See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/352934025

QUICK REVISION NOTES FOR SAC 101 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL SCIENCE

(2+1)

Presentation · July 2021

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.33213.18401/1

CITATIONS READS

0 7,976

1 author:

Keerthana Ganesan
JKK MUNIRAJAH Educational Institutions
4 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Keerthana Ganesan on 27 May 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 SAC 101
QUICK REVISION NOTES FOR

SAC 101 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL SCIENCE (2+1)

1t' SEMESTER - B.Sc. AGRICULTURE (Hons.)

(TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY)

COMPILED BY

Ms. Keerthana G, Assistant Professor

Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry
J.K.K. Munirajah College of Agricultural Science - Erode

Dr. M. Manimaran & Dr. R. Elangovan, Assst. Prof

Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry
College of Agricultural Technology - Theni

1
 SAC 101
❖ The term SOIL was derived from the Latin Word “SOLUM” Means FLOOR
❖ For a Layman soil is dirt or debris
❖ For a Mining Engineer soil is a debris covering the Rocks
❖ For a Civil Engineer soil is a material on which road or house bed is formed
❖ For a Home Owner soil is a mellow or loamy or hard material
❖ For an Agriculturist soil is a medium for plant growth
❖ Whitney (1892):Soil is nutrient bin which supplies all nutrients required for plant growth.
❖ Hilgard (1892): Soil is more or less a loose and friable material
❖ Dokuchaiev (1900): Father of soil science - Soil is a natural body composed of mineral
and organic constituents
❖ Joffe (1936): Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constituents differentiated into
horizons
❖ Jenny (1941): Soil is a naturally occurring body formed due to combined influence of
climate and living organisms acting on parent material
❖ Soil Science Society of America (1970): (i) Soil is the unconsolidated mineral matter
influenced by genetic and environmental factors (ii) The unconsolidated mineral material
on the immediate surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of
land plants.
❖ SOUL OF INFINITE LIFE (SOIL) - J.S. Kanwar
❖ Soil is a three dimensional body having length, breadth and depth.
❖ Composition of soil on volume basis: Mineral matter: 45%, Organic matter: 5%, Soil
water: 25%, Soil air: 25%
❖ Study of origin of the soil, its classification and its description (Pedology)
❖ Study of Soil from the stand point of higher plants (Edaphology)
❖ Soils consist of four major components: mineral matter, organic matter, soil air & soil
water
❖ Soil a three phase system: solid particles, water and air

❖ Out of 106 elements known, 8 are sufficiently abundant as to constitute about 99(%) by
weight of the earth’s crust (up to 16 km)

❖ Oxygen: 46.6 %, Si: 27.72%, Al: 8.13%, Fe: 5.00%, Ca: 3.63%, Na: 2.83%, K: 2.59,
Mg:2.09 %
❖ A rock may be defined as a hard mass of mineral matter comprising two or more rock
forming minerals.
❖ Petrology deals with science of rocks.
2
 SAC 101
❖ Petrography which deals with description of rocks.
❖ Petrogenesis which is the study of origin of rocks.
❖ Composition of Earth’s crust as a whole: Igneous rocks (95%); Sedimentary rocks- 5%
(Shale-4%, sandstone- 0.75%, limestone- 0.25%)
❖ Composition of the upper 5 km of the Earth’s crust: Sedimentary rocks- 74 % (Shale-
52%, sandstone- 15%, limestone- 7%); Igneous rocks- 18 % (Granite- 15%, Basalt- 3
%)
❖ Cooling and consolidation of molten magma within or on the surface of earth Igneous/
Primary rocks/Massive rocks
❖ Disintegration and decomposition lead to breaking down & Transportation and
cementation of pre-existing rocks- Sedimentary/ Secondary rocks/ Stratified rocks
❖ The primary and secondary rocks when subjected to earth’s movement and to high
temperature and pressure are altered to new rocks called Metamorphic rocks
❖ Based on mode of origin igneous rocks are Extrusive rocks & Intrusive rocks
❖ The consolidation of magma on the surface of the earth- Extrusive rocks (or volcanic
rocks) eg. Basalt- fine textured
solidification of magma below the surface of the earth- Intrusive rocks (or plutonic rocks)
eg. Granite- Coarse textured
❖ Based on mode of chemical composition igneous rocks are
• Acid rocks : > 65% silica (Granite, rhyolite)

• Sub acid rocks : 60-65% silica (Syenite and trachyte)

• Sub basic rocks : 55-60% silica (Diorite and andesite)

• Basic rocks : 45-55% silica (Gabbro, basalt)

❖ Sediments may contain various size particles cemented together by substances like SiO2,
Fe2O3 or lime- Clastic rocks
❖ Based on the origin sedimentary rocks- Residual (Laterite) & Transported
❖ Deposited as solids in suspension: Sandstone, shale
❖ Deposited by chemical precipitation: Limestone, ironstone
❖ Deposited through agency of organic matter: Peat, Phosphatic deposits
❖ Based on the grain size sedimentary rocks are classified as
❖ Rocks with boulder pebbles sized minerals (Rudaceous) : Conglomerate
❖ Rocks with sand size particles (Arenaceous): Sandstone

