature reaches its boiling point. Specific heat is
absorbed here.
• D: Now its temperature will remain constant and the
state starts to change again. Temperature remains
constant. Latent heat of vaporization is absorbed here.
2
Cooling curve:
• Imagine a gas is being cooled (heat is
removed).
• A: Its temperature will continue to fall
until it reaches its condensation point.
• B: Now its state starts to change and
temperature remains constant until all of
the material has condensed to form
liquid.
• C: Now its temperature starts to fall
again until its temperature reaches its
freezing point.
• D: Now its temperature will remain
constant and the state starts to change
again.
• E: Once all the material has changed into solid it continues to cool if heat is constantly removed from it.
Experiment to find specific heat capacity of a material: [4]

• Measure the mass of the object by using a pan balance.
• Then laminate it by an insulating material.
• Immersed a heater of known power inside the object and also a thermometer inside the object and note its
temperature (T1).
• Switch on the heater for a fixed interval of time and note the new temperature (T2).
• Calculate the specific heat capacity by using the formula:
𝑄 𝑃𝑡
𝐶= =
𝑚∆𝑇 𝑚(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
3
Thermal processes.
Thermal Energy [2]: That type of energy produced by combustion or friction. It flows from a hot body
to a cold body.
Methods of heat transfer:

There are three methods of heat transfer;
1. Conduction:
• It is the transfer of heat energy due to vibrations
and collisions of particles (free valence shell
electrons).
• Mechanism:
o Particles absorb energy, vibrate faster.
o Collide with the neighbor to transfer energy.
o Process continues along the length of the
conductor.
• Molecules don’t actually translate, they just move to and fro about a fixed position.
• Takes place only in solids as the particles are close enough to collide and transfer energy.
2. Convection:
• Convection takes place only in liquids and gases.
• It is the transfer of heat by actually moving (translating particles) so particles are free to move in
liquids and gases only NOT solids. Hot Particles move from bottom to top.
• Mechanism:
o Particles of fluids (liquid or gas) absorb
energy from source.
o They move apart from each other.
o The fluid becomes less dense. Less dense
things always rise.
o Colder particles from around that region
move to occupy the space of the rising
particles.
• This creates a circular loop of movements of
particles called “convectional current”.
3. Radiation:[1]
• Radiation does not require any medium to transfer heat.
• Transfer occurs due to electromagnetic waves (Infra-red waves).
• Energy from sun reaches the earth by this method.
• Everybody in the universe radiates heat.
• Radiation depends on surface temperature (hotter bodies radiate more heat), surface area (wider
bodies radiate more heat) and surface color and texture. (Rough and dark colored surfaces radiate
more heat energy).
• Dark and rough surfaces are good absorbers of heat as well as good emitters of heat. Shiny and
smooth surfaces are good reflectors.
1
Types of materials in terms of thermal conductivity:
Conductors: [1] Insulators: [1]
Materials which have free valence shell Materials which have bound valence shell
electrons. electrons.
E.g. Metals E.g. rubber, plastic, wood and non-metals.
Describe an experiment to check the thermal
conductivity of different materials: [4]
• Take hot water in a tank.
• Dip the tip of equal length rods of different materials in melted
wax and pull it out so that wax solidifies on the tip of the rods.
• Dip the other end of the rods in the tub of hot water for equal
amount of time.
• At the end of the time interval, the rod which has the least wax
attached, will be the best conductor.
Applications (or everyday scenarios) of conductors/Insulators:

• Conductors are used in cooking pots as they
have high melting points and heat is quickly
transferred to the food being cooked.
• In case of fire in a building, walls can be
touched to predict the way to safety. If a wall is
hot, there may be fire on the other side.
• Walls of homes are filled with insulating
materials to
prevent heat loss through the walls.
• Double glazed windows have air
between two layers of glass as air is a bad
conductor so it does not allow heat to be
lost from the inside glass sheet to the
outside.
• Handles of cooking utensils are made
of plastic or wood so that if the utensil
becomes hot during cooking, the heat
does not hurt our hand.
Applications of convection:
2
• Air above a hot cup of tea rises, as the air absorbs heat, expands, becomes less dense and
rises. That’s how tea can cool down.
• Electric kettle: Always heats up water from
bellow, so that it can rise and cold water can
replace it. If the heating element is placed above,
only the water above it will heat up and water
below it remains cold.
• Refrigerator: air at the top compartment of the
fridge is cooled. It becomes denser and falls
downwards. Air already bellow will not be as
cold so it will rise, creating a convectional
current. It continues until all the air inside is of
the same temperature.
• Convection causes wind to blow. When sun
shines on land it heats up the air above it. Hot air
becomes less dense and rises. Colder air in the
vicinity blows towards that hot region.
Other examples:
1. Radiator/ heater in a room:
A room heater is always placed on the floor
as it warms the air above it which rises and
colder air near it flows towards the heater
creating a convectional current. It also
radiates heat in all direction. It does NOT
warm the room by conduction.
Thick arrows show radiation.
Its Curved arrows show convectional currents.
2. Thermos Flask:
It is an insulated conductor to keep the liquid inside it
warm.
Thick insulation on the walls or vacuum between the
inner and outer surfaces prevent conduction.
Shinny inner walls prevent heat loss by radiation.
The cap of the flask prevents heat loss by convection.
3
Simple Kinetic molecular model of
matter.
Matter: Anything that is physical and can be touched or felt. Matter consists of atoms and molecules
(collectively called particles).
States of matter:
There are three basic states of mater:
Property Solids Liquids Gases
Molecular
arrangement.
Description of Particles (molecules) are Particles (molecules ) Particles (molecules)

arrangement closest to each other and further away from each furthest away from each
arranged in a fixed other, they may form other, no particular order.
pattern clusters and are
disordered.
Volume (at Fixed Fixed Depends on container,
fixed temp.) occupied the whole
container.
Shape Fixed Takes the shape of the Takes the shape of the
part of container it whole container.
occupies.
Compressibility Low (negligible) as not a Low (negligible) as not a Very high as large empty
lot spaces in between lot spaces in between spaces
molecules molecules
Mass Fixed mass as it depends Fixed mass as it depends Fixed mass as it depends
on no. of atoms/particles. on no. of atoms/particles. on no. of atoms/particles.
Intermolecular Strongest Weak, particles can slide Weakest.
forces. over layers of liquids.
Movement of Particles only vibrate in Particles vibrate and Particles vibrate and
particles random directions about a translate. translate the fastest.
fixed position.
Example 1:
1
Charles’ Law:
Temperature of a gas is dependent on the speed of movement of its molecules if volume
remains constant. (Charles law)
𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 ∝ 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔.
Boyle’s Law: Pressure is inversely proportional to

volume if the temperature of the gas remain constant.
𝟏
𝑷 ∝𝑽 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷 𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Figure 1 Two types Pressure and volume graph.
Pressure of a gas:
As molecules of a gas are constantly moving, they collide with the walls of the container and
exert a force on the surface area of the walls of the container. This force per unit area is called pressure.
Pressure dependence on various factors:

1. Pressure dependence on temperature: Particles absorb more
energy and vibrate faster, thus colliding with the walls more frequently
and increasing pressure.
2. Pressure dependence on no. of particles: If number of particles

in a container reduces, less no. of particles will collide with the walls
of the container, collisions less frequent so pressure reduced. (Volume
will remain constant).
Figure 2 Particles bombarding the walls of

3. Pressure In terms of Momentum: When molecules collide with
container.
the walls, they rebound off the surface so the direction of velocity
changes in a time interval of contact. This causes a change in momentum which causes a generation of
force. (ONLY FOR IGCSE).
Brownian motion: [1]

• Random or disordered movement of particles in a
fluid.
• This movement is a proof of the kinetic molecular
model.
• For example: smoke particles in air and a dissolving
purple crystal (the color swirls).
Figure 3 Brownian motion
2
Experiment to demonstrate Brownian

motion: [2]
Take a clear conical flask and pour some water in it.
Drop a few drops of ink in the water by using a
dropper. The ink is seen to swirl in unpredictable
patterns. This is because the ink particles collide with
the particles of water.
Figure 4 Brownian motion in liquids.
Experiment to demonstrate
Brownian motion of smoke
particles: [3]
Place a smoking splinter of wood in a clear
glass chamber with a light source
illuminating it (lamp and a convex lens not
necessary). Observe using a telescope. The
smoke particles collide with the air particles
and move randomly in an unpredicted
manner.
Evaporation: [1] Conversion of a liquid to a

gas at any temperature by absorbing heat from its
surrounding.
Evaporation mechanism:
• Molecules at the surface, absorb heat energy
from the surrounding (no external heating
required).
• Vibrate faster and the molecules are able to
move apart from each other.
• Their intermolecular bonds break and the particles escape in the environment.
Example 2:
3
Distinction of evaporation from boiling:
• Evaporation can take place at any temperature, boiling only occurs at the boiling point.
• Evaporation takes place only on the surface of the liquid, boiling takes place throughout the
liquid.
• Evaporation leaves a cooling effect (Lowers temperature of the liquid) whereas temperature
remain constant during boiling.
Factors affecting evaporation:
1. Surface Temperature: If liquid is poured on a
hot body, it will absorb heat from the hot body
quickly and evaporate.
𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 ∝ 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
2. Surface area: If liquid is poured on a wider

surface, it will evaporate quicker as more number
of particles are closer to the surface of the liquid
so it can evaporate quicker.
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 ∝ 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
3. Wind (Draught): Moving air particles possess

kinetic energy. Air particles while moving above
the liquid, transfer their kinetic energy to the
particles of the liquid and help them escape from
the liquid (evaporation)
𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒅 ∝ 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
4. Viscosity (thickness) of liquid: More viscous
liquids do not evaporate quickly due to the stronger
forces between their layers.
𝟏
𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 ∝
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
5. Humidity: More humidity decreases the rate of
evaporation as air will already have a large amount of
water molecules present inside it.
𝟏
𝑯𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚 ∝
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Viscosity: Liquids have forces between

