F0067T –Snow and ice

Lecture 2:
Formation of snow and metamorphism

Nina Lintzén
2024-01-25
 Information
• If you can’t attend this lecture – please go through the slides
and read relevant literature in Canvas (See Compendium –
Snow and ice + other literature).

• Hand in the lecture summary report (Latest February 30).

• Don’t forget to make the peer-review on another student’s work

(This will be assigned automatically in Canvas).

• Peer-reviews should be assigned on January 31 and completed

within one week after the due date of each assignment.
 Lecture content
• Introduction to snow
• Snow formation
• Basic structural characteristics
• Metamorphism
• Mechanical properties
 Why research on snow?
• Avalanche studies
• Loads and snow creep forces on structures
• Winter road maintenance
• Equipment for snow removal
• Vehicle mobility of snow
• Testing of tires
• Snow roads and runways
• Snow as a material for constructions
(Icehotel, Jukkasjärvi / Snow village, Finland and others)
• Military applications
• Layers of old snow (Greenland/Antarctica) gives info about
past climate conditions
• Snow and ice affects weather patterns also in snow free
regions in the world
• Interactions between weather and snow
 Why research on snow?
• Changes in snow cover affect climate, glaciers, water supply
etc. all around the world
• Climate change =>
Limited amount of natural snow
Machine-made snow needed in order to guarantee skiing and
winter activities
• Large amounts of snow falling during a short period of time
• Reduce CO2 emissions – Snow cooling
Use melting snow as a source for cooling during the summer
• Wintersports and tourism
 What is snow?
• A mixture of ice, air and at temperatures > 0℃ also water
• 2- or 3-phase material
• Grains or crystals
• Bonds between grains
 Snow as a material
• Properties vary tremendously due to several different
factors, such as:
 The snow’s wide-ranging porosity (fresh powder snow,
packed snow e.g., in a piste, ski track, on a road etc.)
 Proximity to the melting point
 Different degrees of sintering
 Temperature and humidity
 Liquid water content
 Grain size and structure
 Compaction and settlement
 Formation of snow
• In order for snow to fall:
• There must be a cloud capable of producing precipitation. Such
clouds arise if warm moist air is forced upwards into colder layers
in the atmosphere, and thereby cooled so that condensation of
water vapor starts.
 Formation of snow
• Different scenarios:
• Air can be forced upwards by a warm front or cold front.
• Air can be heated by a relatively warm water surface. The
heated air becomes lighter than the surroundings and is
therefore rising (convection).
• The air encounters a terrain obstacle.

• The temperature near the ground must be below or just a few

degrees above 0℃ .
 Formation of snow
• Warm, moist air collide with a cold air mass forcing the
warm air above the cold air.
 Formation of snow
• Cold dry air moves over a lake and pushes warmer water
vapor upward. The rising warmer air that contains water
vapor forms a cloud. This is called lake-effect snow.
 Formation of snow
• Warm air can cool by traveling up a mountain
slope.
 Formation of snow
• Clouds form when water vapor turns back to liquid water
through condensation.
• For condensation to occur a solid particle is necessary,
called nucleation site (soot, dust etc.)
• Water droplets freeze and snow crystals form either by:
– Sublimation / Deposition
– Freezing
 Formation of snow
• Sublimation / Deposition
 Supercooled water droplets and small ice crystals detach steam and
sublimates to larger and colder ice crystals under higher steam
pressure.

• Freezing
 Saturated water droplets freeze upon contact with ice crystals.
 Dew point / Freezing point

• Dew point = The temperature

at which air becomes saturated
with water vapor. When the air
is further cooled, water
droplets starts to condense
and form dew drops.

• Frost point = If the temperature

is below 0℃, frost rather than
dew is formed. Liquid water
goes to solid ice or water vapor
goes to ice (sublimation
/deposition).
 Formation of snow

• The three ”basic requirements” that must be fulfilled for

snow to be formed:

• Atmospheric humidity must be high enough

• Air temperature < 0℃
• Nucleation sites which intitiate the formation of snow
crystals
Formation of snow – Basic conditions
 Formation of snow
• Once snow crystals
form in the
atmosphere, they
grow by absorbing
surrounding water
droplets. The
snowflakes we end
up seeing on the
ground are an
accumulation of
these ice crystals.
 Winter precipitation types
• Snow – no melting occur, and the
temperature is below 0°C all the
way down to the ground.