3
 SAC 101
❖ Rocks with silt size particles (silt rocks) : Siltstone
❖ Rocks with clay size particles (Argillaceous) : Shale
❖ The changes due to water is called hydrometamorphism
❖ The changes due to heat is thermometamorphism
❖ The changes due to pressure are called dynamometamorphism.
❖ The metamorphic rocks formed from, Sand stone: Quartizite, Shale: Slate/mica, schist,
Lime stone: Marble, Granite: granite gneiss, Dolerite: Hornblende gneiss
❖ Primary minerals: original components of rocks (feldspar, mica)
❖ Secondary minerals: Minerals that are formed from changes in primary minerals and
rocks (clay minerals)
❖ CLAY- most reactive part of soil
❖ Essential minerals: chief constituents of rocks (Feldspars, pyroxenes, micas )
❖ Accessory minerals : present in small quantities, whose presence or absence will not
alter properties of rocks (tourmaline, magnetite)
❖ Essential minerals of Granite (Quartz (20 to 30%)), Syenite (Quartz, orthoclase), Diorite
(Quartz), Gabbro (Labradorite, augite, olivine), Dolerite (Labradorite, augite, olivine),
Basalt (Labradorite, augite, olivine)
❖ Primary minerals- Ferro-magnesium minerals & Non-ferromagnesium minerals
❖ Ferro-magnesium minerals- ortho-inosilicates (16.8 %) & Phyllosilicates (3.6 %)
❖ Only ferro-magnesium minerals without Fe & Mg- Muscovite
❖ Ortho silicates- Isolated tetrahedron (olivine)
❖ Inosilicates- SINGLE chained- 2 oxygen ions shared (Pyroxene); DOUBLE chained- 2/
3 oxygen ions shared (Amphiboles)
❖ Phyllosilicates/Layer/Sheet silicates: 3 oxygen ions shared - 2 dimensional- Honey
comb structure. Biotite/ black mica & Muscovite/ white mica
❖ Tectosilicates (Non-Ferro Magnesium): 4 oxygen ions shared, 3-d structure,
Framework/Network silicates; Feldspar [61 %] (orthoclase, Plagioclase) & Quartz
❖ Orthoclase (Potassic feldspar); Plagioclase (Albite- Na feldspar; Anorthite- Ca feldspar)
❖ Dominant element in Earth’s crust is oxygen
❖ 2nd dominant element in Earth’s crust is Silicon
❖ Dominant metallic element in Earth’s crust is Aluminium
❖ Dominant mineral in Earth’s crust is Feldspars
❖ Second most abundant mineral next to feldspars is Quartz (most resistant to weathering)
❖ Non-silicate minerals: oxides (Haematite, Limonite, Goethite, Gibbsite); Carbonate
(Calcite, Dolamite); Sulphates( Gypsum); Phosphates (Apatite)
4
 SAC 101
❖ Red colour of soil due to presence of Haematite
❖ Yellow colour of soil due to presence of Limonite
❖ Clay minerals are of size <0.002 mm/ 2 micrometer
❖ 1 silicon tetrahedron + 1 aluminium octahedron = 1:1 clay mineral (Kaolinite, halloysite,
anauxite and dickite)
❖ Kaolinite- Simplest mineral among all, Dominant clay mineral in red and laterite soils, 2
sheets of each crystal unit held together by oxygen bonding atoms- Units are held
together very rigidly by hydrogen bonding
❖ 2 (silicon tetrahedron) : 1(aluminium octahedron) expanding clay mineral= Smectite
group: montmorillonite, beidellite, nontronite and saponite
❖ Montmorillonite- crystal units are held by very weak oxygen – oxygen linkages; High
swell-shrink capacity among all clay minerals
❖ 2:1- vermiculite (limited/partially expanding)- Weathered product of mica- Potassium
(K) – replaced by exchangeable magnesium (Mg) ion
❖ Vermiculite - high (negative charge &, CEC, layer charge, surface area) among all
clay minerals
❖ 2 : 1 non-expanding clay mineral= Illite/Hydrous mica (15 % Si in silica sheets is
substituted by Al)- Excess negative charge is satisfied by- K
❖ 2 (silicon tetrahedron) : 1 (aluminium octahedron) : 1 (Mg octahedron- Brucite sheet)
clay mineral= 2:2 or 2:1:1- Chlorite
❖ Clay minerals dominant in Alluvial soil (Illite); Red and lateritic soil (Kaolinite); Black
soils (Smectite- Montmorillonite); Desert soils (Illite & Attapulgite);
❖ Amorphous minerals: Para-crystalline, Allophane, imogolite
❖ Smallest size among clay minerals- Montmorillonite (0.01-1.0 microns)
❖ Largest size among clay minerals- Kaolinite (0.1-5.0 microns)
❖ CEC- lowest for Kaolinite (3-15 Cmol (P+) kg-1); highest for Vermiculite (80-150 Cmol
(P+) kg-1
❖ Weathering is breakdown and alteration of rocks and minerals at or near Earth's surface
by a set of physical, chemical and biological processes.
❖ Weathering results in the formation of Regolith or Parent material
❖ Regolith is an unconsolidated residual mass of weathering rock
❖ Parent material: It is regolith or at least its upper portion from which soils are developed.
❖ Physical weathering refers to disintegration and breaking down of rocks, without
producing any new substances.
❖ Rock → Weathering → Regolith → soil forming factors and processes → True soil
5
 SAC 101
❖ Diurnal temperature changes causes peeling off the surface layers from the rocks
(“Exfoliation” or onion type of weathering) Eg: Basalt & Granite
❖ Cold temperature causes freezing of entrapped water inside the rock which expands 9% in
volume & exerts pressure of 1465 tonnes/m2
❖ Water acts as a disintegrating, transporting and depositing agent
❖ Frost is much more effective than heat in producing physical weathering
❖ The shifting of soil causes serious wind erosion problem and may render cultivated land as
degraded (e.g) Thar desert of Rajasthan
❖ Some natural substances increase considerably in volume on wetting and shrink on
drying. (e.g.) smectite, montmorillonite
❖ Decomposition of rocks and minerals by various chemical processes is called chemical
weathering
❖ Hydration refers to chemical combination of water molecules with a particular substance
or mineral leading to a change in structure
❖ Hydrolysis is the most important process in chemical weathering among all- type of
double decomposition process- forerunner of clay formation
❖ Hydrolysis results in complete disintegration & drastic modification of primary
minerals
❖ Oxidation is process of addition and combination of oxygen to minerals.eg Haematite to
Limonite
❖ Carbonation: Carbon di-oxide when dissolved in water it forms carbonic acid
❖ Some substances present in the rocks are directly soluble in water- Solution (Halides)
❖ Reduction is process of removal of oxygen and addition of electrons
❖ Weathering sequence- Quartz (most resistant) > muscovite > K feldspar > Na and Ca
feldspar > biotite, hornblende, augite > olivine > dolomite and calcite > gypsum (least
resistant)
❖ Biological Weathering is both decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals
❖ Dokuchaiev (1889) established soil forming factors viz., S = f ( p, cl, o )
❖ Jenny (1941) added two more factors i.e., relief & time- S = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …)
❖ J.S. Joffe classified into Active and Passive factors
❖ Active soil forming factors: i) Climate, ii) organism (vegetation or biosphere)
❖ Passive soil forming factors: i) Parent material, ii) Relief, iii) Time
❖ Sedimentary: Formed in original place. It is the residual parent material.
❖ Colluvium: It is the poorly sorted materials transported by the action of gravity
❖ Alluvium: The material transported and deposited by water
6
 SAC 101
❖ Moraine : Transported and deposited through the action of glacial ice
❖ Lacustrine: Transported and deposited through the lake water
❖ Aeolian (sandy texture) ; Loess (silty texture): Transported and deposited through wind
❖ These soils develop under the influence of parent material is Endodynamomorphic
soils
❖ Development of normal profile under influence of climate and vegetation is Ecto
dynamomorphic soils
❖ Acid igneous rocks (granite, rhyolite) produce light-textured soils (Alfisols).
❖ Basic igneous rocks (basalt), alluvium or colluvium derived from limestone or basalt,
produce fine-textured cracking-clay soils (Vertisols).
❖ Si and Al forms the skeleton for production of secondary clay minerals.
❖ Fe and Mn are important for imparting red color to soils and for oxidation and reduction
phenomena.
❖ Na and K are important dispersing agents for clay and humus colloids.
❖ Ca and Mg have a flocculating effect- favorable and stable soil structure for plant
growth
❖ The period taken by given soil from stage of weathered rock (i.e. regolith) up to stage of
