The Graeco-Roman Museum

Alexandria was founded in the name of Alexander the Great,

and it became a cosmopolitan city. Under the Ptolemaic
successors of Alexander (a dynasty descended from his trusted
General Ptolemy I), Alexandria became the link between Greece
and Egypt. At the time, Greece, with its Macedonian leadership
had become the undisputed world power, displacing its rival
Persia and laying claim to an empire that extended as far east as
India.
The vast territory claimed by Alexander was divided among his
generals upon his death. Of all the territories, Egypt with
Alexandria as its Mediterranean capital was to become the
bearer of world civilization until the banners of Latin antiquity
were raised by the Roman generals.
Egypt in Graeco-Roman times became heir to the traditions of
ancient Egypt and the wisdom of the Greeks.
The Mouseion and the library of Alexandria, the seat of
Alexandrian intellectual enterprise, are no longer visible, but
close to where such edifices of learning once stood is the
impressive façade of the Graeco-Roman Museum, as well as the
glittering architecture of the new Bibliotheca Alexandrina. From
the moment of its foundation in 1891, the museum has become a
magazine of treasures. Private collections dating to the Graeco-
Roman Period, as well as coins, statuettes and mummies from
excavations within and outside of Alexandria, made their way
into this display of invaluable artifacts.
The Graeco-Roman Museum was officially opened on October
17, 1892, by Khedive Abbas Helmy II. Encouraged by Gaston
Maspero, then director of the Service des Antiquités
Égyptiennes, Guiseppe Botti had undertaken the task of creating
a museum in Alexandria dedicated to the Graeco-Roman Period.
Interest in this period had begun in sincere after 1866, when
Mahmoud el-Falaki completed his excavations of Alexandria
bringing to light the plan of the ancient city and providing

1
concrete archaeological evidence of its monuments below the
ground and under the sea. Interest in the museum was enhanced
by the formation of the Société d'Archéologie d'Alexandrie in
1893.
Initially, the collections were housed in part of a building
situated in Rue Rosetta (now el-Horriyah Avenue). The
construction of the first ten galleries of the present building was
completed in 1895. The additional galleries (numbers 11-16)
were completed in 1899. The façade was completed in 1900.
Since then the museum had been remodeled several times.
Some of the Graeco-Roman artifacts, especially the coin
collection, were obtained from the Bulaq Museum, in Cairo.
When the Italian curator, Guiseppe Botti, assumed responsibility
for the management of the museum, he enriched it with
collections obtained from his excavations in the city and its
environs. So did E. Breccia and A. Adriani when they
subsequently took charge of the museum, they continued to
supply the museum with objects from excavations in
Alexandria. They also began to obtain artifacts for the museum
from excavations in the Fayum region.
The acquisitions of the museum gradually increased through
generous donations by private collectors like J. Antoniades
Pasha, Glimonopolo Pasha, Manasha Pasha, the Khedive Abbas
Helmy, and Kings Fouad I and Farouk.
The collections of the museum mostly date from the third
century B.C to the third century A.D spanning the Ptolemaic and
the Roman Periods. In the museum, the collections are
categorized and organized in 27 rooms.

2
 Alexandria: Brief History

By 331 B.C Alexander the Macedonian had already full control

of Egypt. He conquered it in October 332 BC and crowned as a
pharaoh at Memphis in November. He stayed in Egypt not more
than seven months. In order to legitimate his rule and to win the
allegiance (loyalty) of the Egyptian priests, he planned a
difficult journey to the renowned temple of Amun in Siwa
Oasis, situated in a remote depression west of the Nile Delta.
His journey took him through the village of Rhakotis, on the
Mediterranean coast. Alexander decided to found a city on the
narrow strip of land east to Rhakotis, overlooking the island of
Pharos, with Lake Mareotis to the south.
In 323 B.C, Alexander died, and his newly won empire was
divided among his generals. Egypt was given to Ptolemy, who
initiated a dynasty that lasted until 30 B.C. Ptolemy I oversaw
the first steps in the making of the city named after Alexander –
Alexandria- a city that was destined for glory and eternal fame.
The city flourished under his successors.
The last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, Cleopatra VII came to
the throne at the age of 17. Her brother and husband Ptolemy
XIII was only 13 years old. She had a younger sister of fifteen
and a brother who was eight years old. The Romans sent
General Pompey (after whom a column in the Sarapeion was
later named) to serve as a guardian of the four children. Pompey
was eliminated by Julius Caesar who flattered Cleopatra. She
bore him a child called Caesarion.
After the death of Julius Caesar, Mark Antony married
Cleopatra. Mark Antony's stopover in Egypt was short-lived. He
was pursued by Augustus Ocavtian, who won a decisive
victory at Actium in 31 B.C. Cleopatra decided to end her life,
and Egypt ceased to be an independent country, becoming a
Roman province as the private property of the emperor, who
ruled it through a prefect. The prefect of Egypt resided in

3
Alexandria, which began to lose importance as the greatest city
in the Mediterranean region, since the star of Rome was rising.
Nevertheless, many of the Roman emperors were interested in
Alexandria, and some of them visited it. To commemorate his
visit, Ocatvian founded a new town to the east of Alexandria,
which was called Nicopolis, or the "City of Victory", (the area is
now known as Ramleh).
Egypt was later visited by several emperors beginning with
Vespasian in 69 A.D. At about that time (68 A.D), St. Mark
who introduced Christianity to Alexandria was martyred.
During the reign of Trajan (98-117 A.D), local disorder led to
the destruction of many buildings and historic sites. On visiting
Alexandria, Hadrian (117-138 A.D) ordered the restoration,
among other monuments, of the temple of Serapis, which had
been destroyed during the troubles. It appears that Hadrian was
interested in the cult of Serapis, for he issued coins with a
representation of the god. Hadrain was also interested in the
Mouseion and its activities. His successor, Antoninus Pius
(138-161 A.D) also visited Alexandria and built a hippodrome
(stadium used for horseracing) and two gates, the Sun Gate
(eastern) and the Moon Gate (western).
A few decades later, ca. 200 A.D, Caracalla (198-217 A.D)
visited Alexandria with his father Septimus Severus (193-211
A.D). He visited it once more fifteen years later. The inhabitants
of the city made fun of him, and he retaliated by letting his
troops sack the city and killed a great number of Alexandrians in
a massacre which is said to have lasted several days.
During the reign of Aurelian (270-275 A.D), Alexandrians
revolted against Roman rule. Aurelian marched against the city
and drove the rebels into the royal district (the Brucheion) where
he besieged them and forced them to surrender. The Brucheion
and the walls of the city were destroyed during the struggle.
Disturbances again broke out in Alexandria in the time of
Diocletian (284-305 A.D). The emperor was obliged to come to
Egypt in person to put down the revolt; he besieged the city for

4
eight months and finally took it by force. Many Christians were
persecuted, to the extent that the Egyptian Church started its
calendar, commemorating the "Era of Martyrs", 284 A.D. By the
4th Century A.D, Christianity was well established and pagans
were persecuted. The Sarapeion was destroyed in 391 A.D.
Amr ibn el-As conquered Alexandria, the Arab period in the
history of the city began in 641A.D.