their layers which make them “thicker”.
This force prevents them from flowing
easily. For example liquids like honey
and cream are more viscous as their
layers cannot slide very easily over each
other. Liquids like petrol are very less
viscous that’s why they evaporate very
quickly.
4
General Properties of Waves
Wave: [2]
• Disturbance in a medium due to which energy is transferred from one place to another.
• Waves do not transfer medium particles, but only energy is transmitted from particle to
particle.
• E.g. sound waves, water waves.
Types of waves (in terms of medium needed):
i. Mechanical wave:
Those types of waves which need a material medium to travel through. E.g. water
waves (need water) and sound waves (need air)
ii. Electromagnetic waves:
Those types of wave which can travel through vacuum as well. E.g. Radio waves,
microwaves, infra-red, visible light.
Types of waves (in terms of vibrational direction of source):
i. Longitudinal waves:
o Source (and also
medium particles)
vibrate parallel to the
direction of the wave.
o E.g. sound waves in air.
o It can be demonstrated
in a spring. Attach a
spring to a rigid surface
and hold its free end.
Vibrate it back and
forth.
o Compression:[2]
That area on a longitudinal wave
where medium particles come closer
to each other/density of medium is
highest/ pressure of the gas is
highest.
o Rarefaction:[2]
That area on a longitudinal wave where medium particles move away from each
other/density of medium is lowest/ pressure of the gas is lowest.
o Wavelength: [2]
Distance between the centers of two consecutive compressions or rarefactions.
1
ii. Transverse waves:
o Source (and also medium particles) vibrate perpendicular to the direction of the
wave.
o E.g. water waves in water.
o It can be demonstrated in a spring or a string. Attach a spring or a string to a rigid
surface and hold its free end. Vibrate it up and down.
o Crest:[1]
That part of a transverse wave
which lies above the mean
position.
o Trough: [1]
That part of a transverse wave
which lies bellow the mean
position.
o Wavelength: [1]
Distance between the centers of two
consecutive crests or troughs.
Note: Distance between the beginning of the crest and
ending of the neighboring trough is also called a
wavelength. All these wavelengths are equal.
General properties of waves:
i. Time period: [1]
Time taken for a particle to complete one oscillation/vibration. Symbol, “T” and SI unit:
second(s).
ii. Frequency: [1]
1
Number of vibrations/oscillations in a second. 𝐹 = 𝐒𝐈 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭: Hertz (hz)
𝑇
It is always dependent on the source of the wave. It changes if only the vibration of
source changes. Otherwise it remains same.
iii. Wavelength: Distance between the centers of two consecutive crest or troughs or
compressions or rarefactions.
iv. Amplitude: [1]
Maximum displacement of a particle from its mean position
when a wave passes through it.
v. Speed of a wave:
Speed of transfer of energy is given by the wave equation: 𝒗 = 𝒇 × 𝝀
Where “v” is speed (in m/s), “f” is frequency (in Hertz) and “λ” is wavelength (in
meters).
It is dependent on the medium of wave. It changes only if medium changes otherwise it
remains same.
2
Ripple Tank:
It is an experimental arrangement
used for demonstrating and
studying water waves.
o Dipper creates water waves.
o Light from the lamp passes
through the waves.
o Base of the tank is
transparent.
o Shadows of the waves are
Ripple tank.
created on the screen under
the tank.
o Wave-front:[1]
▪ Imaginary line drawn by
joining the in-phase particles
on parallel transverse waves.
▪ Distance between two lines is
equal to 1 wavelength. Drawing wave- fronts.
▪ It is just used to represent
waves.
▪ A line is drawn perpendicular to all wave-fronts
to show the direction of waves.
▪ All wave-fronts are perpendicular to each other
as shown.
Reflection of waves by using ripple tank:
When water waves travelling in water hit a rigid surface, All wave-fronts are perpendicular to the wave
the waves bounce back from the rigid surface at exactly direction and parallel to each other.
the same angle at which it had

originally fallen on the surface.
o Frequency of reflected wave is
unchanged (as source of the
wave is same).
o Speed of the wave will also
remain unchanged (as medium
of the wave will also not
change).
o Wavelength of the reflected
wave will also remain same as it Reflection of parallel wave-fronts and circular wave fronts from a surface.
depends on frequency and speed
(according to wave equation) which remains unchanged.
3
Refraction of waves by using ripple tank:

When water waves travelling in water enter a
region where the depth of water changes, the
speed of the wave and wavelength changes
o Frequency of refracted wave is
unchanged (as source of the wave is
same).
o Speed of the wave will be slower in
shallow water and faster in deeper water.
o Wavelength of the reflected wave will
change as it is dependent on speed of the
wave (from wave equation:𝑣 ∝ 𝜆).
Placement of a block inside the ripple tank can help us

observe diffraction.
Diffraction of waves: [1]

o Spreading of waves when the pass through an aperture or around an obstacle.
o The size of the aperture should be comparable to the wavelength of the wave to observe
wave diffraction
o Increasing the size of the aperture causes diffractions to be reduced and the wave-fronts
become less circular.
Diffraction of water waves.

Diffraction dependence on size of the gap.
4
O’Levels/IGCSE PHYSICS (5054)
Light and Lenses Key terms:
Incident ray:
Section I: Light That light ray which falls on a surface.
Light: [1] Normal line:
Imaginary line drawn perpendicular to
• It is an electromagnetic wave that has a wavelength between
the surface where light ray falls on it.
350nm to 750nm. It reaches the earth from sun even in the Reflected ray:
absences of a medium. That light ray which bounces off the
• It is a transverse wave. surface.
Incident angle: (Angle of incidence)
• It is the fastest entity in the universe with a speed of
That angle which the incident light ray
3.0 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 in vacuum. It can slow down in other media like makes with the normal.
glass and water. Reflected angle: (Angle of reflection)
• It is produced because of accelerating charged particles. That angle which the reflected light ray
makes with the normal.
• It always travels in a straight line and cannot bend without
interaction with an object (like mirrors or lenses or apertures).
• Light is represented by straight arrows called “rays”.
Reflection of light: [1]

• Whenever light falls on the surface of a
medium, it bounces back into the same medium.
• Reflection of light does not affect the frequency
(as it depends on source), speed (as it depends
on medium) or the wavelength (as it depends on
frequency and speed).
• Only direction of the wave changes due to
reflection.
• Laws of reflection:
o Incident angle, normal and reflected light
ray lie in the same plane.
o Incident angle is equal to the reflected
Reflection from regular surface and irregular
angle. surface.
• Reflection from a plain surface: If all incident light rays
are parallel, they remain parallel after reflection as well.
• Reflection from an irregular surface: Even if the incident light rays are parallel, they don’t remain
parallel after reflection.
• Reflection from a curved surface: Where light falls
Reflected light Tangent
on a curved surface, draw a tangent line at that point.
light
Draw normal line perpendicular to the tangent line.
• Reflection of light helps us see an image inside the
mirror. Incident light Normal
• Light rays are reflected in all directions but only the
ones which reach our eye help us see an object.
• We need only two light rays to locate the position of the image inside the mirror.
1
Drawing ray diagrams in a plane mirror:
1. Measure a distance “d” from an extreme point of the object to
d
the mirror.
O
2. Measure the same distance inside the mirror. This is where the
same point on the image will be present.
3. Innitiate two light rays from this point on the image and
continue till the eye. These light rays should be diverging
(spreading out)
4. The part of the light ray that’s drawn inside the mirror should be
dotted and the part that is in air should be bold lines.
5. Where ligth rays were meeting the mirror, continue these light
rays to the same point on the real object. Outside Inside the
6. Draw normal lines on the mirror. the mirror mirror
Note: Light rays should be pointing away from the object and
Figure 1 Step 1
towards the eye.
d d d
O I O I O I
Outside Inside the Outside Inside the Outside Inside the

the mirror mirror the mirror mirror the mirror mirror
Figure 4 Step 5 and 6 Figure 3 Step 3 and 4 Figure 2 Step 2
Note: This image which is formed inside the mirror has some
properties. Important:
1. Virtual image (as it is not actually present there, it only Whenever light is refracted, some part of it
appears to be there because light rays haven’t actually is reflected as well, but we don’t discuss it
entered the mirror), in refraction of light.
2. It will be upright (will have same orientation as the
object).
3. It will be of the same size as the object.
4. The image will be laterally inverted (left of the object is
seen on the right side and vice versa)
Refraction of light: [2]
• When light enters from one medium to another its speed
changes due to which it bends from its original path.
• It occurs only at the medium boundary.
• Types of transparent materials:
2
o Optically denser mediums: That medium in which speed of light is slower
o Optically rarer mediums: That mediums in which the speed of light is faster.
o For example: Speed of light in; air is 3.0 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 and in diamond is 1.24 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. This
means diamond is optically denser than air.
o All materials are optically denser than air. That means speed of light in every other medium is
slower than speed of light in air.
Refractive index: [1]
• Ratio between the speeds of light in air to the speed of light in a particular medium is called the
𝒄
refractive index of that medium .𝒏 =
𝒗
• In this equation “n” is refractive index, “c” is speed of light in air and “v” is the speed of light in that
medium whose refractive index we are calculating.
• It helps to determine how much bending will occur when light changes from one medium to another.
• A material with larger refractive index means it will bend the light more and make it slower inside it.
• It has no units as it is simply a ratio of similar things.
Laws of Refraction:
• Incident light, normal and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
• Snell’s Law [2]:
o Ratio between the sin of incident angle and sin of refracted angle is equal to a constant.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊̂
=𝒏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒓̂
Rules for drawing refraction of light rays:
• First of all, where light falls on the medium, draw the normal line.
• Try to identify if the light ray is going from less dense to more or vice versa.
• If light is going from less dense to denser medium, it will bend towards the normal (𝑖̂ > 𝑟̂ ) and if it is going
from denser to less dense medium (𝑟̂ > 𝑖̂) it will bend away from normal.
Actual path of light if no refraction occurred.

But as light is going from less dense medium (air) to
denser medium (glass) it bends closer to the normal.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
Snell’s Law: =𝒏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
Actual path of light if no refraction occurred.

But as light is going from denser medium (glass) to less dense medium (air) it bends away from
the normal.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝟏
Snell’s Law: =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝒏
3
Critical angle: [2]
• That value of incident angle is called critical when refracted light
ray travels along the boundary of the medium (OR refracted angle
has become 90o.)
• It can only be observed when light goes from denser to lighter
medium (NOT vice versa because for light to travel along the
boundary of the medium it needs to bend away from the normal
which happens only in the case of light going from denser to lighter.
• It is NOT a third type of angle. It is a particular value of incident
angle.
• Critical angle has a particular value for a particular medium and it
cannot change for that medium.
• It may be different for other mediums.
Critical angle formula:
Recalling Snell’s law for when light goes from denser to less dense medium
sin 𝑖 1
1. = …….. (1)
sin 𝑟 𝑛
2. As 𝑖̂ = 𝑐̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟̂ = 90°
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 𝟏 𝟏
3. Putting these values in (1) = => 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 = 𝒏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎 𝒏
𝟏
4. 𝒄 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 { } Where n is the refractive index.
𝒏
Total Internal reflection: [2]
• When light falls on lighter medium from a denser medium at an
angle greater than critical angle, it starts to reflect back into the same
medium.
• It can ONLY be observed when light goes from denser to lighter
medium.
Describe an experiment to demonstrate total

internal reflection: [3]
1. Place the ray box closer to the curved side of a semi-circular glass block such that the light falls on it
perpendicularly and moves in without bending up until the flat surface of the glass block.
2. Light is seen to refract outwards (away from the normal).
3. The incident angle is increased and the light ray is seen to bend towards the surface of the block until the light
travels along the boundary of the medium.
4. Incident angle is increased just a little bit more. The light starts to reflect back into the glass.
4
Uses of Refraction:
1. Optical fiber:
• It is a flexible transparent material used to
transmit information from one place to another
by using light rays.
• It works on the principle of total internal
reflection.
• Light is made to enter the fiber at such an
incident angle that when it falls on the boundary
of the fiber, it makes an angle greater than the
critical angle. Light continues to reflect totally
internally along the length of the fiber.
• It has a transparent inner core (greater refractive
index) and another layer outside called cladding
(of smaller refractive index).
• Total internal reflection is efficient, faster
method of information transfer and no/little loss
of energy takes places.
• It is used in medical field to view the internal structures of organs (endoscopy). [3]
Optical fibers are inserted in the body with a little camera and a source of light at the end. Light reflects
from the internal walls and gets reflected and travels along the length of the fiber out of the body and into a
computer that displays an image of the insides of the organ.
2. Periscope:
• It is used to view outside the submarine when it is
under water.
• It consists of two right angled triangular prisms on
which light enters at such an angle that it gets totally
internally reflected twice (once from each prism)
until it reaches the eye.
3. Lenses:
• A device made of plastic or glass used for bending
light.
• It uses refraction of light as a working principle.
• Artificial lenses are made of plastic or glass.
• Natural lenses are present inside eyes of living things
and they are flexible.
This is where T.I.R Takes place.
5
Section II: Lenses
Types of lenses:
i. Converging lenses (Convex):
These are the lenses which bend light rays inwards to gather them at a single
point.
They are thick from center and thin from the edges.
ii. Diverging lenses (Concave):
These are the lenses which bend the light rays outwards to spread
them away from a single point.
They are thin from center and thick from the edges.
Focal point (Principle Focus): [1]