maturity is considered as time
❖ The time that nature devotes to the formation of soils is termed as Pedologic Time
❖ Weathering stages in soil formation- Initial- Juvenile- Verile- Senile- Final
❖ The matured soils mean soils with fully developed horizons (A, B, C)
❖ Arid climate- formation of saline soils; cool humid climate- Podzols- warm humid
climate- Laterite soils
❖ Van’t Hoff law “with every 10 ˚C rise in temperature, speed of chemical reaction
increase by factor of two or three
❖ Soils formed from same parent material but differ in topographic positions- show
differential profile development- sequence of such soils termed as toposequence
❖ Soil catena- term introduced by G. Milne – sequence of topographically related soils
have comparable parent material, climate and age but, different soil characteristics due to
variation in relief
❖ Jenny (1941)- tropical regions rate of weathering proceeds three times faster than in
temperate regions and nine times faster than in arctic
❖ Jenny (1941) defined parent material as “Initial stage of soil system”
❖ Basic soil forming processes- Simonson’s fourfold forming process- Addition, Losses,
Transformation and Translocation
7
 SAC 101
❖ Fundamental processes of soil formation- Eluviation, Illuviation and Humification
❖ Eluviation (Emigration) - mobilization & translocation of certain constituent’s viz. Clay,
Fe2O3, humus, salts etc- “Washing out”- Horizon formed (A2 or E horizon)- “Zone of
leaching”
❖ Illuviation (Immigration)- Process of deposition of soil materials- horizon (Bt)-
“Washing in”- “Zone of accumulation”
❖ Humification- Process of transformation raw organic matter to humus
❖ Specific Soil farming processes- Calcification, Decalcification, Laterization, Salinization-
Desalinization, Alkalization, Dealkalization, Calcification, Decalcification, Gleization,
Pedoturbation
❖ Podzolization- Process of soil formation resulting in formation of Podzols soils-
accumulation of silica- “Acid leaching”- Negative of calcification
❖ Laterization/latozation - “Alkaline leaching”- Accumulation of sesquioxides- removal of
silica
❖ Salinization- process of accumulation of salts like sulphates & chlorides of Ca, Mg, Na
& K in soils- salic horizon- develop- Solonchaks/ saline soils- EC > 4 dS m-1
❖ Desalinization- process of removal by leaching of excess soluble salts from horizons
❖ Solonization or Alkalization- accumulation of sodium ions on exchange complex of
clay- Solonetz soils
❖ Solodization/ dealkalization: process removal of Na+ from exchange sites
❖ Calcification: accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)- Calcic horizon
❖ Gleization: process development of glei (gley horizon)- poor drainage condition-
Hydromorphic soils
❖ Pedoturbation- process of mixing of soil
❖ Argillic pedoturbation- Mixing of soil by churing process caused by swell shrinking of
clays
❖ Horizonation: process of differentiation of soil in different horizons
❖ Soil horizon: vertical section of soil showing various layers from surface to unaffected
parent material
❖ Soil is made up of distinct horizontal layers; these layers are called horizons.
❖ Master horizons are O, A, E, B and C horizons
❖ O horizon is topmost layer of most soils
❖ A horizon zone of translocation- eluviation
❖ B horizon(“Sub-soil”) is a mineral soil layer which is strongly influenced by illuviation-
enrichment of clay particles
8
 SAC 101
❖ C horizon is composed of weathered parent material- least affected by weathering
❖ R horizon (Bed-rock horizon): Deepest horizon/ final layer in soil profile- consists of
unweathered bedrock.
❖ A pedon is smallest volume that can be recognized as a soil individual, area (1 to 10 m2)
❖ Polypedon is defined as a continuous similar pedons-minimum area > 1 km2
❖ Regolith: unconsolidated materials above parent rock including A, B and C horizons
❖ A and B horizons are called as Solum
❖ Soil texture- Relative proportion of sand, silt and clay- cannot be easily altered
❖ Size of clay <0.002mm (all systems clay size same); Silt - 0.002 – 0.02mm; Fine sand-
0.02 – 0.2mm; Coarse sand- 0.2 – 2.0 mm by USDA
❖ SAND AND SILT forms Skeleton; Flesh of Soil is CLAY
❖ Stokes' Law: " Velocity of a falling particle is proportional to square of radius and not to
its surface”
❖ Sandy soil- at least 70 % sand separate; Loamy soil- equal proportion of sand, silt &
clay (ideal soil for crop production)
❖ Clayey soils must contain 35 % of clay. Silty soils- at least 80 % of silt
❖ Textural classes are 12: Sandy, Loamy sand, Sandy loam, Loam, Silt loam, Silt, Sandy
clay loam, Clay loam, Silty clay loam, Sandy clay, Silty clay and Clay
❖ Heavy soil- fine textured soils (clay soil); Light soil- coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
❖ The international pipette method- standard method for particle size analysis
❖ Peds: Natural aggregates
❖ Clod is an artificially formed (due to ploughing, digging etc.) soil mass
❖ Categories of soil texture- “Type, Class & Grade”
❖ Type -Shape or form and arrangement pattern of peds; Class-Size of Peds; Grade-
Degree of distinctness of peds
❖ Type (4) : Platy, prismatic, blocky & spheroidal; Class (5): Very fine, Fine, Medium,
Coarse and Very coarse; Grade (4): Structure less, Weak, Moderate and Strong
❖ Platy- Aggregates are arranged in relatively thin horizontal axis (thick units- platy; thin
units- laminar)
❖ Prism-like: vertical axis is more developed than horizontal (tops clear cut- Columnar;
tops are rounded- Prismatic)
❖ Block like: All three dimensions are about same size (Angular- faces flat & edges sharp;
sub angular blocky- faces and edges rounded)
❖ Spheroidal: All rounded aggregates; (Crumby- granules high porous; Granular-
granules less porous); Crumby well suited structure for agriculture
9
 SAC 101
❖ For naming a soil structure sequence followed is grade, class and type
❖ Soil structure can be modified by cultivation and tillage while texture is an inherent
property of soil and cannot be modified within short period of time
❖ Soil Bulk Density(BD)(Mgm-3) measures total soil volume, Mass/volume of wet or dry
soil. (“Apparent specific gravity”)
❖ Soils loose, porous, or well-aggregated will have lower bulk densities than soils that are
compacted or non-aggregated.
❖ BD of sandy soils vary between 1.2 to 1.8 Mg m-3
❖ BD of Fine-textured soil, Clays, silty clays, or clay loams,- 1.0 and 1.6 Mg m-3
❖ Increase in pore space, organic matter, clay content, primary tillage, decreases BD
❖ Particle Density (“True density”)- Mass/ volume of soil solids only- texture & structure
do not affect
❖ Soils high in organic matter have lower particle densities
❖ Particle density of mineral soils is assumed to be 2.65 Mg m-3\
❖ BD include both pore space & solid space; PD include only solid space
❖ Pore-spaces (voids) in soil is portion of soil volume not occupied by soil solids
❖ % Pore space/ porosity= (1-BD/PD x 100)
❖ Crumby & granular structure more pore spaces than other soil structure
❖ Total pore space (porosity) is high for clay soils than sandy soil
❖ Soil containing high organic matter possesses high porosity
❖ Size of macro pores >0.08 mm; micro / capillary pores <0.08 mm
❖ Kinds of soil color- Lithochromic & pedochromic/ acquired
❖ Lithochromic- inherited from its parent material, red soils from red sandstone
❖ Pedochromic- develops during soil formation through different soil forming processes,
Eg: red soils from granite or schist
❖ Organic matter- dark brown or black; soils with dominant of Haematite- red color;
Goethite- yellow; Glaucoite- green; Calcite- whitish
❖ Soil colors are best determined by comparison with Munsell Colour Chart (199 color
chips)
❖ Hue - dominant spectral color (redness or yellowness)
❖ Value- relative lightness or darkness of a color (amount of reflected light), scale (0-10)
❖ Chroma - purity of the color (strength of color) scale (0-8)
❖ Soil color is one of the most useful- identification and classification of soils, distinguish
different horizons of a soil profile, indicator of soil moisture regimes