5
 The Foundation of Alexandria

There is no more impressive reflection of the achievement of the

Greeks in Egypt than the great city which bears Alexander's
name. It dominated the eastern Mediterranean world politically,
culturally and economically for 650 years and rivaled the new
eastern capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, for
another 300. When Alexander the Great decided to build
Alexandria, his main aim was to construct a Greek city that
would be the center for the dissemination (spreading) of the
cultural enlightenment of Greek civilization in Egypt,
geographically located in the heart of the ancient world.
Alexander also planned to establish a naval base that would
enhance his control of the Aegean Sea and the eastern part of the
Mediterranean.
Ptolemy I moved to Alexandria when he was assured of his
military capabilities in protecting the northern coasts of Egypt.
By about 320 B.C, Alexandria had displaced Memphis and
became the new capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt,
although its status within Egypt was nevertheless always slightly
anomalous (out of the ordinary). Soon enough Alexandria
became the largest Greek city in the world, and it maintained its
advanced standing during the third and second centuries B.C to
such an extent that these centuries are known as the period of
Alexandrian civilization.
The location of Alexandria was selected for its proximity to
Lake Mareotis and Pharos Island. The lake was connected to
the Nile by a canal, which connected the city to the other
Egyptian provinces. The diameter of the new city was 30 stades.
It measured about 7 to 8/10 stades from north to south (Sea to
Lake Mariut) and 30 stades from east (Gate of the Sun) to west
(Gate of the Moon), occasionally called Rosetta Gate to
Mahmoudiya Canal.

The planning and layout of the city are associated with the name
of the most famous architect of the day, Dinocrates of Rhodes,

6
but the early stages of its physical growth cannot be traced with
any certainty, apart from the construction of a few outstandingly
imposing buildings.
When Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, he defeated the
Persian forces which were occupying Egypt. As a result, the
Egyptians welcomed his arrival believing that Alexander the
great came to help the Egyptians getting rid of the Persian
occupation. Alexander went to the city of Memphis where he
was crowned as the new pharaoh of Egypt in the temple of god
Ptah.
Then, Alexander the Great decided to consult the oracle of god
Amun at Siwa Oasis. Therefore, he followed the western branch
of the Nile which was known as 'the Canopic Branch', until he
reached the Mediterranean Sea and then he headed to the West.
On his way to Siwa, he noticed the strategic site of Rhakotis
which was a small Egyptian village for fishermen. Many
opinions mentioned that this village was the biggest village
among nine villages. Therefore, Alexander ordered his chief
architect 'Dinocrates' to plan a new city at this site carrying the
name of Alexander the Great. Dinocrates planned the new city
as vertical streets intersected with horizontal ones. In other
words, the plan of the new city looked like 'the chess board'.
There were two main streets: one running from north to south
and the other runs from east to west. In the intersection of these
two main streets, the tomb of Alexander the Great was built.
Recent excavations revealed that 'El-Horriyah Avenue' was the
main street which ran from east to west. However, it is very
difficult until now to identify the main street which ran from
north to south. Some scholars believe that the main street from
north to south is 'El-Nabi Daniel Street' while others believe that
it was situated to the east, near Al-Shatbi.

Alexander the Great chose the site of Rhakotis or the city of

Alexandria to be the seat of the empire, because Rhakotis was a
strategic site as it was well-protected from the north by sea,

7
from the south by Mareotis Lake which is too wide to be crossed
(about 60 km.). Also, it was well-protected from the east by the
western branch of the Nile and from the west by the desert.
Therefore, it was easy to be defended and difficult to be
conquered. Moreover Rhakotis was close to the Delta which
was highly populated by the Egyptians, so the king could siege
the Delta if they would make a revolt. The king and the Greek
setters could easily escape from Alexandria by sea if the people
of the Delta tried to attack the city of Alexandria. Finely the new
city could be used as a trade port between Egypt and Greece.

The city was rectangular, facing the Mediterranean Sea on one

side and Lake Mareotis on the other. According to Quintus
Curtius Alexander included all the land between the Lake and
the Sea. He planned a circuit of 80 stadia (14.4 KM) for the
walls. The city's streets crossed at right angles to each other,
mostly parallel to the two main avenues that intersected at the
center. The city consisted of five districts, named after the first
five letters of the Greek alphabet: Alpha , Bita , Gamma ,
Delta  and Epsilon . Later, they were called, Klimata.

The most important was the royal district, which occupied

nearly one fourth or even one third of the city. In the Ptolemaic
period, the royal quarter was called 'the Palaces (Bacileia)'. In
the Roman period, it was called the 'Bruchium'. It overlooked
the main port and extended up the Canopic road, and included
most of the capital's most important monuments such as the
royal palaces, the Mouseion, the Library, the Gymnasium, the
High Court, and the Royal Cemetery.

Very little is known about these districts of Alexandria, except

for the fourth district 'the Delta' which was the quarter of the
Jews, but its location is not known. The streets of the city were
paved by small blocks of basalt stone. The Royal Quarter was
burnt during the war of Alexandria between Ptolemy XIII and
Caesar who set fire in the fleet in the eastern port of Alexandria,

8
then the fire extended to the Royal Quarter and the Library of
Alexandria.
Opposite the royal district, there is an island called 'Pharos'. On
its south east side, the great lighthouse of Alexandria was
erected. A great enclosure wall was built around the court of the
lighthouse to protect it from the sea. This island was connected
to the main land of Alexandria by a dyke called 'the Hepta
Stadia'. 'Hepta' means seven, while 'Stadia' is a Greek unit of
measurement equals 187 meters. As a result of the construction
of this dyke, two ports were formed; Portus Magnus which
means the great port (the eastern port) and Portus Eunsotas
which means the port of safe return (the western port). In the
Graeco-Roman Period, Portus Magnus was the main port of
Alexandria while Portus Eunstas was a subsidiary port.
Nowadays, Portus Magnus is a port for fishermen, while Portus
Eunsotas became the main port of modern Alexandria.

In the Ptolemaic Period, Alexandria became one of the greatest

Hellenistic cities. In the Roman Period, Alexandria lost some of
its importance. However, it was still an important city. In the
Coptic and Islamic Periods, Alexandria began its decline. In the
14th Century A.D, Alexandria was hit by a devastating
earthquake and as a result, the city was destroyed and most of
the people deserted the city to Rosetta. When Mohamed Ali
came, the city was only reduced to Bahari District. He paid
great attention to Alexandria and the city began to flourish and it
became the main port of Egypt. His successors followed his
policies and Alexandria became the second biggest city in
Egypt.

9
 The Light House 'Pharos'

Travelers from distant lands sailing to Egypt across the

Mediterranean Sea were guided, as they approached their final
destination, by a beam of light that according to legend, could
be seen from more than 50 km away. The source of the beam
was the Alexandria lighthouse. Looming 135 meters above the
horizon, the lighthouse was the tallest building in the Hellenistic
world. The originality shown in the construction of the building
on rocks of an island called Pharos, off the coast, was matched
only by the intricate light system, which included a lantern
where a large fire burned, and a huge reflective mirror which
beamed the firelight across the sea.

It was built on the southeast corner of the island of Pharos which

gave it its name. It was one of the seven wonders of the ancient
world. It was mainly built of limestone, however, other
materials were used, such as sandstone, marble, granite,
lead………… etc.

The Light House was started by Ptolemy I and it was completed

by his son Ptolemy II. The light house came into service in
280BC. The Light House was built in a colonnaded court and it
measured about 135 meters in height. Its base measured 30m by
30 m square.

It consisted of four storeyes (floors), surmounted by a bronze

statue of god Poseidon (the Sea God in the Greek mythology).