• That point where parallel light rays meet (or appear to meet) after passing
through the lens
• Focal point of the lens is a fixed point, it cannot change until the thickness
of the lens changes.
• We use parallel light rays only to define the focal point.
• The distance between the center of the lens and the focal point is called
focal length [1].
• Focal length helps us to describe the bending ability of a lens i.e. lenses
with shorter focal length are thicker and they bend the light more.
1
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 ∝
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Note: An object that we try to see, has many light rays bouncing off its surface
and reaching the eyes. Only those light rays which enter the eye are used to make
an image of the object inside the eye. We only draw 3 light rays. Even 2 light rays
are enough to draw/ locate the image of the object.
Rules for drawing ray diagrams:

i. Ray no. 1: Always drawn from the tip of the object, parallel to the
principle axis, after it touches the lens, it passes through the focal
point. Principle axis:
An imaginary line drawn by connecting the

focal points with the center of the lens. It is
used as a reference for drawing object and
image on a ray diagram.
6
ii. Ray no. 2: Always drawn from the tip of the object and passes through the center of the lens without bending.
iii. Ray no. 3: Always drawn from the tip of the object and passes through the focal point first and then becomes
parallel to the principle axis after passing through the lens.
When all the rays are Combined:

• Image is formed where there light rays are meeting.
• As the light rays were coming from the top of the object
so where the light rays meet, the tip of image is
supposed to be formed.
• As the tail of the object was with the principle focus so
the tail of the image should also be with the principle
axis.
Properties of image:
1. Real: [1]
• An image which is formed when light rays actually
meet after passing through the lens.
• Real image is always formed on a screen.
• Real image will always be inverted.
Real, inverted and magnified
2. Inverted:
An image is inverted if it is formed in the opposite
orientation to that of the object. E.g. if an object is placed on the left side of the lens above the principle axis and
if an image is formed on the right hand side and below the principle axis- it is inverted.
7
3. Virtual image: [1]
• An image which is formed where light rays don’t
actually meet but they appear to meet at a point after they
have been extended backwards.
• Not formed on a screen.
• Always upright. Virtual, upright and magnified.
4. Upright:
An image is upright if it is formed in the same orientation to that Image location in a biconcave lens:
of the object. E.g. if an object is placed on the left side of the Same rules apply. Only the light ray can’t
lens above the principle axis and if an image is formed on the
bend inwards so it diverges enough so that if
same side- it is upright.
extended backwards, it passes through the
focal point.
5. Magnified/ enlarged:
If the size of image is bigger than the size of the object it is said
to be magnified.
6. Diminished:
If the size of the image is smaller than the size of the object it is
said to be diminished.
Notes:
• An image can be either real or virtual but not both.

• An image can be either upright or inverted but not both.
• An image can be either magnified or diminished but not both.
Linear Magnification: [1]

• Ratio between the size of the image and size of the object.
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐼
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂
• It has no units (as it is a ratio of two lengths).
Uses of a converging lens:

1. Use of a converging lens as a magnifying glass: [1]
Place the object somewhere between the lens and focal point.
A virtual, upright and magnified image is formed
2. Use of a converging lens in a photograph

enlarger: [1]
Place the object between f and 2f.
A real, inverted and magnified image is formed.
8
3. Use of a converging lens in a camera: [1]
Place the object beyond 2f.
A real, inverted and diminished image is formed.
Human eye:
• Human eye has a converging lens inside it.
• Light from an object enters through the opening
called pupil, passes through the lens and
converges on a screen called retina.
• While trying to look at an object placed far away,
the ciliary body muscles contract and pulls the
lens to make it thin so that the focal length
becomes large.
• While trying to look at an object placed nearby,
the ciliary body muscles relax and the lens
becomes thick so that focal length becomes
small.
Defects of vision:
1. Short sightedness (myopia):[1]
• It is the inability of the eye to focus on objects placed far
away.
• Lens becomes permanently thick.
• Focal length becomes permanently small.
• Lens bends the light more than necessary.
• Image is formed between lens and retina so it is not clear.
• Image is corrected by using a biconcave lens to compensate
for the excessive bending due to the natural lens.
2. Long sightedness (hyperopia):[1]

• It is the inability of the eye to focus on objects placed close to it.
• Lens becomes permanently thin.
• Focal length becomes permanently large.
• Lens bends the light less than needed.
• Image is formed beyond retina so it is not clear as right rays don’t
meet on the retina.
• Image is corrected by using a biconvex lens to compensate for the
insufficient bending due to the natural lens.
9
Electromagnetic spectrum
Spectrum:
Collection of similar things arranged according to a property. E.g. clothes in a wardrobe arranged
according to color or weather etc. A height wise line in a school assembly is also an example of a
spectrum.
Electromagnetic waves:
• Those waves which do not require a medium to travel.
• They are always transverse.
• They all have the same speed in air/vacuum (3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠).
• They may have different speeds in different media.
• They all obey the principles of diffraction, interference (not in syllabus).
• They are produced by acceleration of charge particles, combustion, nuclear reactions or other
similar reactions.
• Waves with a shorter wavelength (and high frequency) are more energetic. I.e. Gamma rays are
the most energetic as compared to the others as they have the shortest wavelength.
Example:
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
A collection of all the (7) electromagnetic waves, arranged according to either increasing wavelength
and decreasing frequency or decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency.
1
Example:
Uses of electromagnetic waves:
1 Radio-waves Used in broadcasting and telecommunication.

2 Microwaves Used in cooking and Satellite communication.
3 Infrared Used in intruder alarms, remote controls, night vision
cameras.
4 Visible light Used in projectors, cameras.
5 Ultra-violet Used in sun tanning, killing bacteria,
6 X-rays Detecting cracks in metals and pipes and fractures in
bones.
7 Gama rays Used in detecting and curing cancers. Also used in
detecting cracks in metals and pipes.
Example:
Note:
All the electromagnetic radiations (especially X-rays and gamma rays) are dangerous if body is exposed
to them very frequently or for large amounts of time as they can damage the human organs.
2
Dispersion of white light:
• When light enters from one medium to another, it refracts i.e. it slows down.
• All E.M. Waves do not slow down exactly the same amount.
• Waves with larger wavelengths will slow down the least, i.e. they have the highest speed in the
medium.
• Waves with smaller wavelengths will slow down more, i.e. they have low speed in the
wavelength.
• White light consists of seven different colors.
Example:
Dispersion of white light by prism:

• Beam of white light is made to be incident on a prism.
• Light rays refract towards the normal as light is entering from less dense to denser medium.
3
• Red light bends less as it has the largest wavelength whereas violet bends the most as it has
the smallest wavelength.
• All other colors bend accordingly as well.
• When they separate, the go on and hit the other side of the prism. Going from denser to less
dens medium, the bend away from normal.
*black lines are normal lines.
4
Sound.
Definition:
• Sound is a type of longitudinal, mechanical wave which is produced due to vibrations in a
medium.
• Sound has different speeds in different mediums.
Characteristics of a longitudinal wave:
• Source vibrates back and forth.
• In a longitudinal wave Medium particles are forced
to come closer at some areas (compressions) and
are forced apart at other areas (rarefactions).
• Distance between the centers of a
compression/rarefaction is called wavelength.
Sound wave in air:
• The air, in that region where no sound is travelling, is at normal atmospheric pressure.
• When sound wave travels through this
medium, particles come closer in some
regions and move apart in some regions
alternatively.
• Pressure at regions C is higher than the
atmospheric pressure and at R regions
pressure is lower than the atmospheric
pressure.
• If a graph is plotted of pressure against
the displacement along the length of the
wave, it looks like this.
Production of sound using tuning fork:
• When tuning forks are struck, their prongs move inwards
and outwards alternatively.
• When the prongs move outwards (b), they force the air
molecules closer, thus creating a high pressure region
called compression.
• When they move inwards (c), air gets more space to
expand and occupy the region, thus moving apart and
creating low pressure regions called rarefactions.
1
Echo:
• Echo is defined as the reflection of sound from a rigid surface.
• Extra: Echo is heard from a reflecting distance of 17m. (If you speak in a room and are able to hear
your echo, this means that sound underwent multiple reflections and traveled a distance of more
than 17m). Time taken for sound to travel these 17m is the actually equal to the response time of
our ear. After this time interval our ear is able to decipher between two separate times.
• If multiple surfaces are present, sound can reflect from all surfaces.
Experiment to determine speed of sound in air: [4-5]
Stand a certain distance (𝑑 ≈ 50𝑚) away from a rigid
surface. A person claps his hands together once. The person
beside him starts the stopwatch right when he heard the
sound and stops it when he hears it again. Extra: This is the
time interval that sound took to go and get reflected from the
2𝑑
rigid surface. Use 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = to calculate speed. d
𝑡
Speed of sound in different media:

• Speed of sound is the fastest in solids as its molecules
are closer to each other and the conduction of energy
from one particle is easier and quicker.
• Speed of sound is slowest in gases as particles in a gas
are far apart
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒔 > 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅𝒔 > 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒔
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
5000 1500 300 (Estimated values)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
Experiment to prove the mechanical nature of sound:

Switch on the electronic stopwatch inside the bell jar. We can
see it vibrate and hear the sound. Vacuum pump is switched
on. The sound of the bell is heard to fade until it reaches a
state where we can only see it vibrate but we can’t hear it.
Extra: Letting air back in will confirm that we hear a sound
when air is present.
Audible Frequency Range:
• That range of frequencies which a normal
human ear can hear and interpret.
20𝐻𝑧 𝑡𝑜 20,000𝐻𝑧
• It is different for different animals.
Factors affecting audible frequency range:
Health, Mental alertness, Age, Condition of ear, etc.
2
Ultrasounds:
• Sounds which have frequencies greater than the audible frequency range for humans.
• Extra: Silent whistles are used for training dogs because dogs are able to listen to the sound waves
produced by a silent whistle as their audible frequency range is greater than humans.
• Extra: Infrasound is sound waves of frequencies less than human audible frequency range.
Elephants can listen to them as their audible range starts lesser than humans.
Uses of ultrasounds:
• Ultrasounds are used for medical imaging and prenatal scanning (study of soft tissues present inside
the body like those of an unborn fetus.)
• Ultrasounds are used for dissolving blood clots formed inside the arteries.
• Sound navigation and ranging. (used for predicting weather and rain patterns)
• Used for estimating the depth of sea bed.
• Ultrasounds are used for cleaning surfaces.
Use of ultrasounds in medical imaging: [3]
• Ultrasounds are made to be incident on the affected area of the
body.
• Ultrasounds reflect with different intensities from different layers
(e.g. fat, skin, muscles).
• A computer makes a picture according to this difference in
frequencies.
Use of ultrasounds for finding depth of ocean: [3]
• Ultrasounds are emitted from the transmitter on a ship which also
triggers a stopwatch.
• When ultrasounds hit the seabed the get reflected and are received
at the receiver on the ship which also switches off the stopwatch.
• Speed of sound in seawater is known and the depth of ocean is
2𝑑
calculated by using the formula 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = where “d” is the depth
𝑡
of the ocean.
Uses of ultrasounds for cleaning: [3]
• Ultrasounds are mechanical waves so they cause vibration in the particles of medium.
• Ultrasounds are made to be incident on the surface that needs to be cleaned which causes vibration.
• Vibrations can result in removal of dust and killing of bacteria.
3
Characteristics of sounds:
Three major characteristics on the basis of which we can