10
 SAC 101
❖ Soil consistence is resistance of a soil at various moisture contents to mechanical
stresses
❖ The range of soil moisture content under friable condition is optimum for tillage
❖ ‘Cohesive’ and ‘adhesive’ forces, which determine ease with which soil can be reshaped
or ruptures
❖ Plasticity of soil is capacity to be molded and to retain shape even when stress is removed
❖ Soils containing > 15% clay exhibit plasticity
❖ The three limits (indices) of plasticity: shrinkage limit or lower plastic limit, ii) plastic
limit and iii) liquid limit or upper plastic limit
❖ The moisture content at which soil ceases to be plastic, becomes semi-fluid and tends to
flow like a liquid is upper plastic limit
❖ It is soil moisture content below which soil becomes friable; soil water mass is unable to
change shape continuously under applied force- lower plastic limit
❖ Plasticity number (Index)- The difference between moisture content (consistency) of
upper and lower plastic limits.
❖ Soil with expanding type clay- high liquid limit & plasticity index- Organic matter favors
plasticity
❖ Na saturated soils have lower plastic limits than K, Ca and Mg saturated soils
❖ pF values- lower plastic limit- 2.8 – 3.2; and upper plastic limit- 0.5
❖ Physical classification of soil water- i) Gravitational water ii) Capillary water and iii)
Hygroscopic water
❖ Gravitational water- “free water” occupies larger soil pores (macro pores) and moves
down readily under force of gravity.
❖ Soil moisture potential at gravitational state is 0 or > - 1/3 bar
❖ Capillary water is held in capillary pores (micro pores)- It is held at potential -1/3 bar to
-31 bar
❖ Hygroscopic water: water that held tightly on surface of soil colloidal particle- moves in
form of water vapor- held in soil at potential of > -31 bar
❖ Plants cannot absorb this water (unavailable), certain microorganism may utilize
hygroscopic water
❖ Gravitational water and Hygroscopic water unavailable to plants; but part of Capillary
water is available to plants
❖ Biological Classification of Soil Water: Available, unavailable & Super available or
superfluous water