The first storey was square in shape and was internally divided
into 300 rooms, used as storerooms for the fuel, such as wood,
straw ‫ قش‬and oils. Some of these rooms were even used as living
quarters for the workmen and guards of the Light House. At the
bottom of the ground of the first floor, there was a cistern (water
tank) used for storing the fresh water for the guards and

10
workmen of the Light House. On the façade of the first storey,
there was a Greek text whose letters were made out of lead. The
text reads as: 'Sastratos of Cnidos, son of Dexiphanes built the
Light House for the saviour gods.'

Modern scholars argued about what was meant by the saviour

gods. Some of them suggested that 'Castor and Pollux' who
were the saviour gods of the Greek sailors. Other scholars said
that they were Ptolemy I and his wife Berenice I, who were
deified by their son Ptolemy II.

On the top of the first floor, there was a platform, on the four
corners of which were placed the four figures of Tritons (minor
deities connected to the Greek sailors according to the Greek
mythology). The second storey was octagonal in shape and its
height was 30 meters. The third storey was circular in shape and
its height was 15 meters.

The fourth storey consisted of 8 columns, made of different

materials, such as limestone, sandstone, marble, granite,
alabaster…etc. and a dome. The total height of the dome and
the columns was 23 meters. On the top of this dome, there was
a bronze statue of god Poseidon with a total height of 7 meters.
Between the 8 columns, there was a lantern which reflected the
light into the sea in order to guide the ships into the ports of
Alexandria. Ancient historians mentioned that if someone sat
behind the mirror or the glass of the lantern, he could see things
which could not be seen by the naked eye. This indicates that
they might have invented lenses during that time. Therefore,
this Light House was considered one of the seven wonders of
the ancient world perhaps because of the invention of the lenses.
There was also a primitive lift which was used for carrying the
fuel from the first storey to the fourth one.

When the Arabs conquered Egypt, the Light House was still in
use. The first disaster took place about 700 A.D when an earth
quake hit the Light House and destroyed the third and fourth

11
storeyes. In the Tulunid Period, the Light House was restored
and it was also restored in the 12th Century A.D. However, in
the 13th Century A.D, another earth quake destroyed the second
storey. The first storey survived, and it was used as a watch
tower after a small mosque had been built on its top.

In the 14th Century (1375AD.), another earth quake hit the Light
House and destroyed the first storey. In 1480 A.D, El-Sultan
Al-Ashraf Qatbay built a series of fortresses and citadels along
the Egyptian shores in order to defend Egypt against a possible
Ottoman invasion. Among these fortresses was his famous
citadel which was built on the same side of the Light House. He
even used some of the stones of the Light House to build his
famous citadel.

NB.:
The Light House cost about 800 talents of gold.

It took six days from Piraeus and nine days from Byzantine to
Alexandria during summer time due the Etesian wind.

The Library and Mouseion

Mouseion is a cult center built for the cultivation and worship of

the Muses. Originally, it was an open portico with an altar, but
without a regular temple. Demetrius of Phaleron advised Soter I
to build the Library muses and the Mouseion. It was situated in
the royal quarter. It consisted of a cloister, an arcade and a large
house. Members of the Mouseion performed religious activities
and engaged in teaching or in scientific research.

The library was established in the reign of Ptolemy II. The idea
and the first stages of planning of the library were due Ptolemy
I. The royal library started by Ptolemy II. The daughter library
was built during the reign of Ptolemy III and attached to the

12
temple of Serapis. Ptolemy III ordered that all books found in
ships should be seized and copied and the copies to be given to
their owners. Books acquired special labels (from the ships).
The bibliomania of Ptolemy III drove him to trick the Athenians
by borrowing from them their official copies and deposited the
sum of fifteen talents as security for their safe return. However,
he kept the originals and sent copies. Moreover, he sent agents
to Athens and Rhodes to buy books. Zenodotus was the first
librarian and was followed by Callimachus, Apolloniu Rhodius
and Eratosthenes. The library began to decline in the later part
of second century B.C.

Alexandria's Great Library and Mouseion were founded to

house books and gather scholars in about 295 B.C, when
Ptolemy I appointed Demetrius of Phaleron, a former pupil of
Aristotle to take charge of the twin institutions. The earliest
reports assert that Demetrius had a large budget and a
permission from the king to collect 'all the books in the world'.
The goal was to collect half a million manuscripts, and
successive Ptolemaic kings were determined in their efforts to
acquire them. Any books not in stock in the library were
confiscated or copied from passengers who sailed into
Alexandria. The usual procedure was to purchase books from
the famous book marts of Athens, Rhodes, and other
Mediterranean cities. Before long, the bulk of classical Greek
works had found a new home in Alexandria.

The objectives of the library, however, were far greater than

collecting books by Greek scholars. It was conceived as a
universal library that 'had to contain the writings of all nations'.
Foremost among non-Greek writings kept in the library were the
Egyptian 'sacred records' by the Egyptian priest Manetho, and a
history of Babylonia by Berossus. Buddhist writings were also
donated to the library by the Indian King Asoka. A translation
of the first five books of the Old Testament into Greek was
made in Alexandria, ensuring the spread of biblical knowledge
in the Hellenistic world. Within half a century, the Great

13
Library proved too small for the wealth of books acquired, so
Ptolemy III decided to attach a branch known as the Daughter
Library to the newly rebuilt Sarapeion.

The Mouseion followed the basic pattern of the two famous

Athenian philosophic schools, the Academy of Plato ‫ أفالطون‬and
the Lyceum of Aristotle ‫أرسطو‬. The name Mouseion means
'Temple of the Muses, and indicates Greek roots, since such
shrines were customary features of the Athenian schools.

Under the Ptolemies' patronage and renowned generosity, the

Mouseion rapidly attained international fame. It attracted the
best minds of the age. Strato, the leading physicist from the
Athens Lyceum, was received there in the 3rd Century B.C and
tutored the son of Ptolemy.

The successors of Ptolemy I were all well educated, and they

continued to invite the foremost scholars of the time in the
various branches of knowledge. Scholars could reside either in
the large facilities at the Mouseion or in lodgings in town. Free
board and lodging and exemption from taxation were not the
only attractions of membership in the Mouseion, because high
stipends were also paid.

Under the Ptolemies, the Mouseion was basically a research

center; no regular teaching is reported to have taken place there.
Yet, we frequently read in the scholars' biographies that they
were teachers or pupils of an eminent member of the Mouseion.
It is generally believed that teaching gradually increased with
time.

Perhaps for the first time, the principles of scientific research

were developed and applied, with impressive results, in
disciplines as diverse as mathematics, physics, medicine,
geography, astronomy and textual criticism. The wealth of
books the Alexandrian scholars had at their disposal was a
necessary tool, and what an unprecedented resource that was. It

14
combined, for the first time, the experience of both classical
Greece and the ancient Near East.

In the 2nd Century B.C, Euergetes II persecuted several groups,

including members of the Mouseion, who were forced to flee
the country. These must have been many who fled, since
Menecles of Barca, the historian, later stated that in their
diaspora. Alexandrian scholars educated Hellenes and
barbarians alike in every branch of knowledge. In Roman times,
the Mouseion functioned more and more as a teaching
institution. The Roman emperors continued to protect its
members by perpetuating their right to sustenance (provisions)
and exemption from taxation.