• Sleet – snow melts (or partly

melts) and refreezes before
reaching the ground.

• Freezing rain – snow melts

completely, rain drops become
super-cooled in cold air and
refreezes on contact with the
ground (or surfaces).

• Rain – snow melts and does not

refreeze.
Freezing rain
 How snow forms
• The shape of the molecule
determines the way it crystallises.
• Water => Hexagonal shape
• The crystal grows larger as more
water freezes into it.
• Ice crystals vary in shape, but
has always six sides.
• Crystals are classified according
to their shape.
Snow crystal shape is temperature dependent

prism 100% planar

face

basal
100% columnar
plane
-20 -15 -10 -5 0
temperature (degrees C)

• Columns
• Plates
• Stellar crystals
The snow crystal morphology diagram
Snow crystal shape
 Machine-made snow
• Cryogenic method
• Cooling (freeze) method
• Jet-technique
 Machine-made snow
• Machine-made snow is generally used for constructions
and buildings of snow and as a base in ski slopes and
pistes.
- Higher density
- Grain structure – round grains => close-packed
structure
- Ice content in the snow may be higher
- Effective area higher
- Resist warm weather better
 Basic structural characteristics for snow
• Density
– Density is an important property of snow since it impacts many
other physical properties and mechanical properties.
– Bigger pore space => lower density (for dry snow)

– New ”fluffy snow” - 20 kg/m3 and 100 kg/m3

– Compressed dry snow ∼ 400 kg/m3
– The term SNOW only applies to densities up to 550 kg/m3
– FIRN – densities between 550 kg/m3 and 830 kg/m3
– ICE – densities > 830 kg/m3
 Basic structural characteristics
• Density
– Mechanical processing of snow increases the density and
reduces the pore space

– Ice content 60% => density: 550 kg/m3

(Density of a compacted ski slope or piste)

– Higher snow density only if there is water in the snow or heavy

compaction (heavier than a normal grooming machine).

– Adding water to snow is a way of compacting the snow, reduce

pore space and enlarge bonds between grains when the water
freezes.
 Basic structural characteristics
• Snow Structure
– Size and shape of grains
– Specific Surface Area = SSA

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 [𝑚𝑚2 ]

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 [𝑚𝑚3 ]
• Snow microstructure
– Geometry of snow crystals interlinked in the ice framework
– Coarser structures of ice frame work => smaller SSA

• Bonds in snow with large SSA (i.e., small grains) grow much faster
compared to large grained snow.
 Basic structural characteristics
• Specific surface area
– Bonds between grains in snow with a large SSA, i.e.
small rounded grains, grow faster than in large
grained snow with the same density.

• Grain size
 Basic structural characteristics
• Snow hardness - Hand hardness test
Symbol Hand test Term
F Fist in glove Very low
4F Four fingers in glove Low
1F One finger in glove Medium
P Blunt end of pencil High
K Knife blade Very high
I Too hard to insert knife Ice
 Basic structural characteristics
• Snow Wetness
– Describes the liquid water content (LWC) in a specific
volume
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 [𝑚𝑚3 ]
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 [%] =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 [𝑚𝑚3 ]

– When snow melts, small grains dissolve first, water

retained by capillary forces
– LWC > 3-6% => water flows through the snow pack
 Basic structural characteristics
• Snow Wetness - Snowball test
Snow Snowball test LWC
Wetness
Dry T <= 0°C, Snowball hard to form, disintegrates 0%
when lightly pressed together
Moist T = 0°C, Snowball sticks together when lightly 0-3%
compressed
Wet T = 0°C, Snowball turns grayish when subjected to 3-8%
firm pressure due to water accumulation, but water
can’t be pressed out
Very wet T = 0°C, Water can be pressed out from the 8-15%
snowball
Soaked T = 0°C >15%
The snow is saturated with water
Slush
 SWE = Snow Water Equivalent

– The thickness of water that

would result from melting a
given layer of snow
– 10:1 common ratio i.e. 10 cm
of snow = 10 mm of water
– Can vary a lot depending on
crystal structure, wind,
temperature etc.
 Thermal properties
• What physical characteristic of snow makes it an
effective insulator?