11
 SAC 101
❖ Available water: Portion of water retained in soil between field capacity (-1/3 bar) and
permanent wilting coefficient (-15 bars)- easily usable by plants
❖ Un-available water: water held in soil at potential > -15 bar - unavailable to plants-
includes whole of hygroscopic water & part of capillary water
❖ Superfluous water: Water which is retained in soil beyond field capacity soil moisture
tension- Includes gravitational water + portion of capillary water- unavailable to plants
❖ 0 to - 0.3 bar = Gravitational; - 0.3 bar = Field Capacity; -15 bar = wilting point;
Between -0.3 to -15 bar plant available water; -15 to -100 bar = stages of air dry; -10,000
bar = oven dry
❖ pF Scale (Schofield)- height of water column (cm) to give necessary suction- free energy
measured in terms of height of water column to produce suction
❖ pF value at field capacity- 2.53; Wilting point- 4.18; Hygroscopic point - 4.50
❖ Gravimetric method (direct method): simple, most accurate & most widely used
method- drying it in an oven at 105°C- reliable, unaffected by salt content; disadvantage-
very time consuming, laborious
❖ Electrical conductivity method (Gypsum block method): % moisture from field
capacity to wilting point- affected by salt concentration in soil solution
❖ Neutron scattering method: Fast neutrons are emitted by neutron emitters like radium-
beryllium or americium-beryllium- detector consists of Boron tri-fluoride gas (BF3)
❖ Time Domain Reflectometry- Based on “dielectric constant of water”- as water content
increases, dielectric constant increases- independent of soil texture, temperature & salt
content
❖ Gamma ray attenuation method: Consists to two “Al” tubes- one tube- radioactive
isotope (Caesium-137) & other tube- thallium-activated NaI crystal as detector- follows
principle of Beer’s law
❖ Field Tensiometer (suction method): measures matric potential - confined up to
minimum matric potential of -0.85 bar
❖ Soil Water Potential: Measure of energy status of soil water to do some work (unit: bars
or atmosphere)
❖ Water flows from higher (less negative) potential to lower (more negative) potential
❖ Matric potential: Reduction in free energy of water due to attraction of water to soil
matrix- always NEGATIVE- greatest effect on release of water from soil to plants
❖ Total water potential (Pt) Gravitational potential + Matric potential + Osmotic
potential or solute potential + Pressure potential.
❖ At saturated condition pressure potential = osmotic potential
12
 SAC 101
❖ Soil water potential expressed in Negative sign. Soil water tension / suction expressed
in Positive sign
❖ Saturation water content: all soil pores filled with water; matric potential zero
❖ Field Capacity: Amount of water held by soil at this stage; only micropores are filled
with water & plants absorb water; held at potential of (- 1/3 or – 15 bar)
❖ Permanent wilting coefficient- water is so firmly held - soil particles that plant roots are
unable to draw it; held at tension of 15 bar
❖ Maximum water holding capacity: both micro and macro capillary - completely filled
with water
❖ Sticky point moisture: moisture content of soil at which it no longer sticks to foreign
object- represents maximum moisture content at which a soil remains friable
❖ The percentage of water which soil can retain against centrifugal force of 1000 times that
of gravity- Moisture equivalent
❖ Soil Water Movement: Saturated flow, Unsaturated flow & Water Vapour Movement
❖ Saturated flow occurs when soil pores are completely filled with water. This water moves
at water potentials > – 33 kPa. (flow governed by gravity)
❖ The ease with which soil pores permit water movement ( Permeability)
❖ Hydraulic conductivity- ease with which soil conducts water through its pores
❖ The vertical water flow rate through saturated soil is given by Darcy’s law
❖ Unsaturated flow occurs along soil surfaces, not through large pores. driven by matric
forces- held at water potential of < -1/3 bars
❖ Hysterisis : The moisture content at different tensions during wetting of soil varies from
moisture content at same tensions during drying
❖ Infiltration - downward entry or movement of water into soil surface – vegetative cover
increases infiltration rate
❖ Percolation- The movement of water through column of soil- Sandy soils have greater
percolation than clayey soil
❖ Drainage: It is natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from given
area
❖ Heat capacity/ thermal capacity: quantity of heat required to raise temperature of unit
mass or volume of body by 1 ˚C expressed as cal/ ˚C
❖ Specific heat: quantity of heat required to raise temperature of 1 g of substance by 1 ˚C or
it is heat capacity / unit mass of substance expressed as cal/g/ ˚C or J/g/ ˚C- on volume
basis- volumetric specific heat cal/ cm3/˚C
❖ Specific heat of soil: 0.2 cal/g; water: 1.0 cal/g; organic matter: 0.5 cal/g
13
 SAC 101
❖ Thermal conductivity: quantity of heat transmitted through unit of substance per unit
cross-section area per unit temperature gradient per unit time. cal/sec/cm/ ˚C
❖ Order of thermal conductivity sandy> loam> clay > peat
❖ Thermal conductivity increases with increase in wetness, compaction; decreases with
decrease in organic matter
❖ Thermal diffusivity: Thermal conductivity / volumetric heat capacity. cm2/s
❖ Mode of transmission of heat flow in soil through Conduction
❖ Heat flow in soil through conduction is described by Fourier’s law
❖ Light textured sandy soils absorb heat very rapidly than heavy textured soils
❖ Soil aeration facilitates exchange of gases between soil and atmosphere
❖ Composition of soil air oxygen (20.6 %) - atmosphere air (20.79 %); carbondioxide in
soil air (0.03 %) - atmosphere air (0.25 %)
❖ Concentration of CO2 in soil air is 10 times higher than atmospheric air
❖ Soil macro pores are high – Rapid exchange of gases - good soil aeration
❖ Soils on which crops are grown contain more CO2 and less O2 than fallow lands
❖ TILLAGE- exchange of gases faster; puddling decreases macropores and results in
poor aeration
❖ Decomposition of organic matter decrease O2 & increases CO2
❖ Oxygen content of soil air is higher in dry season than during monsoon
❖ Mass Flow- Causes movement of entire mass of air from region of higher pressure to
region of lower pressure – due to total pressure gradient of gases
❖ Diffusion - predominant process of soil aeration- molecular transfer of gases (own
partial pressure)
❖ The diffusive flow of a gas within a porous medium is described by Fick's law.
❖ Oxidized state- N2 & SO4- easily utilized by plants ; Reduced forms - elements – toxic
(Fe2+, Mn2+); Reduced soils have grey & blue colors
❖ Oxygen Diffusion Rate (ODR)- critical value 20 x 10-8 g cm -2 min -1
❖ Redox potential (Eh)- Indicate oxidation and reduction states of soil system
❖ Positive Eh value -oxidized state; Negative Eh value - reduced state
❖ Poor aeration results in ferrous oxide, H2S gas, CO2 gas, ethylene, organic acids, etc., in
soil which is toxic to plants
❖ Soil temperature measurement- Contact type: Bimetallic strip thermometer, Mercury or
Alcohol thermometer and Constant pressure or constant volume thermometer
❖ Soil temperature: Based on electric properties- Thermistors, Thermocouple thermometers
❖ Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration (activity)
14
 SAC 101
❖ The scale of acidity or alkalinity is called pH scale. This scale ranges from 0 to 14. The
neutral point in this scale is at pH 7
❖ All values > pH 7 represent alkalinity (excess OH- ion) and < 7 denote acidity (excess H+)
❖ The Soil reaction (pH) of solution represents degree of acidity or basicity
❖ Acids soils – Base unsaturated- common in regions of high rainfall- exchange complex
will be dominated by H + ions
❖ Pools of soil acidity: Active acidity, Exchangeable/ Potential/ Salt replaceable/ Reserve
acidity, Residual acidity
❖ Active acidity is a measure of H+ and Al3+ ion activity in soil solution- Magnitude of
acidity is limited
❖ Exchangeable Acidity due to adsorbed H+ & Al3+ on soil colloids
❖ Residual acidity- H & Al atoms bound in non-exchangeable forms- organic matter &
silicate clay
❖ Exchangeable acidity is generally highest for Smectites, intermediate for Vermiculites,