differentiate sounds.
i. Loudness:
Property on the basis of which loud and low
sounds are differentiated.
Loudness is a feeling. If we want to measure
(quantize) it we need amplitudes.
𝑳𝒐𝒖𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝜶 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆
ii. Pitch:
Property on the basis of which shrill and grave
Figure 1 Loudness is dependent on amplitude
sounds are differentiated.
Pitch is a feeling. If we want to measure
(quantize) it we use frequency. Figure 2
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝜶 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
iii. Quality: It is the property on the basis of which
we can differentiate between two sounds
having pitch and loudness. It is seen from a
pressure against time graph only. It is not
measured. Figure 2 Pitch is dependent on frequency
4
Static Electricity.
Charge: [1]
Efficiency or deficiency of an electron on a body.
SI unit: Coulombs (C)
Structure of atom:
• A dense mass in the center called “nucleus” is present.
• Nucleus has two types of particles:
i. Neutrons: Neutral particle. Net charge is zero
ii. Protons: Positively charges particle.
• Negatively charged particles are revolving around the atom.
• They are equal to the positive charges inside the nucleus.
Net charge= 3protons + 3 electrons +4 Neutrons
= (+3) + (-3) + 0 - 0
Note:
• All atoms are neutral. This means they have equal positive and negative charges.
• If an atom loses an electron, it has a net positive charge.
• If an atom gains electron, it has net negative charge.
• Like charges repel, opposite charges attract.

Neutral objects don’t attract or repel.
1
Insulators: [1]
• Those materials which DONOT have free
valence shell electrons.
• E.g. Plastics and wood.
Conductors: [1]
• Those materials which have free valence shell
electrons.
• E.g. Metals
Important Note:
• ONLY negative charges (electrons) can be
removed OR given to charge an object.
• POSITIVE CHARGES DO NOT MOVE as they
have a very large mass and they are present
INSIDE the nucleus!
Charging an insulator:
• An insulator like “plastic” can be charged by
simply holding it and rubbing it with a piece of
silk cloth.
• All materials have equal positive and negative
charge. When they are rubbed together one
material loses electrons to become positively
charged. The other gains electron to become
negatively charged.
Charging a conductor:
• We cannot charge a conductor by holding it in our hand rubbing it.
• Our body is a good conductor of charges (as it has a ions inside).
• Our body is connected to Earth, which is like a bank of electrons. i.e. It can take electrons and also give
electrons when needed.
• We cannot charge a conductor by holding it in our hand rubbing it. If any charge develops on it,
electrons can flow through our body to neutralize it.
Electrostatic induction: (Production of static charge on a conductor)
• Place a metal sphere on an
insulating stand.
• Bring a charged object near it.
It causes positives and
negatives to separate.
• Connect the sphere with earth
by using a conducting wire.
Charge particles which are free
get neutralized by either accepting or donating electrons to the Earth.
• Earth wire is removed.
• Charged object is removed.
• Charge on the sphere repels each other and spreads out evenly over the surface of the object.
2
Note: During the process of electrostatic induction, first remove the Earth wire and then remove the
charged object. Otherwise the charge from earth will flow straight back to the object and neutralize it
again.
Charging two objects by electrostatic induction:
Electric-field: [2] Unit Positive Charge: (Test charge)

• Area around a charged particle, inside which • An imaginary object which is considered to
another charge experiences a force. have positive charge of 1 unit magnitude.
• This force is represented by an arrow which points • It is very small.
away from positive charge and towards negative. • It does not affect other charges.
• It is represented by using electric-field lines. • It is used for making Electric-field lines/
Electric line of forces.
Electric-field lines: [2] • THERE IS NO UNIT NEGATIVE
• An imaginary line drawn around a charge particle CHARGE.
which indicates the direction of force exerted by
this object on an imaginary object called unit
positive charge (or test charge).
Electric-field line patterns:
1. Isolated Positive charge: Field lines always
away from positive as if a test charge is placed close to
the positive charge it will move away from the centre.
2. Isolated negative
charge: Field lines always point
towards the centre of a negative
charge as if a test charge is placed
close to the negative charge it will
move towards the centre.
3
3. Positive and negative charges (dipole) kept close to each other.
• Field lines will always move away from the
positive and towards the negative.
• Equal number of field lines should point
away from positive and towards negative.
• Lines should never cross each other.
4. Like charges kept close to each other.

Note: Electric field pattern for two negative charges
will also be same, but field lines will point towards the
charges.
Applications of electrostatics:
1. Photocopy/ Xerography.
• A scanner scans a paper and saves in the
memory where words are present on the
paper.
• Drum is charged positive according to the
words stored in the memory.
• Negatively charged Toner (dry ink) is
sprinkled on the drum. It sticks where the
charge was present on the drum.
• Drum is rolled on a highly positively
charged paper. Negatively charged toner
sticks to the correct places. On the paper.
• Paper is heated so that the ink sticks on it.
2. Electrostatic Precipitator.
• Smoke containing exhaust gases are made to
pass through a metal grid. This charges the
harmful particles inside the gas.
• The charged gas is made to pass through the
oppositely charged plates which attracts the
harmful particles.
• Less harmful/clean air is released in the
environment.
3. Electrostatic painting.
• Surface which needs to be painted is
charged. (Let’s say positively charged).
• Paint in the nozzle is oppositely charged
(negative).
4
• Instead of spreading away, the charged paint
droplets are attracted towards the surface.
Advantage:
• Even coating.
• No wastage of paint.
• More coverage.
Consequences of electrostatics and solutions:

1. Fuel tankers:
Fuel tankers when moving, due to air
friction, they may develop charge on
the tanker. This may cause spark and
may cause fire.
Solution:
The tankers are connected with
ground by using metal chains or
wires to discharge the body of the tanker. This allows developed charge to flow to the earth.
2. Lightening:
• Clouds are floating in the sky. Clouds rub against each
other.
• Due to friction clouds get charged.
• When it comes close to a tall building or ground, it
causes an opposite charge to be induced on it.
• If the charge is too much, it may cause the air between
the cloud and ground to be ionized.
• Ionized air allows charge to flow from cloud to earth.
This is called lightening.
Solution:
A metal rod connected with Earth by using a wire is mounted on the
buildings to allow the charges from lightening to flow to the ground.
This prevents damage to the building.
5
Basic phenomena of Magnetism
Magnets:
• Magnets are objects which have the ability to apply a force on objects like themselves or certain metals.
• All magnets apply a force in a region around them called a magnetic field.
• All magnets have two poles; North and South poles. Like poles
(North-North and South-South) repel each other whereas
unlike poles attract.
• Magnets can attract magnetic materials (such as Iron, steel,
Nickel and Cobalt) by inducing temporary or long lasting poles
inside them (magnetic induction).
• Magnets apply no force on non-magnetic materials (such as
wood, plastic).
• Earth itself is the largest magnet on Earth. Northern
hemisphere of Earth is actually the magnetic south of Earth and
vice versa.
• If a magnet is hung such that it is free to rotate inside magnetic field it will always come to rest such that
its north will point towards the North-pole of the Earth.
Describe an experiment to prove
that like poles repel and unlike
poles attract: [1]
Hang a bar magnet freely by using a
thread and bring a magnet closer to
one end of the hanged magnet.
Types of magnets:
• Permanent magnets: Magnets which occur naturally in the Earth’s crust. They produce magnetic
properties due to natural alignment of domains. They may lose their magnetic strength over time by
a small ratio every few hundred years.
• Temporary magnets: Those materials in which magnetic properties were induced artificially. They
may lose their magnetic properties quickly (iron) or over long periods of times (steel). It depends on
the material and procedure used to magnetize them.
• Electromagnets: Those materials in which magnetic properties are created due to a flowing current.
Methods of inducing Magnetism in materials:

1. Stroking a material with a magnet:
Opposite pole is induced on that end where the magnet
loses connection with the material which is being
magnetized. E.g. when stroked anticlockwise with the
north of the permanent magnet a south is induced in the
right end of the magnet and vice versa.
Note: In order to create a stronger magnet, number of strokes should be increased.
1
2. Connecting with a magnet:
When a magnetic material is brought closer to a magnet, opposite pole is created on the end
which is closest to the magnet. As shown in the diagram.
Note: The clip closer to the magnet is more strongly attached as compared to the last clip.
3. Placing inside a solenoid of wire containing current.
When a magnetic material is placed inside a current carrying solenoid that material becomes
magnetized. This is the nature of moving charges that they produce magnetic effect.
Note:
• Magnetic-field produced due to current is found by using Solenoid:
right hand “grip” rule. (Discussed in the next chapter) A wire wound around into a spring like
• If two rods of magnetic material are placed inside a structure is called a solenoid.
solenoid they always repel each other because same
poles are produced in the adjacent ends of the rods which
repel
Magnetic Fields:
• Area around a magnet inside which another
magnet (or some metals) experiences a
force.
• Magnetic-field is represented by lines
(called magnetic field lines) which
represent the force on a north of pole of
another smaller magnet due to the first
magnet.
• Magnetic-field is strongest near the magnet
(where field lines are closest to each other)
and it gets weaker as we move away from
the magnet (where field lines are further away from each other).
Describe an experiment to determine the magnetic-field pattern of a bar magnet: [2]

Place a bar magnet under a piece of paper and then
sprinkle iron fillings on top of the paper. The iron
fillings get arranged in the pattern as shown in the
diagram.
Note:
• Iron fillings are closest to each other near the
ends of the magnet. Here the field is
strongest.A solenoid with a current in it also
has an identical magnetic-field as a bar magnet.
2
Describe an experiment to determine the Magnetic compass:
direction of magnetic-field: [3]
Place a bar magnet in a piece of paper and place a A small light weight piece of a magnet is
magnetic compass near one end of the magnet. The pivoted in the center such that it is free to
needle fluctuates and comes to rest. Make a mark rotate due to external magnetic-fields.
on the piece of paper by using a pencil where the The pivot should be smooth so that the
North of the needle is pointing. Keep displacing compass is sensitive to small magnetic-fields
the needle beyond the mark until the compass
reaches the south pole of the magnet. Join the dots
to create a magnetic field line.
Note: The north pole of the needle will always
point away from the north of the magnet.
as well.
The needle itself is the tiny light weight piece

of magnet. Red end of the needle is North-
pole.
Soft magnetic materials:

Materials which can be magnetized very quickly and loses magnetic properties very easily as well.
(E.g. iron). It is used where very quick magnetization and demagnetization is needed (e.g. in a
transformer core.)
Hard magnetic materials:

Materials which cannot be magnetized very quickly but once magnetized they retain their magnetic
properties for a long time. (E.g. steel). It is used where delayed magnetization and demagnetization is
needed (e.g. in a semi-permanent magnet.)
Magnetic domains:
• Atoms inside a material behave like tiny magnets due to movements of electrons. This magnetic
effect is represented by an arrow and a
bunch of such arrows is called a domain.
• When they are randomly aligned, the
material does not have any magnetism
but when they are forced into pointing in
a single direction by external magnetic-
field, the material becomes magnetized.
Note: Strength of the magnetization
depends upon how much of the domains
are aligned.
3
Demagnetization:
The process of removing magnetic properties from a magnetized material is called demagnetization.
1. Hammering: When a magnetic material is hammered the domains which were initially aligned will
absorb energy and vibrate back to their initial (scattered) positions.
2. Heating: When a magnetic material is heated the domains which were initially aligned will absorb
energy and vibrate back to their initial (scattered) positions.
3. Pulling out of a solenoid connected to Alternating current: Alternating current keeps changing
its direction so the domains will not get enough chance to be aligned in any specific direction.
Note: Instead of pulling out, the AC current can slowly be reduced to zero as well.
Magnetic Shielding:
Placing magnetically sensitive materials inside an
iron shell to prevent external magnetic fields from
reaching the sensitive device.
Note: As iron is a soft magnetic material, it tries to
retain the magnetic field inside itself.
Devices which use magnets:

1. Galvanometers
2. Magnetic door-catcher.
3. Video takes. (magnetic strips inside cassettes)
4. Electric-bell
5. Magnetic relay.
6. Reed switch.
4
Current Electricity
𝑄
Current: [1] Rate of flow of charges. Or Amount of charge flowing per unit time. 𝐼 = 𝑡 SI unit:
Ampere (A). Other Units: milli-Ampere and Micro-Ampere. Measured by ammeter.
Conventional current: Flow of positive charge

from positive terminal of the battery to the
negative terminal of the battery.
Electronic current: Flow of electrons from

negative terminal of the battery to positive
terminal of the battery.
Note: Ammeter is always connected inside the
loop i.e. in series with other electrical
components.
Electro-Motive force: [2] Energy supplied per unit charge to drive it throughout the circuit.
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝑬. 𝒎. 𝒇 = SI unit: Volts (V).
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
Note: E.M.F is supplied by a battery.
Potential Difference: [2] Work done by the battery per unit charge to move a charged
𝑾
particle between any two points inside an electrical circuit. 𝑽 = SI unit: Volts (V)
𝑸
Note: Voltage is consumed inside an electrical component like resistor or lamp.
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Volt: Amount of energy consumed per unit charge. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Cell: Basic unit of production of electrical energy. It uses the process of electrolysis to
produce energy. Combination of cells is called a battery.
Combination of cells:
i. Series combination: When cells are
attached end to end, they form a series
combination. This way, a battery of
larger E.M.F can be formed. E.M.F
gets added in series.
ii. Parallel Combiantion: When same sides of cells are
attached, they form a parallel combination. This way,
a battery of larger life can be formed. E.M.F remains
same as that of a single cell.
1
Ohm’s Law: [2] If temperature and other external factors remain constant (this means
resistance is constant), then the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage applied across it.
𝑉∝𝐼 𝑉 = 𝑹𝐼
Current-Voltage graphs of components:
Note: Gradient of a current-voltage graph is equal to reciprocal of resistance. If you

want to calculate resistance from an I-V graph, calculate gradient and then take
reciprocal.
Describe an experiment to verify ohm’s law/Calculate the resistance of a resistor:
[4]
◦ Arrange the apparatus as shown.
◦ Switch it on. Note the voltage on the voltmeter and current on ammeter.
◦ Increase the voltage supply from the battery at regular intervals and keep noting
down the ammeter and voltmeter reading. Obtain several sets of readings.
◦ Plot a graph with V on y-axis and I on x-axis.
◦ Calculate the gradient and then take reciprocal.
Resistance:
It is the hindrance presented in the path of moving electrons.
SI unit is Ohm (Ω).
Factors affecting resistance:
i. 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙 Longer wires will have higher resistance.
1
ii. 𝑅 ∝ Thicker wires have less resistance.
𝐴
𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝑅∝ 𝑅= 𝜌 is called resistivity and it is material dependent. Remains same
𝐴 𝐴
for a single type of material.
Combinations of resistors:
i. Series combination:
Total resistance of a
series combination is the
sum of all the
resistances. RT = R1+ R2+R3…
2
VERY IMPORTANT: Every resistor gets same current in series
(IT=I1=I2=I3…). Total voltage supplied to the resistors is equal to the sum of
voltage consumed in individual resistors. (VT= V1+ V2+ V3…)
ii. Parallel combination:
Reciprocal of the Total resistance of a parallel
combination of resistors is equal to the sum of
reciprocals of the resistances.
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
VERY IMPORTANT: Every resistor gets
same voltage in parallel (VT=V1=V2=V3…). Total current supplied to the
resistors is equal to the sum of currents passing through individual resistors.
(IT= I1+ I2+ I3…).
Circuit Symbols:
3
D.C. Circuits.
Rules for drawing correct circuit diagrams:
1. Switch will control all the devices attached after

it.
e.g.
• Switch A is present in the outermost
loop so it will control all the lamps.
• Switch C is present only in the top
branch so it will control only the lamp
A.
• Switch B is present in the lower branch
so it will control only the lamp B
2. Ammeter may be attached anywhere in the series circuit. It

will tell the total current. All ammeters in the circuit on the
right will give the same reading (As current remains same
in a series circuit.).
3. Ammeters when attached inside a parallel circuit they will

only tell the current flowing through that particular branch
of the circuit. Ammeter 1 and 4 are present in the outer
most loop so they will have equal reading. Ammeter A2
and A3 are present in separate loop so they will have
different readings. (Note: they can have equal reading as
well if the lamps have equal resistance.)
4. Total current in the parallel circuit is equal to the sum of currents in each branch.
I1=I2+I3 and also =I4
5. Whenever solving for total current of a circuit, we need to first calculate the total
resistance of the circuit.
E.g.
For total current first find

total resistance.
Rt= R1+R2= 2+3=5
I = V/R = 12/5 = 2.4A
6. For a mixed circuit always add the inner most resistors first.
E.g.
Step 2: Then add this 2 Ω resistor

attached in series with the
combination of 4Ωresistors.
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 2 + 2 = 4𝛺
Step 1: First add these two 4 Ω

resistors which are attached in
parallel to each other.
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 4 4
1 2 4
= => 𝑅𝑡 = = 2𝛺
𝑅𝑡 4 2
7. Exam tip: If two equal resistors are connected in parallel then their combined resistance
will be equal to half of 1 of the resistors. If three equal resistors are connected in parallel
then total resistance is equal one-third of the total resistance and so on.
Total resistance = 6/2= 3Ω
Practical Electricity.
Potential Divider:
A series circuit is called potential divider as the voltage in the circuit gets divided in series
circuit. Larger resistor gets larger share of the total voltage whereas the smaller resistor gets the
smaller share of the total voltage of the battery. Current through all resistors in series will be
same always.
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹 × 𝑽𝒕 ; 𝑽𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹 × 𝑽𝒕
𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑 𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟑
𝑽𝑹𝟑 = 𝑹 × 𝑽𝒕
𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑
Variable resistor:
Upon increasing the resistance of the variable resistor,
Vt the voltage consumed inside it will also increase, so the
reading on voltmeter Q will also increase resulting in
less voltage to remain available for the fixed resistor so
the reading on the voltmeter P will become smaller as
the fixed resistor will consume less voltage.
LDR: (Light Dependent Resistor):

𝟏
A device whose resistance is inversely proportional to the light falling on it. 𝑹𝑳𝑫𝑹 ∝ 𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Action of an LDR in a potential divider (street lamps and light sensitive switches):
Case 1: In-case of bright light during the day, resistance of LDR

will be low so it uses less voltage so the lamp also gets low
voltage (as it is in parallel) so it may not switch on or if it does,
it glows dimly.
Case 2: In-case of darkness during the night, resistance of LDR

will be high, so it uses more voltage so the lamp also gets high
voltage (as it is in parallel) so it glows brightly.
Thermistor:
A device whose resistance is inverversely proportional to the temperature. It can be used in heat
sensitive circuits like fire-alarms and
thermostats.
Case 1: In-case of low temperature, resistance of
Action of a thermistor in a fire alarm: thermistor will be high so it uses more voltage so the
fixed resistor and hence the buzzer gets low voltage
(as it is in parallel) so it may not switch on or if it
does, the sound is very low.
Case 2: In-case of high temperature, resistance of

thermistor will be low so it uses less voltage so the
fixed resistor and hence the buzzer get high voltage
(as it is in parallel) so the buzzer will produce a high
sound.
Potentiometer:
It consists of a wire of length “L” and a resistance R. It also consists another device attached
parallel to the wire with a movable contact. The voltmeter shows the voltage consumed in the A
to C part of the wire. As the movable contact (C) is moved from A towards B the voltmeter gets
connected across a greater length of the wire thus the voltage on the voltmeter will be greater
(𝐴𝑠 𝑅 ∝ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙). Potentiometer can be used as a variable power supply as well, just by
replacing the voltmeter with the circuit which requires a variable power source.
Potentiometer formula:
Vt
𝒍
𝑽= × 𝑽𝒕
L 𝑳
A B
l C
V
Uses of Electricity:
• Current carries electrical energy from battery, moves through the wires, supplies the energy to
the devices and then energy-less charges move back to the battery.
• Electrical energy can be used to produce light energy by using devices like lamps and discharge
tubes. Greater the voltage brighter the lamp.
• Electrical energy can be used to produce sound energy by using devices like electric bells and
speakers. Greater the voltage louder the sound.
• Electrical energy can be used to produces mechanical energy by using devices like motors.
Greater the voltage faster the speed of rotation.
Electrical Power:
𝑬
Electrical energy consumed per unit time. 𝑷 = 𝒕 SI unit: Watt (W)
𝑉2
Other formulas: 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 𝑃= 𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
Kilo-watt Hour:
It is a practical unit of electrical energy consumed. 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 (𝐤𝐖𝐡) = 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 (𝐤𝐖) × 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 (𝐡𝐫)
Cost of electricity: After finding the total number of kWh consumed, multiply it with the cost of kWh.
Hazards of electricity:
1. All electrical wires have plastic insulation on them to
prevent electric shock. If the insulation gets damaged
then the inner copper core will be exposed which may
be a shock hazard.
Prevention: use wires in favorable conditions and
avoiding bending the wires too much. Use thicker
insulation.
2. If a large amount of current keeps flowing through
the wires, wires may heat up as well (due to their own
resistance). This may melt the plastic insulation and again
expose the inner copper core.
Prevention: avoid using any electrical device for long time
intervals. Use thicker insulation made of materials of
higher melting point.