It was based on the Museum of the Lyceum, Arstotle's teaching

institution in Athens. Demetrius of Phalerum was the man
behind the idea. It consists of a garden, an altar, a promenade
(peripatos) and housing (oikiai).

15
 The Cemeteries of the Greeks in Alexandria

Introduction:

When the Greeks lived in Egypt, they introduced their burial

customs and traditions for the Egyptians. Of course, the
Egyptians followed the old burial traditions and customs
(mummification). At the beginning, the Greeks followed and
used their own customs and traditions (cremation ‫)حرق الجثث‬.
With the advance of time, some of the Greeks began to adopt
the burial customs of the Egyptians. By the end of the Ptolemaic
Period and the beginning of the Roman Period, the Greeks
stopped the cremation and they adopted the process of
mummification.

N.B. The way of the Egyptian burial: as we know that the

Egyptians mummified the dead. Then, the mummy was placed
into a coffin and finally, this coffin was put inside a burial
chamber.

The Greek burial: the Greeks cremated the corpse whose ashes
were put into an urn. Then it was buried either in a 'loculus' or in
a 'kline' ‫أريكة‬. There are two ways for burying the urn:

1) Loculus: It was a hole cut on one side of a

passage. It is rectangular or square in shape. Its
depth was from 50 to 60 cm. The urn was buried
inside this loculus. Then, the loculus was blocked
by a stela or by a slab of stone. The loculi were
related to common people. Every passage or wall
contained about 20 to 30 loculi. By the end of the
Ptolemaic Period and beginning of the Roman
Period, the Greeks stopped cremation and began to
mummify their corpses. Therefore, the depth of
the loculus was about 180 to 200 cm. depending on
the size of the mummy. Therefore, if the depth of
the loculus is about 50 to 60 cm, it can be

16
 concluded that this loculus contains an urn and if
the depth of the loculus is about 180 to 200 cm,
this indicates that it contains a mummy.
2) Kline: It was carved of stone. It is used by rich
people because the stone was expensive at that
time.
The Private cemeteries in Alexandria
were found in

West: Anfoshi- Kom el-Shoqafa. East: El-Shatbi cemetery- Mostafa

They date back to the end of the Kamel. They date back to the
Ptolmaic Period and beginning of Ptolemaic Period
the Roman Period

17
 The Royal Cemetery

The Royal Cemetery was called Sema (tomb) or Soma (corpse).

The central feature of the royal cemetery was the tomb of
Alexander the Great which was built in the intersection of the
two main streets of Alexandria. Around the tomb of Alexander
the Great, the royal Ptolemaic dynasty built their tombs but
without any order.

When Ptolemy IV (Philopator) ascended the throne, he

reorganized the royal cemetery. He kept the tomb of Alexander
the Great as the central feature and then he demolished all the
tombs of his predecessors and rebuilt them in a good
architectural setting. They were built as parallel rows, separated
by a fixed distance.

It is certain that the early Ptolemaic kings were cremated and it

is also certain that Cleopatra VII was mummified. The last
known cremated king was King Ptolemy VI (Philomator). It is
not certain what happened to the kings and queens between
Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra VII.

The Royal Cemetery was well-looked after. The first disaster

for the Royal Cemetery took place during the reign of King
Ptolemy X (Alexander I) who also entered the tomb of
Alexander the Great and replaced his golden coffin with another
one made out of glass in order to pay the salaries of the
mercenaries. It was also Queen Cleopatra VII who entered the
Royal Cemetery and took all the valuable objects from the
tombs there in order to face some economic difficulties.

Tomb of Alexander the Great

The tomb of Alexander the Great consisted of an entrance, then

a staircase leading down to an underground court. On one side

18
of the court, there is a front room or an antechamber, followed
by the burial chamber which contained a kline on which was
placed the golden coffin of Alexander the Great. Above the
tomb, a small temple was built and dedicated for the cult of
Alexander the Great.

During the Roman Period, the emperors showed great respect

for the tomb of Alexander the Great. The Roman Emperor
'Augustus Octavious visited the tomb of Alexander the Great
and placed on the head of his mummy a golden diadem inlaid
with precious and semi-precious stones. Another historian
mentioned that the Roman Emperor 'Marculius Aurelian' visited
the tomb of Alexander the Great and presented to it precious
gifts.

It should be mentioned that the tomb of Alexander the Great is

not found until now, but according to the ancient historians it
was situated in the intersection of the two main streets of
Alexandria.

19
 The Private Cemeteries

The Cemetery of Al-Shatby

It is situated to the east of Alexandria opposite to Saint Mark

School. It was discovered in 1904 and dates back to about 300
BC (the oldest cemetery in Alexandria). Two types of tombs
were discovered there:

1-Surface tomb which consists of a pit dug in the ground in

which was placed an urn containing the ashes of the deceased
then covered with sand. Marble steps were placed one on top of
the other over the pit then they are surmounted by a pediment
top stela representing the façade of a Greek temple. This type is
now destroyed.

2-The second type comprises of one tomb cut completely

under the ground after the style of the Greek house. However it
has an extra element which is the smaller corridor.

This cemetery is situated in Al-Shatby area, opposite St. Mark

School. This cemetery was discovered in 1904. It dates back to
about 300 B.C. It is the oldest cemetery in Alexandria. Two
types of tombs were discovered in Al-Shatby cemetery.

The 1st Type: it is called 'the surface tombs'; it consisted of a pit

in which was placed an urn and then it was covered with sand.
Then, a number of steps, one on top of the other, were placed
over the pit. Finally, the steps were surmounted by a pediment
top stela representing the façade of a Greek temple.
Unfortunately, this type of tombs is now destroyed.

The 2nd Type: it consists of one tomb and it was cut under the
ground after the style of the Greek house. The only difference
between the Greek house and this tomb is that this tomb has a
smaller corridor.

20
It consists of an entrance which leads to a corridor then a
smaller corridor and finally to a court. To the east side of the
court, there is the entrance of the prostas (the antechamber)
followed by the oikos (the burial chamber). The oikos contains
two kilne set at right angle at each other. Therefore, it is
believed that this tomb belongs to a man and his wife whose
identities are unknown. Later on, loculi were cut on either side
of the prostas. When it became full, they added three rooms on
the eastern and western sides (number 7, 8 & 9). Room number
7 has two loculi. However, Rooms number 8 & 9 have several
loculi. Unfortunately, room number 8 is now destroyed.

The façade of the tomb consisted of half doric columns

connected with screen walls decorated with imitations of opened
or closed doors and windows. It is now in ruins except for some
half Doric columns.

21
 The Cemetery of Mostafa Kamel

This cemetery is situated in Mostafa Kamel area. It was

discovered in 1933-34 when they were leveling the ground for a
football field. This cemetery dates back to about 250 B.C. Four
tombs were discovered there. They were of two types:

The 1st Type: It consists of two tombs carrying numbers 3 and

4. This type of tombs was partly built above the ground and
partly cut under the ground. Unfortunately, this type of tombs is
now in bad condition.

The 2nd Type: It also consists of two tombs carrying numbers 1

and 2. They were completely cut under the ground and they are
in good condition.

The most important tomb in Mostafa Kamel cemetery is tomb

number 1 because it contains a rare funerary fresco scene
depicting horses and a unique water system.