and lowest for Kaolinite- Magnitude of this acidity is very high
❖ Residual acidity is that which remains in soil after active and exchange acidity have been
neutralized
❖ Total acidity= Active acidity + Exchangeable acidity + Residual acidity
❖ Soil pH measures only Active acidity
❖ Alkaline soils - high degree of base saturation
❖ In highly acid soils, availability of nutrients Al, Fe, Mn etc., increased to toxicity level.
The availability of Ca, N, P etc., become unavailable
❖ Most microorganisms function best - pH range 6.0 to 7.5
❖ Phosphorus availability- highest – soil reaction is 6.5 to 7.5
❖ Availability of Potassium (K) - not influenced by soil reaction
❖ When pH is low, solubility of Fe, Al & Mn compounds is increased & are readily
available in acid soils
❖ Availability of B, Cu& Zn reduced in alkaline soils and that of Mo in acid soils.
❖ Availability of Mo- It is more available in neutral and alkaline soils
❖ Neutral to slightly alkaline (6.5 to 8.0) conditions favors bacterial growth
❖ An acid pH (4.5 to 6.5) favors fungal growth, actinomycetes prefer slightly alkaline
❖ % base saturation <80 indicates soil acidity; 80 to 90 - neutral; > 90 - alkaline
❖ Cultural operations in general tend to increase soil acidity
❖ Soils developed from parent material of basic rocks (Basalt) generally have higher pH
than those formed from acid rocks (granite)
15
 SAC 101
❖ The overall effect of submergence results in increase in pH of acid soil & decrease in pH
of alkaline soil
❖ Buffering refers to resistance to a change in pH
❖ Clay soils rich in organic matter - highly buffered than sandy soils
❖ Greater CEC greater will be the buffer capacity
❖ BUFFER is weak acid and its salt
❖ Soil Electrical Conductivity (EC), is ability of soil to conduct electrical current-
expressed in milli Simens per meter (mS/m) or desi Simen per meter (dS/m)
❖ EC measures- Soil salinity -measure of total amount of soluble salts (chlorides, sulphates
and nitrates of Ca, Mg, Na) in soil.
❖ The colloidal state refers to a two-phase system in which one material in a very finely
divided state is dispersed through second phase.
❖ Size of soil colloids <0.001 mm
❖ Inorganic colloids: Silicate clays (Layer Silicate Clays & Amorphous Clays (non-
crystalline)), Iron and Al hydroxide clays
❖ Organic Colloids- Humus
❖ Surface area is area of clay particle that is accessible to ions/molecules
❖ Small size of soil colloids- larger external surface area per unit mass
❖ All clays particles- expose large external surface
❖ External surface area of Kaolinite- 30-35 m2/g
❖ Internal surface area of Montmorillonite- 500-600 m2/g; Vermiculite- 700-800 m2/g
❖ Most of organic and inorganic soil colloids carry a negative charge
❖ Due to cohesive force- clay particle are able to form aggregates
❖ Smectite group like Montmorillonite swell when wet and shrink when dry
❖ Soils dominated by kaolinite, chlorite, or fine grained micas do not swell or shrink-
Vermiculite is intermediate
❖ The phenomenon of coalescence and formation of flocks is known as flocculation (Ca &
Mg)
❖ The reverse process of breaking up of flocks into individual particles is de-flocculation
or dispersion (Na)
❖ Colloids are unable to pass through a semi permeable membrane
❖ Iron and aluminum oxide clays (Sesquioxide clays): Under conditions of extensive
leaching by rainfall (warm humid climate)- clays do not swell, not sticky and have high
phosphorus adsorption capacity
❖ Sesquioxides (mixture of oxides and hydroxides of iron and aluminum)
16
 SAC 101
❖ Sources of negative charge on clays: Isomorphous substitution, Ionizable hydrogen ions
& Anion exchange
❖ Isomorphous substitution / Permanent / pH independent charges/ Constant surface
charges : cation of higher valence with another cation of lower valence but of similar size
in clay crystal structure may occur; Si4+ replaced by A13+, and replacement of A13+ by
Fe3+, Fe2+, Mg2+ or Zn2+. 2:1 type clay minerals, 2:2 type clay minerals
❖ Ionizable hydrogen ions / Exposed crystal edges/ pH dependent charges / variable
charges: The Al-OH or -Si-OH portion of clay ionizes H and leaves an un-neutralized
negative charge on oxygen (-AlO- or - SiO-). Especially Kaolinite & Humus
❖ The Ion Exchange phenomenon was first identified by Harry Stephen Thompson (1850)
❖ Cation exchange phenomenon was first discovered by Thomas Way (1850)
❖ Common exchangeable cations are Ca2+, Mg2+, H+, K+, NH + and Na+
❖ The common anions are SO4 2-, Cl -, PO4 3- and NO3 -
❖ The unit of CEC is Cmol (p+) / kg ; AEC is Cmol (e-) / kg or milliequivalent / 100 g
❖ Principles governing cation exchange reactions: Reversibility, Charge Equivalence,
Fixed ratio law, complementary ion effect
❖ Replacing power of ions increases with atomic weight
❖ H+ ions are adsorbed more strongly than other monovalent or divalent ions.
❖ The replacing power of cation: H+ > Al3+ > Ca2+> Mg2+ > K+ = NH+4 > Na+
❖ CEC (Cmol (p+)/ Kg) of Vermiculite- 100-150, Montmorillonite- 80- 100, Illite- 15-40,
Chlorite- 10-40, Kaolinite- 3- 15
❖ Out of all exchangeable bases, Ca2+ is dominant cation
❖ % Base saturation = Exchangeable base forming cation / CEC x 100
❖ Base Saturation Percentage > 80 % – highly fertile soil; 50-80 %- medium fertile soil;
<50 %- less fertile soil
❖ Higher the pH, higher CEC; Lower pH, greater AEC
❖ Soils with Kaolinite dominant clay have higher AEC than 2:1 type clay
❖ The relative order of anion exchange is OH- > H2 PO4- > SO42- > NO3- > Cl –
❖ The phenomenon of anion exchange is important release of fixed P in soil
❖ Soil Organic Matter is generally used to represent organic constituents in soil, including
undecayed plant and animal tissues, their partial decomposition products, and soil
biomass
❖ Soil Organic Matter: Natural C-containing organic materials living or dead
❖ Sources of Soil Organic Matter: Primary sources- Plant tissues; Secondary sources-
Animals waste products
17
 SAC 101
❖ Dominant organic compounds in plants residues is Carbohydrates (60 %), Lignins (10 –
30 %), Fats, waxes, tannin (1– 8 %), Proteins (1 – 5 %)
❖ Sugars, starches, proteins - Rapidly decomposed; Hemicelluloses, celluloses - Less
rapidly decomposed; Fats, waxes, resins, lignins- Very slowly decomposed
❖ Simple decomposition products- aerobic decomposition are CO2, H2O, NO -3, SO 4 2-
❖ Products formed- anaerobic conditions CH4, NH4 2-, organic acids like lactic, propionic,
butyric, H2S etc
❖ Ammonification is process of transformation of organic nitrogenous compounds into
ammonia- by heterotrophic microbes- aerobic process
❖ Nitrification is process of conversion of ammonia to nitrites (NO2-) and then to nitrate
(NO3 -) – ammonia is converted to nitrite by Nitrosomonas & nitrite to nitrate by
Nitrobacter- aerobic process by autotrophic bacteria
❖ Denitrification- The process, of conversion of nitrate into gaseous nitrogen (N2) or
nitrous oxide (N2O) by Pseudomonas / Bacillus- water logging and high pH favours
❖ Aminization: The process of conversion of proteins to aminoacids
❖ Breakdown of Cellulose to cellobiose by cellulase; Cellobiose to glucose by cellobiase
❖ Breakdown of Hemicellulose to sugars and uronic acid by hemicellulase
❖ Enzyme involved in breakdown of lignin is lignase/ligninase
❖ Enzyme involved in sulphur oxidation – sulphatase by Thiobacillus; mineralization of
phosphorus by enzyme phosphatase
❖ Carbon:Nitrogen (C : N) ratio- intimate relationship- organic matter (C) & nitrogen
contents of soil
❖ Wider C:N ratio leads to slow decomposition rate
❖ Narrow C:N ratio, plant residues decompose quickly and release nutrients readily
❖ C:N humus- 10:1; microbes- 4:1 to 9:1; arable soils – 5:1 to 15:1
❖ Organic matter maintains favourable condition of aeration and permeability in soil;
Water holding capacity of soil is increased
❖ Surface mulching with organic matter lowers wind erosion and lowers soil temperatures
in summer and keeps soil warmer in winter
❖ Litter: It comprises the dead plant and animal debris on the soil surface
❖ Organic matter serves as source of energy for microbes, as a reservoir of nutrients for
plant growth
❖ Organic acids released from decomposing organic matter help to reduce alkalinity in
soils