3. If the electrical devices are operated by wet hands or damp
conditions, it may cause an electric shock as well because
moisture reduces the resistance of human skin. Upon
connection with a current carrying wire, charges may flow
through the wet skin into the ground creating the sensation of
an electric shock.
Prevention: Wear rubber shoes. Operate devices with dry
hands.
Types of wires:
1. Live wire: carries electrical charges from battery to device. It is
usually of red or brown color.
2. Neutral wire: carries charges from the device back to the
battery. It is usually of black or blue color.
3. Earth wire: incase if metallic body of a device become
connected to the live wire it may be dangerous. Earth wire is
used to connect that live metallic body to the earth so that
current flows to the earth instead of flowing through the human
body in case of a connection. Earth-wire is yellow and green
striped.
Fuse:
• A device made up of ceramic or glass coating which has a
wire inside made of alloys. That wire melts if a current of
greater value as compared to its current rating tries to flow
through it.
• Fuses need to be replaced once they “blow”.
• Fuses need to be attached in live wire.
• A fuse should have a rating at- least more than twice the
regular amount of current needed in a circuit.
• Fuses should be attached between the battery and device to
isolate the devices so that in case of a current surge, the large amount of current has to pass
through the fuse before reaching the device and fuse melts to prevent it from reaching and
damaging the device.
Fuse always in the live

wire.
Electromagnetism Dot and Cross notation:

Out of the page. Into the page.
Magnetic Effect of current:

• Whenever a current passes through a wire it creates a perpendicular magnetic field around it.
• This magnetic-field is circular and either clockwise or anticlockwise with no identifiable poles.
• Magnetic-field is stronger near the wire (field-lines are closer) and weaker away from the wire. (Field-
lines are further away.)
• Direction of magnetic-field is found by using right hand rule.
• Magnetic-field can be made stronger by increasing the current in the wire.
Right hand rule:
• Applied on a straight
current carrying wire.
• Thumb of right hand
should be in the direction
of current.
• Curl of fingers show the
direction of magnetic field
Two parallel current carrying wires:

When two parallel, current carrying wires are placed close to each other, they apply a force on each other
because the magnetic field of one wire interacts with the magnetic field of the other wire.
Case 1: Two wires having current in the same Case 2: Two wires having current in the
directions. opposite directions.
• Wire 1 has magnetic-field pointing into the page • Wire 1 has magnetic-field pointing into the page
in between the wires (by using right hand rule). in between the wires (by using right hand rule).
• Wire 2 has magnetic-field pointing out of the • Wire 2 has magnetic-field pointing into the page
page in between the wires (by using right hand in between the wires (by using right hand rule).
rule). • As magnetic-fields have same directions in
• As magnetic-fields have opposite directions in between the wires so they repel each other.
between the wires so they attract each other.
Note:
• Increasing the current in one or both the wires will result in the force getting stronger. i.e. 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
1
• Increasing the distance between the wires will decrease the force. i.e. 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝑑
1
Current flowing through a solenoid:
• When a wire is wound around a solenoid into a spring like
structure and current is allowed to flow through it, it behaves
like a bar magnet.
• Magnetic properties of such a solenoid can be switched on and
off by switching on and off the current flowing through it.
• If the direction of current is reversed, the direction of
magnetic-field will also be reversed. Right-hand “grip” rule:
• Magnetic-field of such a solenoid is identical to a bar magnet.
Hold the solenoid in such a way that
• Magnetic-field of solenoids is stronger inside the solenoid and
the fingers of the right hand are
very weak outside the solenoid.
pointing in the direction of current
• North Pole of such a solenoid is found by using right hand through the solenoid.
“grip” rule.
Thumb indicates the direction of
• Strength of such an electromagnet can be increased by
North-Pole.
increasing the current, increasing the number of turns and
increasing the size of soil.
• Placing a soft iron rod inside the solenoid will also increase
the field strength as iron is strongly magnetized.
Electromagnetic force on a current carrying wire when

placed inside magnetic field:
• When a wire carrying current is placed in between an external
magnetic field, it will experience a force which is
perpendicular to both the direction of current and the direction
of external magnetic-field.
Solenoid 1 Solenoid 2
• This force is produced due to interaction of external magnetic-
field with the magnetic-field produced around the wire due to Solenoid 1 will be a weaker magnet as
current inside it. compared to solenoid 2 if equal amount
• This force is found by using the Fleming’s Left hand Rule. of current flows through them as
• Amount of this force is directly proportional to the amount of solenoid 2 has larger number of turns.
current in the wire, strength of external magnets and length
of wire inside the magnetic field.
.
2
Force on a current carrying rectangular coil Fleming’s Left hand rule:
when placed inside magnetic field:
• Index finger should point in the
• When a rectangular coil, having current inside it, is direction of magnetic field.
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a couple of • Middle finger should point in the
forces (two forces in opposite directions) on two sides direction of current.
which are perpendicular to the magnetic field. • Thumb gives us the direction of force
• If the rectangular coil is pivoted, it will cause a turning produced on the wire.
effect in the coil. • All the fingers should be perpendicular
to each other.
• Magnetic-field and current should be
given already, force needs to be found.
• The coil will only rotate one quarter of a rotation,

because after one quarter, the forces will start acting
exactly at the pivot so turning effect becomes zero.
The coil cannot rotate beyond this orientation
because now the forces are exactly passing through
the axis of rotation so turning effect has become
zero.
Turning effect depends on force AND perpendicular
distance from pivot which in this case is zero. So
turning effect becomes zero.
DC motor:
• A device which works on direct current.
• It converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
• Consists of split-ring commutators; which is used
to reverse the direction of current in the coil after
every half rotation.
• After a quarter rotation the current in the sides is
reversed as the connections of commutators with
carbon brush is reversed which reverses the direction
of forces and hence causes the coil to complete its
rotation.
• Speed of rotation of the motor can be increased by;
increasing the number of turns on the coil, increasing the magnetic-field strength, by using larger
coils and increasing the current.
3
Note:
• The rectangular coil can be made on an iron core which generates a stronger magnetic-field due to current
and thus will also increase the speed of rotation.
• Carbon brushes are made of carbon because carbon is a conductor and a lubricant so the coil can rotate
easily by eliminating the frictional force between the split rings and the carbon brushes
.
Electric bell:
• When the ‘push’ switch is depressed, the
circuit is closed. Current passes through the
electromagnet windings and the core
becomes magnetized.
• The magnetized core attracts the iron
armature which makes the striker hits the
gong.
• However, the movement of the armature
opens the circuit by breaking its connection
with the screw which switches the
electromagnet off. The iron armature springs
back to its original position, closing the
circuit again and restart the cycle.
Note:
• Soft iron is used to make electromagnets as it
gains and loses magnetism quickly
depending on existence of magnetic fields. The armature is also made of soft iron which can induce
magnetism rapidly.
• No matter what direction is the current flow, the bell rings continuously as long as the ‘push’ switch is
closed because any pole induces the armature.
Circuit breaker:
• It is a device which “trips” to open the circuit when current flowing through the circuit exceeds a certain
value.
• It also has an electromagnet.
• It stays open until it is reset. Iron core is used for quick responses
as iron magnetizes very quickly. Working of circuit breaker:
• Drawing circuit diagrams is not included in the syllabus. When current exceeds a certain
value, the iron core becomes
magnetized and attracts the iron
rocker downwards creating
turning effect and the switch
contacts break contact and stop
the current from flowing through
the circuit.
Notes:
It prevents damage to devices
and can be reset to be used again
unlike fuses which need to be
replaced once they “blow”.
4
Relay Circuits:
• Smaller circuits which use magnetic effect of current to switch on other circuits with larger current
flowing inside them.
• They are advantageous in distant switching and reduce human contact with a circuit that may have a
large current flowing through it and may cause damage if switched on by hand.
Reed relay circuit:

These metal plates can be connected inside another circuit to switch it on or off by using another smaller
circuit (called “primary circuit”).
When switch S is closed (picture 1), current flows in the “primary circuit” and hence the springy metal
plates inside the capsule are magnetized and get attracted towards each other. Thus the secondary coil is
switched on.
When the switch S is opened (picture 2) the current flowing in the solenoid will stop and the magnetic
property of the springy metal plates will end. Thus they will spring apart and open the secondary circuit.
Reed switch:
It consists of springy metal plate inside an evacuated sealed chamber and a wire is
wound on top of this chamber. When current flows through the wire, it magnetizes
the springy metal plates and causes them to be attracted towards each other.
5
Electromagnetic induction
Magnetic flux:
• Number of magnetic field lines which are passing through a surface.
• When a surface is closer to a magnet its flux is greater and when it is
away from the magnet, its flux is smaller.
• Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux, an E.M.F is induced in
the conductor which may cause current to flow.
• Flux can change by moving the coil, moving the magnet, increasing More flux Less flux.
the area of the coil, increasing the number of coils or by rotating the
coil.
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction:
• Amount of E.M.F induced is directly proportional to the rate
of change of flux.
• More E.M.F would be induced if coil or the magnet is moved
quicker.
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that an E.M.F is
induced when there is relative motion between magnet and
coil [4]:
Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Move the magnet
closer/away from the solenoid/coil. The galvanometer attached to
the coil will show a deflection.
Lenz’s Law: [1]
• Direction of induced current in a conductor is always such that
it opposes the change which caused it.
• When north is moved closer to the coil (diagram 1), such a
current is produced in the coil so that a repulsive pole (North)
is produced on the left hand end of the coil.
• When magnet is not moving (diagram 2) flux of the coil is not
changing so no E.M.F is induced, thus no current is detected.
• When magnet is pulled away (diagram 3), the North pole is
moving away from the coil so such a current is produced in
the coil that it induced an attractive pole (South) on the left
hand end of the coil.
Notes:
• Galvanometer is a device which detects the presence and direction (NOT amount) of current.
• If movement is faster, deflection on the galvanometer is large and vice versa.
• Lenz’s law is the application of law of conservation of energy.
• Electrical energy produced in the coil is actually because of the mechanical energy of the moving magnet.
• Extra: If a magnet is “thrown” into the coil, the K.E of the moving magnet will be converted to electrical
energy in the coil and the magnet will stop. Then electrical energy will also vanish as now the flux will not
change.
1
Alternating Current generator:

• A device which converts
mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
• When compared with DC motor,
it has slip-rings (DC motor has
“split”-rings), it has a rotation
mechanism like a handle or an
engine and gears (DC motor has
a source of current).
• Extra: In AC generator direction
of induced current is reversed
after half rotation by reversing
the direction of force but in DC
motor the direction of force is
reversed by reversing the
direction of supplied current. Fleming’s Right hang Rule (Dynamo
• Direction of induced current in a straight Rule):
current carrying wire can be found by When direction of magnetic field is given,
direction of movement is given and the
using Fleming’s right hand Rule
direction of induced current is needed,
(Dynamo Rule). Fleming’s Right hand rule is used.
• When the coil is rotating, for one rotation • Index finger shows the direction of
the amount of current induced; first magnetic-field.
increases then decreases, then increases in • Thumb shows the direction of
the opposite direction and then decrease. movement/ force.
• Middle finger will show the direction of
induced current.
Graph shows the direction and magnitude of

induced current for one rotation of the coil.
Note: If rotation of the coil is faster, the
amplitude of the graph (maximum current) will
increase and the frequency of rotation will
increase (time period will reduce.)
2
Transformer:
• A device which is used for increasing voltage (and decreasing current)
or decreasing voltage (and increasing current) Circuit symbol of a
• A device which uses the change of current in one coil to produce an transformer.
E.M.F in a neighboring coil (Mutual induction-