Tomb Number 1

It consists of an entrance leading to a staircase descending down

to a court in the middle of which there is an altar. The outer
walls of this court are decorated with engaged Doric columns.
On the left-hand side of the court, there are three rooms carrying
nos. 2, 3 and 4. Rooms carrying nos. 2 and 4 are bigger than
room no. 3 which has one loculus. Rooms carrying nos. 2 and 4
have several loculi each.

The water system exists in rooms carrying nos. 2 and 3. It

consists of a water-well dug in the floor of room no. 2.
Opposite the well, there is a water basin cut in the wall. This
water basin is connected to two small tanks in room no. 3 by
pottery water pipes. When these two small tanks are full of
water, they pour the water into a larger tank, built in the floor of

22
the court. This fresh water was either used for drinking by the
visitors of the tomb or for purification purpose by the priests
working in the funerary rituals of this tomb.

Opposite the entrance, there are three small rooms carrying nos.
5, 6, and 7. Each one of them has one loculus. Fortunately, the
walls of these rooms still retain some of their original colours,
either red with black dots imitating granite or marbleized yellow
imitating alabaster.

On the right-hand side of the entrance, there are three subsidiary

entrances A, B and C leading to the corridor no. 8. Above the
middle entrance B, there is the fresco scene which depicts three
horsemen with their horses, painted in red colour. There are two
standing women between them. Each woman is shown wearing
a Greek tunic, painted in yellow colour, and extending one arm
towards an offering table, placed next to her.

At the back of the corridor no. 8, there are three rooms carrying
nos. 9, 10 and 11. Rooms carrying nos. 9 and 11 are bigger than
room no. 10. Rooms carrying nos. 9 and 11 have several loculi
while room no. 10 once contained a kline.

At the entrance of room no. 11, there are some Greek names
slightly incised on the wall. It is difficult to know to whom
these names belong, whether these names belong to some
visitors of the tomb or to some people buried in it.

As mentioned above, the importance of this tomb is due to the

fact that it contains a rare funerary fresco-scene depicting horses
and not because of being fresco. Horses did not appear in
Egyptian religious or funerary scenes because they did not exist
or were not known in Egyptian environment before the Hyksos
invasion. Therefore, horses did not play any funeral or religious
role in ancient Egypt. The funerary scenes which were
discovered from ancient Egypt containing horses do not exceed
10 scenes.

23
The only mention of a role which was played in the Egyptian
mythology by a horse was in the Coptic Period. A papyrus of
Coptic date tells a story of man traveling on his horse and on his
way he became tired and slept under a tree. During his sleep,
the horse carried him to Nectanebo II, the last king of the 30th
Dynasty. Unfortunately, this papyrus is broken and the rest of
the legend is not known.

24
 The Cemetery of Kom El-Shoqafa

Introduction:

This cemetery is also known as "the Catacomb". It is located in

Kom El-Shoqafa area at Karmous district, to the west of
Alexandria. It dates back to the 1st or 2nd Centuries A.D. It was
discovered in 1900 by chance when the legs of a donkey fell in
the mouth of the shaft of this tomb. Then, when they pulled the
donkey out, they discovered the tomb after the archaeologists
had been looking for it for 12 years but in vain.

This tomb was completely cut under the ground, and it consists
of three floors under the ground. The third and bottom floor is
drowned with water since the time of discovery until now. This
tomb is famous for its scenes which show mixed iconography
between Egyptian and Graeco-Roman arts.

Description of the Cemetery:

The entrance leads to a spiral staircase of 91 steps around the

main shaft of the tomb. This shaft has several openings around
its main body. The mouth of the shaft and its openings were
used for lowering the mummies into the tomb. It should be
mentioned that during the Graeco-Roman Period, the quality of
the mummification decreased while the number of mummies
increased.

The spiral staircase leads to the 1st floor, which begins with a
small corridor with a niche on either side. The upper part of
each niche is decorated with an imitation of a shell while the
lower part of each niche is occupied by a semi-circular seat, cut
in the native rock. This semi-circular seat was used as a resting
place for some visitors of the tomb, especially the old people.
The small corridor leads to the 'Rotunda' at the middle of which
there is another shaft which directly leads to the third floor.
Around the mouth of this shaft, there is a 'parapet' ‫ سور صغير‬with

25
6 pillars projecting from its upper surface, carrying a dome cut
in the native rock. The pillars and the dome are used for
decorative purpose.
On the left-hand side of the Rotunda, there is a rectangular room
called 'the Triclinium', also known as 'the banquet room'. Its
roof is supported by 4 pillars connected together by benches or
mastabas taking the U-shape. The walls of this room are still in
rough condition. This room was used by the visitors of this
tomb to have their meals. The ancient Greeks were pessimistic
to use tools or plates which had been used in tombs. Therefore,
they used to break the pottery plates after they had had their
meal. Pottery was cheap material at that time. The plates were
broken into ostraca. At the end of the day, the servants of the
tomb used to throw the ostraca outside the tomb. As a result, a
heap of ostraca was formed in this area. Therefore, the whole
area became known as 'Kom el-Shoqafa'.
Opposite the entrance of the Rotunda, there is a staircase
which leads down to the 2nd floor. It consists of a vestibule at
the middle of which there are two composite floral capital
columns carrying a pediment top shape representing the façade
of the Greek temple. This pediment top is decorated with a sun-
disk with two pendent uraei. On either side of the pediment top,
there are two hawk figures representing god Horus. It should be
mentioned that the composite floral columns, the sun-disk, the
two hawks are of Egyptian style while the pediment top is of
Greek art. They show mixed iconography. It should be also
mentioned that the composite floral capital columns originally
date back to the 26th Dynasty, but the oldest examples survived
date back to the 30th Dynasty.
Near the end of the vestibule, there is a staircase leading to the
3rd floor. On either side of the end of this vestibule, there is a
recess which contains a statue, cut in the native rock. The left
recess contains a standing figure of a man with step left-leg
forward, wearing a Shendyt kilt. He is shown with curly hair
and facial features of Greek style; also the style of carving the

26
statue is of Greek art. The right recess contains a standing
statue for a woman with step right-leg forward. She is dressed
in a long tight-fitting transparent robe of Egyptian style. She is
depicted with curly hair and facial features of Greek style like
the style of carving the statue. The man and woman are perhaps
the original owners of this tomb.
At the end of the vestibule and on either side of the entrance of
the burial chamber on the outside, there are representations of
two serpents. Each one of them is placed on a small shrine. The
two serpents are Agathadimons (the good gods). They represent
god Hermes and god Dionysos, if we understand them in the
Greek context, but they represent god 'Serapis agathadimon' and
his wife 'Isis Thermouthis', if we understand them in the
Egyptian context.
The Greek word 'Thermouthis' was derived from the ancient
Egyptian word ta-rnnt which means 'the Nurse'. Isis
'Thermouthis' was worshipped at an area called Taranah to the
north of the Delta. It should be mentioned that if the Greek
deities took the form of human beings, they would play their
original roles whatever this role is, but if they took the form of
serpents, they became or were converted into good deities.
Above the head of each serpent, there is a round shield at the
middle of which there is a face of 'Medouza', who was the
protective goddess of the tomb in the Greek mythology. She is
represented as a woman with ugly face and the locks of her hair
are small serpents. She was once a woman with a very beautiful
face, but when goddess Athena felt that Medouza was more
beautiful than her, she converted her into a woman with ugly
face. Many legends were connected with Medouza. One of
them is that the ancient Greeks believed that if anyone looked at
the face of the Medouza and he had bad intention, he would be
immediately converted into a stone.
The vestibule leads to the burial chamber which has 3 recesses
(A, B and C). On the inner side of the entrance of this burial
chamber, there are representations of god Hermanubis. On the

