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WEEK 7: Phonetics and Phonology

1. Phonetics vs. Phonology vs. Pronunciation vs. Articulation
2. Vowel vs. Consonant Sounds (Segmentals)
3. Vowels and Diphthong

1. Phonetics vs. Phonology

 Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds, and phonology concerns the study of more
complex and abstract sound patterns and structures (syllables, intonation, etc.)
 Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages systematically organize their phones or, for sign
languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a particular
language variety. Phonology is the study of different sounds and the way they come together to form speech and words -
such as the comparison of the sounds of the two "p" sounds in "pop-up."
 Pronunciation means how we say words. Most people speak the dialect of standard English with an accent that belongs
to the part of the country they come from or live in.
 Articulation - /ɑːrˈtɪk.jə.lət/ able to express thoughts and feelings easily and clearly, or showing this quality: an intelligent
and highly articulate young woman. She gave a witty, entertaining, and articulate speech.

2. Vowel vs. Consonant Sounds (Segmental)

Phonetically, it is easy to give definitions: a vowel is any sound with no audible noise produced by constriction in the vocal tract,
and consonant is a sound with audible noise produced by a constriction.

However, this definition forces us to identify as vowels many sounds which function as consonants in speech. For example, in the
English word "yes", the initial [j] is phonetically a vowel according to the definition above. In the phonological system of English,
however, the [j] is in a typical consonant position (compare "yes" with "mess", "less", "Tess" etc.).

Contoid and Vocoid

A solution to this terminological difficulty, suggested by Pike, is to have two different distinctions, one strictly phonetic and the
other based on function, or phonological criteria.

For the phonetic distinction, Pike advocated using the words vocoid and contoid. A vocoid is defined as a "central oral
resonant". It's central because not a lateral sound, like [l]; oral because air passes through the oral cavity; and resonant because
there is no constriction, so all the sound comes from the resonances in the oral tract resulting from the vibration of the vocal cords.
Everything which is not a vocoid is a contoid. Thus, [j] is a vocoid, [i] is a vocoid, [a] is a vocoid, [w] is a vocoid, but [l] is
not; it is a contoid, as are [p], [b], etc.

Consonants are contoids which function as syllable margins, e.g. [p], [b], and sometimes [l] (in words like "lip", "lot", but not the
final segment in "little", where the [l] is syllabic).

Definition of 'contoid'
1. of or pertaining to a sound characterized by stoppage or obstruction of the flow of air in the vocal tract; consonant like.

A vocoid is a sound made with an open oral cavity such that there is little audible friction in the mouth. It has the potential to be
analyzed phonemically as a vowel.
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Classification by Place and Manner

Consonants and vowels are traditionally classified in two dimensions: place and manner of articulation. Place of articulation
refers to the location of the narrowest part of the vocal tract in producing a sound. For example, for the consonant [b] the vocal
tract is narrowest at the lips (in fact, it could not possibly any narrower here!). In vowels, the narrowest part of the vocal tract is
usually in the middle of the mouth, in the region of the palate. "Manner of articulation" refers to various other things, including
whether the airflow is central or lateral, oral or nasal, retroflex or non-retroflex, the phonation type, and the degree of stricture.

Vowels and Diphthong

A diphthong is made of two components. By definition and sound structure, diphthongs are a combination of two separate
vowel sounds that, when uttered, the first vowel glides onto the second vowel forming a single syllable, as heard in /aɪ, aʊ, eɪ, oʊ,
ɔɪ/. By nature, diphthongs happen to be long vowels.

WEEK 8: What is morphology and example?

Morphology is the study of how parts of words, called morphemes, create different meanings by combining with each other or
standing alone. For example, if you take the morpheme cookie and add the suffix s, you create a new word cookies, a plural form
with a slightly different meaning than the singular form.

The inflectional morpheme or ending affects one of these factors: Tense: Adding 'ed' to 'walk' (walked) makes the verb past tense.
Number: Adding 's' to tree (trees) means there are more than one. Comparison: Adding 'est' to cold (coldest) is a superlative
comparison.