• What type of snow do you think would be the

best insulator?
“Fluff-factor”
 Thermal conductivity
• How much heat passes through 1 meter of material at a temperature
difference of 1℃.
• Unit: [W/mK]
• Higher density => Higher thermal conductivity.
• Porous snow with high air content is a good thermal insulator => low
thermal conductivity.
• Higher ice content => higher density => higher thermal conductivity.

• Air: 0.02 W/mK

• New snow: ~ 0.05 W/mK
• Ice: 2.21 W/mK (at 0 ℃)
• Water: 0.56 W/mK (at 0 ℃)
 Thermal conductivity
• In addition to density also temperature, microstructure and other parameters
affect the thermal conductivity.
 Snow temperature

• Homologous temperature

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 [𝐾𝐾]

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 [𝐾𝐾]

• Snow is ”hot” – Always close to its melting temperature.

• Small changes in temperature significantly change the
material properties and behavior.
 Settlement and sintering
• Snow is consolidated by settlement and sintering.

• Settlement – snow compacts under its own weight leading to

natural consolidation of snow layers both through compaction
and sintering.
• Ice framework deforms plastically without bonds breaking.

• Sintering = Coalescence of individual grains.

• Unlike many other granular materials, bonds develop quickly
between individual grains.
• Two types of sintering processes:
– Dry sintering
– Liquid sintering
 Sintering
• Cold snow => slower sintering process
• Large temperature gradient => faster sintering process
• High density => bonds develop faster
• Coarser snow structure => smaller SSA => slower sintering
process
• Great diversity in particle size => better sintering since small
particles can be embedded between larger once => more
contact points that coalesce
• Bonds between grains grow quickly at first, more slowly as
time passes
• After snow preparation - How long time does it take to reach
requested properties for different snow types during different
weather conditions?
 Sintering
– Dry sintering:
• Sintering through water vapor transport
• More substantial bonding and coarser structures
• Does not compact the snow

– Liquid sintering:
• Minor local disparities in the ice structures melting
temperature
• Water retained by capillary forces freezes
• Small structures dissolve at the expense of larger once
• Bonds between grains become stronger
• Coarsening the snow structure
• ONLY IF WATER CONTENT IS NOT TOO HIGH
 Metamorphism

• Change in size and shape of snow structures.

• Transformation of snow that gradually change the snow
crystals to rounded grains.
• At the same time – density, porosity, number of contact
points, bonds between grains etc. will change.
• Mechanical properties will change.
 Metamorphism

• Three metamorphic processes:

1. Destructiv (Isothermal) metamorphism

Faster the higher the temperature is (T< 0℃)
 Metamorphism
2. Constructive (temperature-gradient) metamorphism
– The snow crystal grow and form prisma, column or
pyramid ike shapes.
- Temperature gradient needed.
- Larger TG => faster metamorphic process.
- Snow crystals with few contact spots => snow loose
its strength.
 Metamorphism
3. Melt-freeze (wet-snow) metamorphism
 Metamorphism

• Dry snow
Constant metamorphism, ice crystals increase in
volume, disappearance of small grains and growth of
large grains in the absence of melting.

• Wet snow
Melting and freezing processes, small particles melt as
large particles grow.
Two grains of different temperature – colder will grow at
the expense of the warmer by water vapor transfer.
 Characteristics of snow
• Why is snow white?
– It reflects most of the visible light
• Sound waves in snow
– Absorbed by a thick layer of newly fallen snow
– Reflected by smooth and hard surfaces
– Grains rub agains each other => friction, lower T => higher
friction
• Snow is a good insulator
– Air can’t move very much => heat transfer is reduced
– Snow cave / bivouac
– Animals bury in the snow
Mechanical properties of snow and
snow mechanics
 Snow mechanics
• Studies of the mechanical behavior of snow and how
snow responds to different forces and other external
conditions.
• Crucial for several different applications such as:
– Designing structures of snow
– Avalanche forecasting
– Winter business and winter sports (snow handling and snow
removal, power industry, tire testing, skiing, etc.)
 Snow mechanics
Purpose with research:
• Understand the properties and behavior of snow.
• Define equations and criteria which are simple enough to
solve boundary value problems.
• Describe snow failure.
• No general cases or equations valid for all types of snow.
• It is of importance to classify the type of snow used in
research studies.
 Snow mechanics
• Snow strength and stability
– Mechanical strength of snow layers (avalanches etc.)
– Understanding factors affecting the strenght and stability
– Structures of snow
• Snow deformation and creep
– Investigate how snow deforms under stress and strain
– Creep (slow deformation under constant load)
• Snow fracture and failure
– Study conditions when snow may fracture or fail
– For avalanches – identify triggers and other hazards
• Impact on engineering structures
– How snow impacts structures such as roofs, buildings,
infrastructure in cold climate etc.
 Mechanical properties of snow
• The most important factors influencing the
mechanical properties of snow:

– Density
– Temperature
– Microstructure
– Liquid water content
 Factors influencing the mechanical properties

• Density
– The denser the snow,
the stronger it is.

• Analyzing the density

and porosity.

• Relationship between
density and other
properties, such as
strength or ability to
support weight.
Factors influencing the mechanical properties
• Temperature
– The colder the snow, the
harder it is.

– Cold snow ”creak” when

you walk on it. Bonds
between grains break.

– Understanding the
changes in snow
structure and properties
due to changes in
temperature.
Factors influencing the mechanical properties
• Microstructure
– Snow with fine, round grains is generally harder than snow with
large, stellar or faceted grains.
– Wide range of sizes and as round grains as possible leads to
smaller and fewer pores, which leads to less air, higher density,
more bonds between grains and thus a stronger material.
– Bonds between grains – key parameter for snow strength.
Factors influencing the mechanical properties
– More bonds per unit volume of snow => stronger structure.
– Well bonded snow with high density can resist relatively large stresses
without deformation.
– Only a fraction of the bonds transmit the applied stress – New bonds
are formed during deformation.
– The number of bonds per cross-sectional area significantly decreases
as the structure gets coarser.
 Bonds determine the strength of snow
• Number of bonds
• Size of bonds
• Time
 Factors influencing the mechanical properties
• Liquid water content
– If LWC > 5% => Bonds between grains begin to melt.
– Quick and significant loss of strength.
– LWC => 15% (Slush) => All cohesion and strength is lost.
– Snow on warm days becomes soft.
 Factors influencing the mechanical properties
• Liquid water content
– Wet snow always has a temperature of 0℃
– Dry snow has a temperature of < 0℃
– Equally dense dry and wet snow => dry snow always stronger.
 Strength of snow
• Visco – elasto –plastic material
 Deformed by its own weight
 Deformation behavior – plastic, elastic or brittle

• Described as chain of elements

 Weakest link causes fracture of the entire body
 Deformations of snow
• Temperature dependent
deformations

• Strength maintained all the

way down to melting
temperature

• Large variations in values

of E-modulus and strength
for different types of snow.
 Snow mechanics
• Important to classify and
describe the snow used for
tests and experiments:
 Internal microstructure (grain
properties such as grain shape,
size and size distribution)
 Density
 Temperature
 Water content
 Grain bonds (number and size)
 Sintering
 Cavities
 Rate of loading or deformation
 Mechanical processing
Compressive tests
 Compressive strength
Slow deformation Fast deformation
(5 mm/min) (30 mm/min)

Slow loading: plastic Rapid loading: brittle

behavior behavior
High compressibility
Relation between density and tensile strength

• Very low tensile strength

for snow with density
lower than 400kg/m3
Shear- and pressure forces in snow related snow
mobiles and off-road vehicles
Bevameter testing
 CTI measurements / Hardness

• Used for example to determine snow quality on test tracks for vehicles.
 Strength of snow
• Tensile strength
Low for snow where ρ < 400 kg/m3
About 50% of the compression strength if
ρ = 500 - 600 kg/m3

• Shear strength
Higher than tensile strength
Increases as the pressure increases

• Compressive strength

Compressive strength > Shear strength > Tensile strength

Course literature regarding snow mechanics

Read also the other literature in Canvas:

Chapter 1-7 in compendium ”Snow and ice”
Avalanche handbook
Snow and snow formation
 LECTURE ASSIGNMENT
• Write a short summary and state the 3-5 most important
points that you learned. Write some sentences per point.
These summaries must be submitted no later than three
working days after each lecture (January 30), and another
student must comment on the summary through a peer-
review. This must be done within one week from the due
date of the assignment.

• You can find a link to the assignment in Canvas.