27
left-hand side, he is depicted as a male figure with a jackal head,
and dressed in a Greek military uniform. On the right-hand side,
Hermanubis is depicted with the upper part as a male figure with
a jackal head while his lower part takes the shape of a tail of a
dragon.
The Burial Chamber:
The burial chamber contains three recesses and each recess
contains a sarcophagus, cut in the native rock.
The sarcophagus seems to be consisting of two parts: the lid and
the coffer, but in fact it consists of one piece. Therefore, the
mummy was placed in this sarcophagus by cutting a hole at the
back of it, then after placing the mummy, they closed the hole.
Above each sarcophagus, there are three scenes. In other words,
the burial chamber contains 9 scenes. Scenes in recesses A & B
are identical.
The central scene in A & B represents the Roman emperor in
the guise of an Egyptian pharaoh presenting the golden necklace
to god Serapis as a bull, standing on a platform. Behind Serapis
stands Isis with outstretching arms as if protecting him.
Scenes in the lateral sides of A & B are identical. The scene on
the right depicts a mummy with a sun disc on its head and
holding a W3s-sceptre in front of a jackal headed deity with a
solar disc on his head. He holds a long scepter. Between them
there is an offering table, surmounted by a vase.
The scene on the left depicts the pharaoh standing and wearing
a crown decorated with a solar disc and two uraei. He presents
the feather of m3ct to god Ptah who is crowned with the solar
disc and holding a sceptre.
The central scene in recess C depicts the deceased as a mummy
lying on a lion funerary bed with up-curved tail. God Anubis is
shown attending to the mummy placing one arm on it as if
completing its wrapping and holding a jar of liquid in the other

28
hand. Most probably this jar contained water because they used
to spread water on the deceased because they wished that the
water returns to the deceased in order to revive him as the water
was the source of fertility. On either side of the funerary bed
stands Horus, wearing the double crown, and god Thoth. Each
god holds the W3s scepter in his hand. Beneath the funerary
bed, there are three canopic jars and the legs of Anubis took the
place of the fourth jar.
The lateral scene on the left represents a lector priest holding a
papyrus roll as if reading from it some spells in front of the
deceased. Between them there is an offering table, decorated
with a Lotus flower.
The other scene on the right depicts a female deceased with a
solar disc on her head, standing before an Egyptian priest with
two plumes on his head. She raises her two arms in adoration.
The Three Galleries:
There are three galleries around the burial chamber containing
300 loculi in two rows. In one of these loculi, a mummy of a
priestess of goddess 'Nemsis' with her jewellery were found.
They are now in the Graeco-Roman Museum in Alexandria.
Around the loculus of the priestess of goddess Nemsis, other
loculi contained some of the followers of goddess Nemsis. This
may indicate that there was a temple for goddess Nemsis in this
area. Goddess Nemsis was goddess of sports and revenge in the
Greek mythology.
This cemetery is also known as the 'Catacomb' because it
contains these three galleries which are very similar to the
galleries and passages which were cut under the ground in
ancient Rome where the dead people were buried. Therefore,
this tomb is called 'catacomb'.
The Hall of Caracalla:
It is a separate tomb, but it is approached from a break in the
walls of the Rotunda. It consists of an entrance, which leads to

29
a staircase descending down to a court, at the middle of which,
there is an altar. Large quantities of bones were found around
this altar at the time of discovery. At first scholars believed that
these bones were the remains of the famous massacre which was
carried out by Caracalla among the youths of Alexandria.
Careful examination of these bones revealed that the majority of
these bones belong to horses.
In light of the discovery of the mummy of the priestess of
goddess Nemsis and her followers, it is believed that this
cemetery was used for burying some horses in order to honour
them, perhaps because they won some races. Thus, the name of
the hall of Caracalla is a misnomer.
N.B In the burial chamber: It should be mentioned that the
subject matter of the scenes of the burial chamber is of Egyptian
style while the style of carving these scenes is of Greek
tradition.

30
 The Temple of Serapis (Serapeum)

Introduction:

This temple was built by King Ptolemy I and it was completed

by Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III. It is situated in Rhakotis village
at Karmous District to the west of Alexandria. It was destroyed
by the Jews during their revolt in Alexandria in the reign of the
Roman Emperor Trajan. Then, it was rebuilt but on a larger
scale during the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian.

The Serapeum was closed for the pagan cult in 391 AD when a
small church carrying the name of John the Baptist was built
there, on the top of the platform. This church had fallen apart in
the 10th Century A.D and the site of the temple was deserted.
Then, the site was rediscovered by Rowe in 1943 and two sets
of 10 plaques of different material, each inscribed in
Hieroglyphs and Greek.

Description of the Temple:

This temple consists of a high platform, built of limestone and

approached by a staircase of 100 steps. This platform was built
in a colonnaded court containing 400 columns. It measured 170
m in length and 77 m in width.

To the north of the platform, there is a purification basin. To the

west of the platform, there are two underground galleries.

The first underground gallery was perhaps used as the sanctuary

of the temple because a statue of god Serapis - as a bull - was
found there. This statue is made out of black basalt and carries
the name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian. t is now in the
Graeco-Roman Museum at Alexandria.
The second underground gallery was perhaps used for
performing some religious rituals. However, some scholars
suggested that it was the small library which was attached to the

31
temple of Serapis and contained 40.000 books and papyrus rolls.
They based their suggestion on the presence of the recesses
which might have been used as shelves for the books and
papyrus rolls.

It should be mentioned that the city of Alexandria contained two

main libraries:
1) The Great Library of Alexandria which was situated at the
royal quarter called 'Bruchuim'.
2) The Small Library which was attached to the temple of god
Serapis.

Within the complex, there were two small temples: one was
dedicated for Isis and the other was dedicated for god
Harpocrates. They have now vanished and it is difficult to know
their original location.

Pompey's Pillar
‫عمود السوارى‬

It was erected on the top of the platform of the temple of Serapis

in 292 A.D by the people of Alexandria as thanksgiving for the
Roman Emperor Diocletian. A revolt broke out in Alexandria
and then, the Roman Emperor Diocletian came and surrounded
the city until it surrendered because of famine and hunger.
When the Roman emperor entered the city, he did not punish its
people, but he distributed wheat among them in order to reduce
or decrease the effect of the famine. As a result, the people of
Alexandria erected this column in order to show their gratitude
or to thank him.

It is made out of red granite and the capital of this column is of

Corinthian type. It measures 26.85 m. in height and its diameter
at the top is 2.30 m. while its diameter at the base is 2.70 m. In

32
other words, this column is tapering towards the top. At the
base of this column, there was a text which read as:
'Postunus, the Prefect of Alexandria built it for the most just
Emperor Diocletian'.
It should be mentioned that Diocletian was a just emperor at the
beginning of his reign. He started his reign by organizing the
administration system of the Roman Empire. Then, after a short
time, he began to fear the danger of the spread of the
Christianity on the empire. Therefore, he issued a decree in 302
A.D saying that all the people should make offerings to the
pagan gods and anyone who did not carry out this decree, he
would be severely punished. As a result, he began to persecute
the Christians and killed a large number of them.
After that, he felt that guilty because of his action. Therefore,
he suffered from a nervous breakdown and he retired until he
died in 313 A.D. The Christians considered the beginning of his
reign in year 284A.D. is the beginning of the Coptic calendar.