Free and Bound Morphemes

"Free morphemes" can stand alone with a specific meaning, for example, eat, date, weak. "Bound morphemes" cannot stand
alone with meaning. Morphemes are comprised of two separate classes called (a) bases (or roots) and (b) affixes.

DERIVATIONAL AND INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

First, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category (part of speech) of a word. derivational morphemes often
change the part of speech of a word. Thus, the verb read becomes the noun reader when we add the derivational morpheme -er.

Derivational morphology is concerned with forming new lexemes, that is, words that differ either in syntactic category (part of
speech) or in meaning from their bases. Derivation is typically contrasted with inflection, which is the modification of words to fit
into different grammatical contexts.

Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes

Lexical morphemes are those that having meaning by themselves (more accurately, they have sense). Grammatical
morphemes specify a relationship between other morphemes. Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words.

Words vc. Affixes

An affix is a word part added to the beginning or end of a base word to create a new word. Some words have an affix at the
beginning, which is called a prefix, and others have an affix at the end, which is called a suffix. Words can also have both a
prefix and a suffix.
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WEEK 9: Word Formation Processes

• Prefixes, Suffixes, and Root Words
• Decodable and Sight Word

The main objectives of the word-formation process are to form new words with the same root by deploying different rules or processes. There are
nine essential word formation processes namely; Derivation, Back Formation, Conversion, Compounding, Clipping, Blending, Abbreviation,
Acronyms, and Borrowing.

A prefix is a word part with a specific meaning at the beginning of a word. A suffix is a word part with a specific meaning at the end of a word.
A root word is the main part of a word that contains its core meaning.

Example decodable text for early readers

It includes simple phrases such as “I am Fox,” and “I like to play,” etc. A decodable text like this is ideal for beginners because it helps them
practice and develop the skills they need to decode correctly.

Sight words is a common term in reading that has a variety of meanings. When it is applied to early reading instruction, it typically refers to the
set of about 100 words that keeps reappearing on almost any page of text. “Who, the, he, were, does, their, me, be” are a few examples.

WEEK 10: Context Clues and Vocabulary Building

Synonyms and Antonyms

Vocabulary building skills are what children need to develop their growing vocabulary. Teachers typically encourage children to read widely and
research. That's what building a vocabulary is - seeing a new word, researching what it means, and tucking it away to use later.

Vocabulary building skills are what children need to develop their growing vocabulary. Teachers typically encourage children to read widely and
research. That's what building a vocabulary is - seeing a new word, researching what it means, and tucking it away to use later.

Here are some ways that teachers will help children to build their vocabulary skills.

1. Synonyms
Use words other than 'said', 'nice', 'good' or 'bad' - we've all heard that, right? Using synonyms is a solid way for children to expand beyond their
basic vocabulary and add more to their high-frequency vocabulary.

Looking at words they already know and finding ones that mean the same, or have similar meanings, is a simple and easy way to expand a
child's vocabulary. Matching games are often a fun way for children to develop their knowledge of synonyms.

2. Root Words, Prefixes and Suffixes

Root words form the basis of many other words. Knowing lots of root words and the prefixes and suffixes that can be added to them will greatly
expand a child's reading and writing vocabulary. Not only will they be able to spell them, but if they come across a new word with a familiar root
word, prefix or suffix, they'll be able to estimate its meaning.

3. Dictionary and Thesaurus Skills

Dictionaries and thesauruses are great tools to use when helping children to develop their vocabulary. Children should develop the habit of
researching a new word in the dictionary whenever they come across one. This way, they can learn its definition. They should also be
encouraged to write down the word and its meaning to refer back to later.
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4. Reading
Never underestimate the power of reading! Reading is the best and most effective way for children to grow their vocabulary. While they read,
they'll consolidate their understanding of familiar words while encountering new ones. They can use their knowledge of other words to estimate
new meanings, then use their dictionary skills to learn the meanings of unfamiliar words.

5. Repetition
It's unlikely that anyone will remember a new word's spelling, pronunciation and meaning after seeing it just once. That's why it's important to
repeat a new word so that it sticks.

Synonyms- A word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language, for example shut is a
synonym of close.

An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. For example, hot and cold are antonyms, as are good and bad.