not in syllabus)
Construction:
• Rectangular soft iron core (soft magnetic
material is needed because rapid changes in
magnetic-field are needed)
• Two different pieces of wires are wound on
opposite sides of the coil. One coil having
more turns than the other.
• The coil on which AC current is supplied is
called the primary coil and the coil which
has a load attached to it is called secondary
coil.
Ideal transformer:
• Input power is equal to the output power of the transformer. PP=PS.
• In real transformers the output power is always smaller than the input power as some
energy is lost inside the core due to rapid magnetization and demagnetization of the
core.
Types of transformers:
1. Step up transformer:
• Used for increasing the input voltage and
decreasing the input current. (Vs>Vp) and
(Is < Ip)
• Number of turns on the secondary coil is
more than the number of turns on the primary
coil. (Ns>Np)
2. Step down transformer:
• Used for decreasing the input voltage and
increasing the input current. (Vs<Vp) and (Is >
Ip).
• Number of turns on the secondary coil is less
than the number of turns on the primary coil.
(Ns<Np).
3
Working of a transformer:
Transformer Equation:
• The current in primary coil creates magnetic-
field. 𝑵𝒔 𝑽𝒔 𝑰𝒑
• The soft iron core transports this magnetic- = =
𝑵𝒑 𝑽𝒑 𝑰𝒔
field to the secondary coil.
• As the current keeps changing so the Ns Number of turns on secondary coil.
magnetic-field keeps changing.
Np Number of turns on primary coil.
• Due to this changing magnetic field, the flux
of the secondary coil keeps changing. Vs Voltage produced on the secondary coil.
• This changing flux creates E.M.F and hence
current is induced in the secondary coil. Vp Voltage supplied on the primary coil.
Notes: Is Current on the secondary coil.
• A transformer will always work on an
Alternating input current because alternating Ip Current on the primary coil.
current keeps changing. In order for
transformer to work, current needs to be
changing.
• Induced E.M.F is directly proportional to number of turns so if N s > Np then Vs will
also be greater than Vp.
Transmission of electricity:
• Electricity is produced at a series of generators (power plant) which is usually outside
the city to prevent noise and environmental pollution.
• This electricity is fed into a step up transformer to increase the voltage and decrease
current.
• This electricity is transported through long cables into the city.
• This electricity is fed into a step down transformer to decrease voltage (and increase
current) to a safe value and then it is supplied to homes.
4
Why is electricity transmitted at high voltages? [1]
It is transported at high voltages to prevent energy loss in the form of heat.
Why is electricity transported in the form of Alternating current? [1]
It is easy to step up and step down. (Extra)It is safer as in each cycle it reaches a zero
value twice which in-case of an electric shock will the moment when to break the
contact from the power supply.
How transporting electricity at high voltage does prevents energy losses? [2]
When electricity is stepped up, it reduces current. (This means lesser number of
electrons will carry larger amount of energy). There is a smaller chance of collision of
the charges with the particles of the conductor so less chance of energy loss.
Conductor with less number of energetic electrons trying to pass

through it. Electrons are less in number so they will have a smaller
chance of collision with the electrons already present inside the
conductor, thus smaller chance of energy loss.
Energetic charged
particles transporting
Electrons present electrical energy.
inside the conductor
(wires) which are
already vibrating.
Conductor with more number of energetic electrons trying to pass

through it. Electrons are more in number so they will have a greater
chance of collision with the electrons already present inside the
conductor. Thus there’s a greater chance of energy loss.
5
O’ Levels Physics (5054)
Introductory Electronics.
Thermionic Emission: [1]
• Emission of electrons from a hot metal surface.
• Electrons gain energy from an external source and
vibrate fast enough to jump out of a surface.
• Heater heats up the negative cathode. Electrons are
already compelled towards the outer surface of the
metal cathode due to high positive potential on
anode and low pressure present between the
plates.
Behavior of electrons inside electric field:
• Electrons being negatively charged, get attracted
towards the positive plate due to electrostatic
attraction.
• A beam with faster electrons will curve less (as the
particles will experience the force for a smaller
time) and vice versa.
• Behavior is opposite for positively charged
particles and more massive particles (protons) will Faster electron, bold line. Slower electron,
bend less as they will accelerate less. dotted line.
Behavior of electrons inside magnetic field:

• As electrons are charged particles so their
movement is called current.
• Direction of conventional current is always
opposite to the direction of movement of
electrons.
Direction of
• Use Fleming’s Left hand Rule to find the
conventional
direction of magnetic force on the charge.
currents.
• If in question, an electron enters a magnetic
field, then middle finger should point in the
opposite direction of motion of electrons and
vice versa.
1
CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope):
• It is a device used for displaying wave forms
by using a changing electric field.
• It has two controls. X-base and Y-Base.
• Variable signal, that is to be recorded, is
applied on Y-controls.
• It helps to find the Peak voltage, time period
and frequency of the oscillating signal.
Structure not included in the syllabus
Taking a measurement:
• Y-base setting/ Y-gain: It is a scale which tells us how
much voltage is represented by each block vertically. It
can be varied. A smaller Y-base setting will increase the
height of the wave and vice versa.
• X-base setting/ Time base setting: It is a scale which
tells us how much time is represented by each block
horizontally. It can be varied. A smaller X-base setting
will stretch out the wave (increase its wavelength/ make
the wave wider) and vice versa.
• Count the number of boxes from the central
line vertically upwards and multiply by the
Y-base setting.
• Count the number of boxes horizontally for
1 crest and trough and multiply it with X-
base setting.
Structural understanding and
working:
• Electron gun emits a beam of electrons
and accelerating plates speed up the
electrons.
• Y deflecting plates deflect the beam of
electrons upwards/ downwards
depending on the voltage applied to it by
external source.
2
• X deflecting plates deflect the electron beam horizontally /sideways depending on the voltage supplied to it by
an internal generator. We can change the frequency/ period of the output of this generator.
Non-zero Voltage on Y- No Voltage on Y- Non-zero Voltage on both Non-zero Voltage on both

deflecting plates but no deflecting plates but non the sets of deflecting the sets of deflecting
voltage on X-deflecting zero voltage on X- plates. plates. But charge on y-
plates. deflecting plates. plates reversed.
Electron beam deflected
Electron beam deflected Electron beam deflected towards left and top Electron beam deflected
upwards only. towards left only. plate. towards bottom and left.
Note: In order to create a sinusoidal wave, an alternating varying potential (Alternating current) is needed to
be applied on Y-plates.
Y-base setting X-base setting

Worked example:
Amplitude= 2 boxes
Answers: 10 boxes to show 1.5

wavelength so by using
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 ratios only 10/1.5 boxes
a) 2 𝑏𝑜𝑥𝑒𝑠 × 0.2 𝑑𝑖𝑣
for 1 wavelength.
= 0.4𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
10
b) 1.5
× 10𝑚𝑠 = 66.7𝑚𝑠
1 1
c) 𝑓 = 𝑇 = 66.7 ×10−3 = 15𝐻𝑧
Colour coding of resistors:

• It is a method of labeling resistors.
• Three color bands and one tolerance band (not
in syllabus) are made onto the resistor. (Note:
3
there can be more than 3 bands but that’s not in syllabus).
• These bands help to identify the value of resistance of the resistor.
• The bands can be any of the colors mentioned in the table. Each color has been assaigned a particular
number.
Method of reading the colour bands:
• First band represents first digit. The
second band represents the second digit.
The third band represents the multiplier
(raised to the power of ten)
• First digit is yellow (it is assigned the
number 4) second band is violet (it is
assigned the number 7) and the third
band is Red (it represents 2, as it is the
third band so there must be 2 zeros after
first two digit OR × 102 )
• Correct value for this resistor is
(47 × 102 𝑂𝑅 4700𝛺).
• Ignore the last band which is called
tolerance. (It is not in the syllabus).
Potentiometer:
It consists of a wire of length “L” and a resistance R. It also Vt
consists another device attached parallel to the wire with a movable
contact. The voltmeter shows the voltage consumed in the A to C L
part of the wire. As the movable contact (C) is moved from A
towards B the voltmeter gets connected across a greater length of A B
l C
the wire thus the voltage on the voltmeter will be greater (𝐴𝑠 𝑅 ∝
𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙). Potentiometer can be used as a variable power
supply as well, just by replacing the voltmeter with the circuit
V
which requires a variable power source.
Potentiometer formula:
Thermistor: 𝒍
𝑽= × 𝑽𝒕
𝑳
A device whose resistance is inversely proportional to the
temperature. It can be used in heat sensitive circuits like fire-
alarms and thermostats.
4
Action of a thermistor in a fire alarm:
Case 1: In-case of low temperature, resistance of
thermistor will be high so it uses more voltage so the
fixed resistor and hence the buzzer gets low voltage
(as it is in parallel) so it may not switch on or if it
does, the sound is very low.
Case 2: In-case of high temperature, resistance of

thermistor will be low so it uses less voltage so the
fixed resistor and hence the buzzer get high voltage
(as it is in parallel) so the buzzer will produce a high
sound.
LDR: (Light Dependent Resistor):

𝟏
A device whose resistance is inversely proportional to the light falling on it. 𝑹𝑳𝑫𝑹 ∝ 𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Action of an LDR in a potential divider (street lamps and light sensitive switches):
Case 1: In-case of bright light during the day, resistance of LDR

will be low so it uses less voltage so the lamp also gets low
voltage (as it is in parallel) so it may not switch on or if it does,
it glows dimly.
Case 2: In-case of darkness during the night, resistance of LDR

will be high, so it uses more voltage so the lamp also gets high
voltage (as it is in parallel) so it glows brightly.
Diode:
• A device that allows current to enter through only one of its ends
and exit through the other end.
• It is made of special materials called semi-conducting materials.
• One of its ends is labeled as “P” and the other is labeled as “N”. P
• Structure and construction of a diode is not in syllabus. N
5
• It allows current to pass through only when the conventional
current enters through the P end and exits through the “N”
end. This condition is called “forward biased”. In forward
biased the diode is conducting and we may consider it to have
zero resistance.
• If current tries to enter through the “N” end and leave through
“P” the current cannot pass. This condition is called “Reverse
biased”. In reverse biased the diode is non-conducting and we
may consider it to have infinite resistance.
• A diode is used to convert an Alternating current into a uni-
directional current.
What happens if an AC is supplied to a diode?
An alternating current has a waveform like this. As diode only
allows current to flow in one direction so the negative peaks are
going to vanish from the graph.
Light Emitting Diode:

• Specially designed diodes which emit light when they are
forward biased.
• They maybe of different colors, they are tiny and use very little
electricity.
6
Radioactivity
Radioactivity: [2]
• The random and spontaneous breakdown of unstable nuclei to emit radiations
and energy.
• Random: Unpredictible, every nuclei in the sample has equal probability of
breakdown. On a G.M. counter this is represented by slight fluctuations. No fixed
value is seen. On the decay graph there are small fluctuations present as well.
• Spontaneous: The decay process is unaffected by environment and temperature.
On the graph the general shape of the graph will always be the same.
• Radiations: It is a word used for three types of particles. Alpha, Beta and
Gama.
Nature and properties of radiations:
Sr. # Property Alpha Beta Gamma
1. Symbol 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
2. Nature Helium nucleus High speed Electromagnetic
electrons wave
3. Mass no. 4 0 0
4. Charge no. 2 -1 0
5. Nuclide 𝟒 𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝜶 −𝟏𝜷 𝟎𝜸
notation
Penetrating ability:
• Ability of radiations to enter and travel inside a medium. It is dependent on size of
the radiations.
• Alpha will be blocked by few centimeter thick paper as it has the largest size.
• Beta will be blocked aluminum as
it is very small in size so it needs
something denser than paper to be
blocked.
• Gamma is only partially blocked
by lead because it has no size at
all. (it is only pure energy)
1
Range inside air:
• Alpha has the least penetrating ability as it has the largest mass and charge so it
barely travels 5-7cm inside air depending on its energy.
• Beta has a very small mass and size so it is able to travels larger distances inside air
(several meters).
• Gamma has no mass and no size so it is able to move the largest distances inside air
(several Kilometer).
Motion of radiations inside Electric fields:
• Alpha and beta are charged
particles so they get deflected
inside electric field.
• As they are oppositely charged
so they get deflected in
opposite directions.
• As beta has a very small mass
as compared to alpha so beta
gets deflected more.
• Gama does not get deflected as
it is uncharged.
Note: Photographic film only acts like a detector as when radiations fall on it, a spark
and a bright spot is created on it to indicate the position where radiation fell on it.
Motion of radiations inside Magnetic fields:
• As alpha and beta are charged radiations
so their motion can be considered to be
current.
• When they move inside magnetic field,
they experience an electromagnetic force
on them which is found by Fleming’s
Left hand rule.
• Alpha will be deflected less due to its
large mass whereas beta will be deflected
more because of small mass.
• I is the direction of current in each case.
2
Ionizing ability:
Ionization:
Whenever radiations enter a medium, they have the ability to
Process of gaining or
cause the atoms of the medium to gain or lose electrons.
removal of electrons from an
i. Alpha: has the largest ionizing ability as it has a atom due to absorption of
large positive charge so it can attract electrons from energy.
the atoms of the medium causing them