Older stones carved with cartouches of some pharaohs were

used in the foundation of this column, such as cartouches of
Thutmosis I and Ramses II, etc……..

In the Middle Ages, the Crusaders mistakenly called this column

as Pompey's pillar because they believed that the head of
Pompey was buried on the top of the capital of this column.
They were a mistaken because Pompey was killed in 48 B.C,
while this column was built in 292 A.D which meant that this
column was erected after 350 years of the death of Pompey.
Moreover, this column was carved with a text saying that it was
erected for Diocletian. When the Arabs entered Egypt, they
called this column as Amoud El-Sawary.

33
 The Surrounding Monuments

The Scarab:

It is made out of red granite and it does not carry any

inscription. It is the second biggest scarab discovered so far in
Egypt. From the style of carving, this scarab can be dated to the
New Kingdom in general and to the 19th Dynasty in particular.

The Three Sphinxes:

The first and third sphinxes are made of red granite and they
date back to the reign of King Ptolemy IV.
The second sphinx is made of black granite and its head is now
missing. It carries the names and titles of King Horemheb the
last king of the 18th Dynasty or the first king of the 19th Dynasty.

The Three Statues:

A) The First Statue: It is made of pink granite. It represents

King Pasmetik I, the founder of the 26th Dynasty, kneeling. The
upper part of the statue above the torso is now missing.
However, the base and the back pillar of the statue carry the
names and titles of Pasmetik, Wah-ib-Ra and Psmtk.

B) The Second Statue: It is also made of red granite. It

represents King Ramses II seated on his throne, holding the Hqa
scepter and the nhh- flail. The head of the statue is now missing.
The base of the statue carries the names and titles of King
Ramses II: Wsr- Maat-Ra stp-n-Ra and Ra-mss mry-Imn.

C) The Third Statue: It is made of grey granite. It belongs to

King Ramses II. It represents him kneeling and holding a naos
with both hands. The upper part of the statue above the torso is
now missing. The base of the statue carries the names and titles
of King Ramses II.

34
These statues were brought by Queen Cleopatra VII from
Matariya (ancient Heliopolis) in order to decorate the temple of
Serapis.

35
 The Caesarion

This temple was built by Queen Cleopatra VII in order to

honour Mark Antony, but she died before completing this
temple. The Roman Emperor Augustus Octavious completed
this temple and dedicated it for his own worship.

In modern times, this temple was completely destroyed except

for the two obelisks which were standing in front of it. These
two obelisks are known as 'Cleopatra's Needles'. The
Caesareum was still used by the Copts as the Cathedral after 451
AD.

The first obelisk belongs to Thutmosis III and it was transported

to London, where it was re-erected on one of the banks of the
River Thames in 1877.

The second obelisk belongs to King Seti I and King Ramses II.
It was transported to New York, where it was re-erected in the
central park in 1879.

These two obelisks were brought from El-Matariya by Queen

Cleopatra VII, in order to decorate this temple. The presence of
these two obelisks indicated that this temple was built in El-
Raml Area in Alexandria.

36
 Ras El-Soda Temple

This temple was discovered in 1936 and it was built by the

Roman Charioteer Isadorus as a thanksgiving for goddess Isis
on the recovery of his ankle, which was broken when he fell off
his chariot.

This temple was originally built in Ras el-Soda area near the
Eastern Company for linen, on the agricultural road leading to
El-Montazah and Abu Qir. In the early 90s of the 20th Century,
this temple was transported to Bab Sharq District. This temple
dates back to the 1st or 2nd Century A.D.

Description:
It consists of a platform, built of limestone and approached by a
staircase.
In the middle of the platform, there is a pedestal on which was
placed a votive marble foot. On the platform, there are four
Ionic columns made of marble and between them, there were
five marble statues.

The First Statue belongs to Hermanubis in the Greek form. He

is depicted as a young man wearing a tunic and holding a torch.
Near his feet, there is a seated jackal figure representing the
Egyptian god Anubis.

The Second Statue belongs to Harpocrates, who is represented

as a naked child with a side lock of hair, wearing a Greek tunic
and putting his finger in his mouth.

The Third Statue belongs to goddess Isis, who is depicted as a

woman wearing a Greek tunic with her knot on her breast. She
is crowned with two horns and a sun-disk. She holds in one
hand a situla ‫اناء الماء المقدس‬.
This statue is the biggest one and therefore, it is believed
that this temple was dedicated for her.

37
The Fourth and Fifth Statues belong to god Osiris in canopic
form. He is depicted as a jar and its lid takes the shape of the
head of Osiris.

These five statues are now in the Graeco-Roman Museum at

Alexandria.

On one side of the platform, there are two rooms: one behind the
other. The second room is smaller than the first one, and its floor
is slightly higher than the floor of the first room. Along the sides
of the second room, there are benches. Therefore, it is believed
that this room was used as a living area for the priests of this
temple.
The Roman Baths

There are two types of baths during the Roman Period: 1) the
private baths, 2) the public baths.

1) The Private Baths: There are two types of private baths

known in Roman Egypt. The first one is known as 'foot basin
bath', which was a deep basin approached by one or two steps
and it was used for simple washing activities.
The second type is called 'the panio'. It was found in the house
of the rich people.

Some of these panioes were converted into sarcophagi after the

death of their owners. Therefore, some lids were made for them.

2) The Public Baths:

The public bath was not just a place for bathing, but it was also
a place for some social entertainment. Therefore, public baths
had gardens and some libraries attached to them.

There were also rooms, built of limestone, and they were used
as storerooms for the fuel such as straw, wood and oils OR they

38
were used as living quarters for the workmen and guards of the
bath.

The bath proper was built of burnt brick, which was invented in
the first half of the First Century A.D.

It consists of three rooms, which are the cold water room, the
hot water room, and the boiler room. There is a small door
between the hot water room and the cold water room while there
is a large door between the hot water room and the boiler room.

The boiler room contains a boiler which produced the steam

which was directed by means of pipes to the hot water room, the
floor of which is raised above the ground by short pillars built of
burnt bricks. Then, they were covered with stone tiles. This kind
of stone tiles does not absorb the heat, but they permit the heat
to penetrate.

39
 The Roman Theatre

Introduction:

This theatre was discovered at Kom El-Dikka area by the Polish

expedition in 1960 when they were removing the remains of the
Old Napoleonic fort. This theatre is the only one discovered in
Alexandria and it dates back to the First and Second Centuries
A.D.

Description:
The theatre consists of auditorium ‫ قاعة االستماع‬and skene ‫قاعة‬
‫ العرض‬and between them, there is the place of the orchestra.

This theatre passed through several alterations (changes):

1) At first, the diameter of the theatre was 42 meters, and the

number of the steps of the auditorium is not known.

2) Then, in the 3rd Century A.D, when the façade of this theatre
collapsed, the diameter of the theatre was reduced to 33.5 meters
while the number of the steps became 16.

3) In the 6th Century A.D, the open air theatre was converted
into a closed assembly hall for religious ceremonies after they
had carried out the following steps:
I. They reduced the number of steps to 13, while the diameter
remained the same 33.5 meters.
II. They extended the either side of the auditorium and the skene
and thus the shape of the theatre changed from half-circle into
semi-circle.
III. They built a triple arcade in the skene and they covered the
whole building by a dome.