Kind of context clue (in addition to definitions and synonyms embedded in sentences) is a word or words of opposite meaning (antonym) set
somewhere near a word that is unfamiliar. If you find a word or words of opposite meaning and you recognize it or them, you are "home free."
You can unlock the meaning of the unfamiliar word.

For example, read the following sentence: "I was not exactly enamored of the travel plans my agent made for me; my lack of enthusiasm was
triggered by the eight-hour layover required between flights." What is the meaning of the word enamored? You can use the context of the
sentence to reason in this way: Enamored of means just the opposite of lacking in enthusiasm for.

Strategy

Step 1: Check for synonyms or definitions embedded right there. If you find a synonym or definition, reread the sentence with the new term
keeping that synonym or definition in mind.

Step 2: Check for an antonym clue. If you find one, think about its meaning, actually telling yourself the opposite meaning. Then reread the
sentence and rephrase it in your own mind.

Context Clues: Substitution

At times, rereading a sentence that contains an unfamiliar term and substituting a word or phrase for it that makes sense can help you to unlock
the meaning of the unfamiliar word. To understand the substitution strategy, read the following sentence:

"When we stayed at the military base, each Saturday we went to the commissary to buy the food and supplies we would need for the next week."

Although you may never have visited a commissary, given the use of the word in this sentence, you immediately can substitute the word store for
the word commissary. You probably can wrestle an even more complete meaning for commissary from the overall context of the sentence: a
store for food and supplies that is located on a military base.

Steps in the substitution strategy are as follows:

Step 1: When you read a sentence that you have trouble understanding because of an unfamiliar word in it, reread the sentence and substitute a
word that seems to make sense in the context.

Step 2: Read on. If the word you substituted does not make sense in the context of the rest of the paragraph, try again.

Step 3: If the sentence still does not make sense to you and you do not understand the main point the author is making in the paragraph, look for
synonym, definition, and antonym clues. If you are still uncertain, check a dictionary.

Context Clues: Multiple Meanings

As you have learned, a basic strategy for unlocking the meaning of an unfamiliar word is to search the context of the sentence in which a new
word appears for clues. This is especially important when a word has multiple meanings that you already know and you must decide the
particular one that applies. Try using the following strategy:

Step 1: Check the context for clues: definitions and synonyms given "right there" as well as words of opposite meaning – antonyms.

Step 2: Substitute each meaning you know in the context of the sentence until you find one that makes good sense there. (Hennings, p. 48)

Multiple-meaning words are words that take on different meanings in different contexts. While a word like lucrative has only one meaning
("producing a profit"), a multiple-meaning word like figure is used in a variety of ways, depending on the subject.

WEEK 11: Definitions and Supporting Details

• Lexicography
The Dictionary

Location of the Topic Sentence

Topic sentences are usually in the first sentence of the paragraph, but not always.
They may also be located within the paragraph or at the end of the paragraph.
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They may even appear twice – at the beginning and at the end.

EXAMPLE: WITHIN A PARAGRAPH – Preceded by one or more introductory sentence that may relate the main idea to the previous paragraph,
arouse the reader’s interest or give background for the main reason.

The physical complaints of neurotics – people who are overly anxious, pessimistic, hostile, or tense – were once largely ignored by physician.
Many doctors believed that the frequent complaint of neurotic were exaggerations.However, new research shows that neurotics are, fact, more
likely to have physical problems. Specifically, researchers found neurotics stand a grater chance of having five particular ailments: arthritis,
asthma, ulcers, headaches, and heart disease. In addition, there is evidence that people who are pessimistic in their teens and twenties are more
likely to become ill or die in their forties.

Types of Supporting Materials

1. COMPARISONS in which one thing is shown to be like another.

EXAMPLE: Skilled college students are like the unskilled students in their desire for a diploma.

2. CONTRASTS in which one things is shown to differ from another.

EXAMPLE: Skilled students are different from unskilled students in that they use a method to read a textbook.

3. STATISTICS
EXAMPLE: 75 percent of the students who do not attend class regularly receive grades of C or worse.

4. GRAPHS
EXAMPLE: Figure 9-1 is one type of graph.

5. QUOTATIONS from authorities

EXAMPLE: Professor Smity admits, “I tell students they don’t need to attend my class if they don’t want to. I know, however, that if they don’t
come, they won’t pass.”