18
 SAC 101
❖ Humus (final product of decomposition of OM) provides storehouse of nutrients- acts
as buffering agent
❖ OM influence soil colour - adequate amount – brown to dark brown or black
❖ OM acts as a chelate binding – soluble chelates- increasing availability of micronutrients
for plant uptake
❖ Humus is a complex and rather resistant mixture of brown or dark brown amorphous
and colloidal organic substance that results from microbial decomposition and synthesis-
relatively stable
❖ Soil organic matter fractions: Humic matter & Non- humic matter
❖ Humic group 60-80% of soil organic matter- most complex- resistant to microbial
attack- aromatic ring structure- polyphenols and poly quinones
❖ Humic group consists of series of substances such as Fulvi acid, Humic acid & Humin
❖ Fulvic acid (FA): Light yellow coloured, lowest molecular weight, more aliphatic and is
alkali and acid soluble
❖ Humic acid (HA): Dark brown to black coloured, medium molecular weight, aromatic,
alkali-soluble and acid-insoluble
❖ Humin (HN): Humin is very stable, highest molecular weight and is insoluble in both
alkali and acid
❖ Non humic group: 20-30% of organic matter in soil- less complex and less resistant to
microbial attack than humic- polysaccharides like carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, etc
❖ Theories on humus formation: Lignin theory: Proposed by Waksman (1932);
Kononovas’ theory; Polyphenol theory: (Flaig and Sochtig, 1964)
❖ Lignin theory- humic substances are formed due to incomplete degradation of lignin
❖ Kononovas’ theory: humic substances are formed by cellulose decomposing
mycobacteria- Polyphenols oxidized to quinones – react with N compounds
❖ Polyphenol theory: humic substances are formed by condensation of phenolic
materials- quinones are condensed with low molecular weight microbial products
❖ Humus: negatively charged; very high surface area, higher CEC (150 – 300 cmol/kg), 4 -
5 times higher WHC than that of silicate clays- Impart black color to soils
❖ Various clay minerals can bind humus substances through some linkages known as clay-
humus complex
❖ Humic acid is arranged on external surface of clay- easily extracted by alkali- Unstable
❖ Interaction of clay, humic acid and exchangeable cations (Fe, Al, Ca, Mg) occurring in
lattice of clay mineral this humic acid is not extracted by alkali- Stable
❖ Soil flora and Soil fauna are terms used to describe organisms that live within soils
19
 SAC 101
❖ The flora is composed primarily of microorganisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes,
algae and fungi
❖ The fauna is composed of microfauna such as protozoans, mesofauna such as nematodes
and mites, centipedes, springtails,and macrofauna such as insects and worms
❖ Microfauna and Microflora: 1-100 μm; Mesofauna: 100 μm -2 mm; Macrofauna: 2-20
mm; Megafauna: > 20 mm
❖ Bacteria are most abundant group of micro-organism in soil in number
❖ Autotropic nitrifying bacteria- Nitrosomonas, nitrobacter; Sulphur oxidizing bacteria-
Thiobacillus; Denitrifying bacteria- Psedumonas, Bacillus; Ferrobacillus – Converts
ferrous to ferric
❖ Symbiotic, non-symbiotic and cellulose decomposers come under Heterotrophs
❖ Nitrifiers, denitrifiers, Nitrate formers and sulphur oxidizers are autotrophs
❖ Actinomycetes presence is responsible for "earthy" aroma (Geosmin) which is associated
with good healthy soil
❖ Fungi live in symbiotic association with roots of higher plants- “mycorrhizal
association”- increases availability of several essential nutrients
❖ Fungi is dominant microbe in biomass compared to bacteria
❖ Soil enzymes: Urease (helps in breakdown of urea), Protease, Cellulase (breaks
cellulose), Hemicellulase(Hemicellulose), Ligninase/ Lignase (degrades Lignin),
Phosphatase, Sulphatase.
❖ Biomass carbon: part of carbon assimilated by microorganisms and incorporated into
microbial tissue
❖ Biomass nitrogen: as part of nitrogen assimilated by microorganisms and incorporated
into microbial tissue
❖ Carbon sequestration is process of transforming carbon in air (CO2) into stored soil
organic carbon (storage of carbon in stable solid form)
❖ Carbon trading is market-based system aimed at reducing greenhouse gases that
contribute to global warming, particularly carbon dioxide
❖ Carbon trading: Carbon CAP- Trade program & Carbon offsetting
❖ Carbon CAP- Trade program: Assignment of an upper threshold limit on amount of
pollutant that can be emitted by country; TRADE- excess or unused allowances/ credits
can be traded to the countries whose emissions have exceeded their assigned cap
❖ Carbon trading emission mechanisms: Emission Trading (ET), Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI)