to ionize. Also, it has a very large mass.
So even if it has become neutral, it will
still ionize the atoms by colliding with
electrons in its path when it is moving.
ii. Beta: has a very small ionizing ability
as it has almost negligible mass so
unlike alpha it cannot ionize due to its
mass. It repels the electrons of the
medium it travels inside and cause them
to leave their orbit to cause little
ionization.
iii. Gamma: has negligible ionizing ability
as it has no mass or charge. It only ionizes the medium very weakly only
because of the energy inside it.
Decay equations:
1. Alpha Decay: When a parent nucleus emits alpha particle, the daughter nucleus has a
mass number 4 less than parent and a charge number of 2 less than parent.
𝑨 𝟒 𝑨−𝟒
𝒁𝑿 → 𝟐𝜶 + 𝒁−𝟐𝒀 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
2. Beta Decay: When a parent nucleus emits a beta particle, the daughter nucleus has a
same mass number but the charge number increases by 1 (a neutron converts to a
proton).
𝑨 𝟎 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 → −𝟏𝜷 + 𝒁+𝟏𝒀 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
3. Gama Decay: When a parent nucleus emits a gamma particle, no change in mass or
charge occurs.
𝑨 ∗ 𝟎 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 → 𝟎𝜸 + 𝒁𝑿 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
Note: Total mass number and charge numbers before the reaction and after the
reaction should remain the same.
3
Nuclear Reactions:
1. Fission [1]
• It is the process of breakdown of a nucleus due to a neutron being fired at it.
Stable products are created and energy is released.
• This process occurs in nuclear reactors to create electricity.
2. Fusion [1]
• It is the process of recombination of two smaller nuclei to create one large nucleus.
• It requires a lot of energy.
• A star produces its energy by this process.
• Emits large amount of energy as well.
Note:
Deuterium and Tritium are isotopes

of hydrogen.
They merge to create a helium

nucleus and a neutron.
2
1𝐻 + 31𝐻 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Nuclear Reactor: [4]

• Nuclear fuel is made to fission in a reactor.
• Emitted heat is transported away from the reactor by coolant to a water body.
• Water absorbs heat and turns into steam.
• Steam is used to turn the turbine and generator produces electricity.
4
Star formation: [3]

• Clouds of dust and gases come together in space due to their gravity. (star
collapses)
• Due to high pressure and temperature the nuclei gain enough energy.
• Nuclei fuse together to form a bigger nucleus.
• Large amounts of energies are emitted.
Half Life: [1]

• Time required for half of the
original number of nuclei to decay.
• It is a constant so even if the
number of nuclei is reduced, it takes
the same amount of time for nuclei
to become further half.
• Every element has a unique half-
life.
• As number of nuclei decrease, the
speed of breakdown is also reduced.
• In the example on the right,
originally the sample had 10g of DECAY CURVE
Cobalt, after one half-life, half of
this 10g will break down (=5g). After the second half life half of the remaining 5g will
breakdown (=2.5g). The process will continue.
• The amount of remaining nuclei will never reach 0 so the graph will never touch the X-
axis.
• Number of nuclei or mass or percentage of remaining nuclei all behave the same way
and they are also treated the same way in our calculations.
5
Background radiations: Count rate:
• Radiations which are present in the environment due to Number of radiations
entering the G.M. tube
random breakdown of matter present around us without
per unit time.
any apparent source. Unit:
• Background radiations are very few in amount and not • counts/min
generally harmful. • Counts/sec.
• Background radiations do not drop over time.

• If a G.M. counter
reading is given, and
we need to find the
source count rate, we
subtract the
background count rate
from reading of the
G.M. tube.
Process for finding out
the Count rate of a
source: [2]
First note the reading on the
G.M. counter without a
source. Then Place the source
and measure the reading
again. Subtract.
Effect of background radiations on

Decay Curve.
If the reading from a G.M. counter is not
corrected for background radiations, the
reading on the counter will always greater
than the actual count-rate of source by an
amount equal to background radiations.
In order to calculate the half-life from
such a graph, always subtract the
background from count-rate to find the
count-rate of the source only and then half
that.
6
Note:
If a graph is corrected for background radiations, the graph will become horizontal closer
to X-axis but if it is not corrected for background radiations, then the graph will begin to
become horizontal a little above the X axis.
This graph is corrected

for background
radiations as the graph
is becoming horizontal
closer to the X-Axis.
This graph is NOT

corrected for
background radiations
as the graph is
becoming horizontal
above the X-Axis close
to the line
y=background count
rate.
7
Uses of radioactive elements:
• Used in detection and treatment of
cancer.
• Used for finding the rate of water
uptake by plants.
• Used in quality control of metal
sheets (for detecting cracks in metal
sheet)
• Used in medical imaging as tracers.
• Used in finding out the age of fossils
(Carbon dating).
• Used in nuclear reactors for producing electricity.
Carbon dating: [3]

• C-14 in a fossil decreases with time and the amount of C-14 is compared
with the amount of C-14 in living specimen.
• Number of half-lives which have passed is determined.
• Total time is found by multiplying 1 half-life of C-14 with number of half-
lives passed.
Note: All living things absorb carbon from the atmosphere and food sources around
them, including a certain amount of natural, radioactive carbon-14. When the plant or
animal dies, they stop absorbing.
Half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.

8
Disposing off nuclear waste safely:
• Nuclear waste is packed up in lead
lined bags and buried deep in
underground caves where no
living thing is present and no
water source is present.
• Releasing waste in space in a
space shuttle is not suitable as it is
costly and will contribute to
cosmic radiations.
• Dumping waste in water (sea and
rivers) is not suitable as it will
affect marine life.
Hazards of radioactivity: Nuclear waste burial site.
1. Short term:
• Nausea All the hazards of radiations are
• Blisters and skin irritation. caused by their ability to ionize.
Radiations, upon entering our body,
• Skin burns.
can ionize the atoms of our body.
• Temporary blindness.
2. Long term: Alpha is considered to be the safest
• Cancers. as it has a very large size but if it has
enough energy to penetrate the skin,
• Genetic Mutation.
it can be very dangerous.
• Permanent blindness.
Safety precautions:
• Reduce exposure to nuclear radiations.
• Wear light colored clothes which are lead
lined.
• Wear goggles and gloves while handling
the source.
• Use forceps or robotic arms to handle the
source.
• Replace the source in a lead box
immediately after use.
• Avoid pointing the source to a living
thing.
9
The Nuclear Atom
Structure of an atom:
• An atom is considered to be the building block of matter.
Atoms are repeated to create a structure that we see
around us.
• Atoms consist of a dense mass at its center called
nucleus. Negatively charged particles revolve around the
positively charged nucleus in the form of a cloud.
• Nucleus consists of positively charged particles called
protons and neutral particles called neutrons.
Geiger Marsden (Alpha scattering) experiment:

Alpha particles from a source are made to fall
on a gold foil placed inside a series of
detectors arranged in a circle.
Observations and Conclusions:

1. Most of the alpha pass through straight un-
deflected. (Result: most of the atom is
empty space/ nucleus is very small in size)
2. Very few particles get deflected at angles
greater than 900. (Result: in some places a
dense particle is present / nucleus is very
heavy in mass).
3. Some alpha particles are deflected at
angles less than 900. (Result: nucleus has
the same charge as an alpha particle)
A proton, a constituent of every

atomic nucleus, is a stable sub-
atomic particle that has a unit-
positive electric charge (i.e. 1.60
x 10-19 C) and a rest mass of
1.67 x 10-27 kg.
A neutron, a constituent of
every atomic nucleus except
ordinary hydrogen, is a stable
sub-atomic particle that has no
electric charge and a rest mass
of 1.67 x 10-27 kg.
1
Nuclide Notation:
• A convention to represent the nucleus of an
atom.
• It consists of a symbol and a mass number
and charge number.
12
• For example: 6 𝐶
It has 6 protons and a mass number of 12.
• Mass number consists of Number of
protons and neutrons.
• A= Z+N
Isotopes: [1]
Atoms of the same element having same proton number and different neutron number.
Star Formation: [3]

Stars are formed from massive clouds of dust and gases. Gravity causes the dust and gas cloud to
collapse together (this forms a protostar). The temperature of the gas rises due to collisions and Kinetic
energy which causes nuclear fusion.

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OLEVELS PHYSICS (5054)

Usman Bin Aslam

Avg= 75/2= 37.5 or 38km/h

Graphical Analysis of motion:

When object at rest, distance When object at rest, speed will

will remain zero as time keeps

Object travels equal Speed will remain a

in equal intervals of time keeps

Uniform acceleration/ Uniform Increasing speed:

As gradient = speed As gradient =

change then graph

As gradient = speed As gradient =

Increasing acceleration/Non-uniform increasing speed:

Decreasing acceleration/Non-uniform increasing speed:

decrease and then

Constant but negative

Constant but zero

A force which has the effect of

It is found by the vector

Frictional force: [1]

Terminal Velocity: [2]

As starting from rest, speed is zero so air

As some speed is gained now so some air

Speed keeps increasing at a smaller rate.

As greater speed is gained now so greater

Speed keeps increasing at a smaller rate.

As greater speed is gained now so greater

Speed stops increasing. This speed is called

• SI unit: m3. Other units: mm3, cm3.

Figure 5Displacement method.

ii. Convex (upwards) meniscus: (diagram B) It

Measurement of density of an object: [3-4]

Experiment to find out the center of gravity of an

2. Extension- Force graph:

Parallel combination of springs:

Pressure due to gas: [3]

Kinetic Energy: [1]

Gravitational potential Energy: [1]

Law of conservation of energy: [2]

Figure 1: Fossil Fuel Power plant.

Figure 2: Tidal Power plant.

Figure 3: Solar panels

Figure 4: Wind mills.

Figure 5: geothermal energy

Hazards of these sources:

Mechanical Power: [1]

Figure 2 Bimetallic strip behavior under heat and cold.

Figure 3 Bimetallic strip used as thermal switch.

Practical situations where thermal expansion needs to be considered:

2.2.2 Measurement of temperature.

Liquid-in glass thermometers:

Note: Cross-section of clinical thermometer may be pear-shaped. This

Melting point: [1]

Making scale on a thermometer:

Figure 8 Insensitive thermometer Figure 7 Sensitive thermometer.

Thermal Properties of Matter.

Melting point: [1]

NOTE: Whenever heat is supplied, it can

Why doesn’t the temperature change when the state changes?

Experiment to find specific heat capacity of a material: [4]

Methods of heat transfer:

Applications (or everyday scenarios) of conductors/Insulators:

Description of Particles (molecules) are Particles (molecules ) Particles (molecules)