6. VIVID DESCRIPTIONS
EXAMPLE: The students took the exam from the professor’s hand, quickly looked at the grade, gave a sigh or relief and began to smile.

Major and Minor Details

There are two kinds of supporting details-major and minor. The main idea and its major supporting details form the basic framework of
paragraphs. The major details are the primary points that support the main idea. Paragraphs often contain minor details as well. While the major
details explain and develop the main idea, they, in turn are expanded upon the minor supporting details.

EXAMPLE: Main Idea and Major Detail

Studies reveal that people’s first names can have an influence on them. Some names reflect on people in a positive way. However, other names
can have a negative impact.

EXAMPLE: Main Idea and Major and Minor Detail

Studies reveal that people’s first names can have an influence on them.
Some names reflect on people in a positive way.

For example, one survey showed that American men consider them name Susan to be very sexy. And participants in a British study thought Tony
to be the name of someone very friendly. However, other names can have a negative impact. In one study, for instance, teachers gave lower
grades to essay supposedly written by boys named Hubert and Elmer than to the very same essay when they credited to boys with more popular
names. Another study found girls with unpopular names did worse on IQ and achievement tests than girls with more appealing names.

 Lexicography
An example of lexicography is Noah Webster's "An American Dictionary of the English Language." Webster normalized certain spellings in
America, such as "colour" to "color". He also added American words, like 'skunk,' that did not appear in British dictionaries.
 Dictionary making in lexicography
The main task during the making of dictionary articles is the writing of single concrete specifications of different item types. During the dictionary-
making the lexicographer applies a philological method when lexicographical items are selected and formulated.
 A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged alphabetically (or by consonantal
root for Semitic languages or radical and stroke for logographic languages), which may include information on definitions, usage,
etymologies, pronunciations, translation, etc.
 Semitic language
: a language that belongs to a subfamily of the Afro-Asiatic language family including Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, and Ethiopic.
 Lexicography is concerned with dictionaries, both with the processes of compilation and with the study of the finished products.
Writing systems that make use of logograms include Chinese, Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, and early cuneiform writing systems. No known
writing system is totally logographic; all such systems have both logograms and symbols representing particular sounds or syllables
 Logographic script, start first with the language and culture, then develop the script from those bases. Consider whether to handle certain
parts of the language, such as affixes, suppletion, homophones, idioms, ideophones, etc.
 Suppletion is a form of morphological irregularity whereby a change in a grammatical category triggers a change in word form, with a
different (suppletive) root substituting for the normal one (e.g. in the past tense of go, the irregular form went replaces the regular goed).
 Ideophones are words that vividly depict sensory experience with marked forms. They abound in many languages of the world, including
Niger-Congo, Afro-Asiatic, Dravidian, Austroasiatic, and Quechuan languages as well as Japanese, Korean, Turkish, and Basque.
 Homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning. The two words may be spelled the same, for
example rose and rose, or spelled differently, as in rain, reign, and rein.
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An example of lexicography is Noah Webster's "An American Dictionary of the English Language." Webster normalized certain spellings in
America, such as "colour" to "color". He also added American words, like 'skunk,' that did not appear in British dictionaries.

There are two types of lexicography. General lexicography is the compiling of dictionaries used by the general public. Specialized
lexicography, also known as scholarly lexicography, compiles a more focused list of words in a particular language or subject.

The main goals of lexicography are to provide a reliable, comprehensive account of a spoken language. The lexicographer must research,
organize, define, and compile the words in a dictionary.

The dictionary is known to have provided students with, not just the meaning of words or phrases, but the possible meanings of a word in
different contexts, correct pronunciations and spelling of words as well other resourceful information that can facilitate the learning of such
language skills like reading.

Lexicography is concerned with dictionaries, both with the processes of compilation and with the study of the finished products. The latter is
sometimes called “metalexicography” or “dictionary research.” The distinction is also drawn by referring to the compilation of
dictionaries as “practical lexicography” and to the study of dictionaries as “theoretical lexicography.”

Dictionaries come in many shapes and sizes, in many forms and formats; and the study of them reflects that diversity.