20
 SAC 101
❖ Emission Trading (ET): Countries whose emissions are less than their assigned amount
can sell the excess amount to countries whose emissions have exceeded their assigned
amount
❖ Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Developed countries can fund emission
reduction projects in developing nations whose emissions have exceeded their assigned
amount
❖ Joint Implementation (JI): Developed countries can implement emission reduction
projects in another developed country with common idea on reduction of carbon
emission
❖ Kyoto protocol: Adopted on 11 Dec 1997, Came to force on 16 Feb 2005- Aims to
reduce emissions of green house gases
❖ Avoiding emissions by maintaining existing carbon storage in trees and soils
❖ Increasing carbon storage by, e.g., tree planting, conversion from conventional to
conservation tillage practices on agricultural lands; Increased crop rotation intensity;
Using higher residue crops; cover crops
❖ Soil pollution is defined as contamination of soil of a particular region due to excess
application of chemicals in form of fertilizers, pesticides, etc
❖ Excess amount of fertilizers in soils makes the soil either acidic or alkaline and pollutes
it
❖ Excess fertilizers discharge to water bodies increase algal growth on surface water-
Eutrophication (on increase amounts of Phosphorus & nitrate nitrogen)
❖ Inorganic contaminants: Trace elements concentrated in irregular way- usually metals-
heavy metals (density > 6 g/cc)- Some are essential, but all are toxic to organisms at
higher concentrations
❖ Cd (cadmium) and Arsenic (As)- extremely poisonous; Mercury, lead & Ni- moderately
poisonous; Cu, Zn & Mn – relatively lower toxicity- phytotoxic effect, higher level of
heavy metals-disturb nutrient balance in soil- affect biochemical processes & crop yields
❖ On accumulation pesticides in soil- increase in concentration of chemicals upto food
chain- This increase in concentration up to food chain – biological magnification
❖ Effect of soil pollution: reduced soil fertility, reduced availability of nutrients, reduced
crop yield, imbalance of soil flora and fauna
❖ Methods to control soil pollution: Integrated Crop Management, intercropping, crop
rotation, green manuring, Less use of chemical fertilizers & pesticides, Integrated
nutrient management (INM)- Combine use of chemical-organic- biofertilizers, Soil

21
 SAC 101
organic matter, Integrated pest management (IPM), Integrated weed management
(IWM), Bioremediation, Phytoremediation

22

View publication stats