This building was not on a sound architectural basis, therefore

after a short period of time, the dome collapsed and the theatre
was deserted. The theatre of Alexandria when collapsed killed

40
572 people in 435/6 during the all night festival of the Nile. It
was used as the bouleuterion for the boule (council) and as a
place for entertainment. The steps of the theatre are made of
marble except for the lower step which was made of red granite.
The floor of the skene is decorated with mosaic taking the shape
of some geometrical motifs such as circle, rectangle, and
triangle, etc……..

41
 The Mummy Labels ‫بطاقات الموميوات‬

It is a piece made of different materials which measures 10 cm.

in length and 5 cm. in width. The biggest mummy labels are
now in Brussels Museum, which measure 20 cm. in length and
10 cm. in width.

Mummy labels mainly came from Akhmim. However, other

sites produced mummy labels such as Denedrah, Khokha,
Assassif and Dra Abu el-Naga.

Wood of different kinds was the most popular material for

making mummy labels. However, other materials were used
such as: different kinds of stones and faience. There are also rare
examples which are made of ivory and glass.

Mummy labels take three different forms:

1). Round top stela shape: it has a hole near its top through
which a rope or a leather string passed. Then, it was hung
around the neck of the mummy. Therefore, it was inscribed
lengthwise and on both sides (verso and recto sides).

2). Tabula Ansata shape: this shape could have two ears or one
ear either rounded or triangle and each ear has a hole.
If this shape has two ears, it was fixed to the breast of the
mummy by wooden wedges. Therefore, it was inscribed
widthwise and on one side only.
If this shape has one ear, it was hung to the neck of the mummy
and it was inscribed lengthwise and on both sides.

3). The arbitrary forms:

These arbitrary forms are for example rectangle, oblong,
trapezoid etc……….. However, rectangular shape was the most
popular form because the ancient Egyptians believed that it had
a magic power to perpetuate the name of the deceased.

42
These shapes could have either one ear or two ears, rounded or
triangle.
If it has two ears, then it was fixed to the breast of the mummy
by wooden wedges and therefore it was inscribed widthwise, on
one side only.
If it has one ear, then it was hung to the neck of the mummy and
it was inscribed lengthwise and on both sides.

The Texts:

Mummy labels were inscribed either in Egyptian or in Greek

and in some cases they were bilingual.

- The Egyptian Text:

Mummy labels were inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic, hieratic
and Coptic. However, the majority of these texts were inscribed
in demotic.
The Egyptian text usually begins with a prayer to Osiris, then
follows the names and affiliations of the deceased. Occasionally,
his profession or place of origin was mentioned, rarely the date
of death was given.

- The Greek text:

It usually begins with a speech addressed to Serapis, then
follows the names and affiliations of the deceased, then follows
the age at death. Occasionally, his place of origin or his
profession was given; rarely the date of death was inscribed.
The Greek text usually ends with an epitaph such as:
Aoros which means ' the one who died before his time'.
Eupsikhai which means 'farewell'.

The Function of the Mummy Labels:

The function of the mummy labels was that it was a cheap

substitute for the stela because they never appeared together.

43
The Bill of Loading: ‫فاتورة الشحن‬

Not all labels are considered mummy labels, but some of them
are bills of loading depending on the content of the text of the
label.
The bill of loading usually contains information about the name
of the deceased, his village or town and sometimes it includes
financial details.

44
 The Mummy Portraits

It is a rectangular or square piece of wood, occasionally of

coarse linen ‫ كتان خشن‬on which was painted the portrait of the
deceased. It is fixed to the mummy during the last stages of its
wrappings. The mummy portraits appeared for the first time in
Egypt during the Roman Period as a direct result of the
influence of the Roman art on the Egyptian art.

They are called in Arabic 'El-Fayoum Portraits' as the majority

of these portraits came from El-Fayoum. However, Fayoum was
not the only site which produced portraits. They were also found
in many sites from Saqqara in the north to Aswan in the south.
Antiniopolis was another site which produced a reasonable
number of portraits.

N.B. Antoniopolis is a village which was established by the

Roman Emperor Hadrian. It is situated at El-Menia; it is now
known as El-Sheikh Abada village.

The majority of these portraits were found by Petrie in the desert

of El-Fayum. Petrie found that each mummy was placed in a
wooden coffin and some of these coffins have windows. Petrie
noticed that the majority of these wooden coffins are suffering
from some damage at the lower parts. He also found that these
coffins were buried in multiple or row burials without any
distinctive mark for the burial place.

Petrie tried to give an explanation for these unusual phenomena

connected to the discovery of the mummy portraits. Petrie
started his discussion by saying that in light of what was
mentioned in Herodotus' book number 2 about the unusual
traditions of unusual features about keeping their dead in their
homes. Petrie believed that Herodotus saw the Egyptian people
keeping their dead in their homes when he visited Egypt in 450
B.C and he believed that Herodotus was right.

45
Then, Petrie mentioned that it would seem that after the death of
someone, he was mummified and the portrait was fixed above
his face. Then, he was placed in a coffin which was taken to the
house of the family, then, it was placed in the house for a certain
period of time until the family lost interest in the deceased for
one reason or another.

Then, the mummy was taken to the temple in order to be kept in

the storerooms of the temple in return for an annual fee or a
waqf.

When these stores were full of mummies or when the family of

the deceased did not visit him, the priests of the temple used to
empty these stores from the mummies. Then, they dug a big
hole in the desert where they put the coffins and then it was
covered with sand without any distinctive sign because they did
not want anyone to know anything about it and therefore, they
buried them in multiple burials, without any distinctive marks.

The portrait was either painted in the lifetime of the deceased or

after his death. If the portrait still retains its colours, it is painted
during the lifetime and if there are no colours on the portrait, it
is painted after the death of the deceased.
As for the damage of the lower part of the coffins, Petrie
mentioned that when these coffins were placed in the houses,
they were placed in a standing position and then, the children
used to hit the coffin with their feet in the lower part and
therefore, it suffered from some damage.

It should be mentioned that each mummy portrait of a male,

which has a beard, is usually dated to the reign of the Roman
Emperor Hadrian or to the reigns of the emperors who
succeeded him because Hadrian was the first Roman emperor to
grow his beard.

46
47
 The Mummy Shrouds

It is a rectangular piece of coarse linen, which measures about

170 cm in length and 90 cm in width. Mummy shrouds appeared
for the first time in the Theban district in the 17 th Dynasty. The
first mummy shroud belongs to Princess Ahmose, daughter of
Seqennere tA-aA. This shroud was covered with religious and
funerary text.

In the 18th Dynasty, mummy shrouds became very popular and

they were decorated with some part of Book of the Dead. The
best example of the mummy shrouds of the 18 th Dynasty is the
shroud of King Thutmosis III, part of which is in the Cairo
Museum while the other part is in the British Museum. In the
19th Dynasty, the shrouds became less popular.

In the 21st Dynasty, the shrouds were developed and became

popular once more in the Theban district. Osiris figure was
drawn on the shroud with short columns of hieroglyphs
containing the name and titles of Osiris and the name and titles
of the deceased. Also other scenes were painted on the shroud
such as: scenes representing the deceased in front of Osiris or a
priest making offerings for the deceased. Such scenes were
painted either in black or red ink.

During the Pharaonic Period, the function of the shroud is to

provide the deceased with more protection in the afterlife
because the ancient Egyptians believed that the nearer spells to
the body of the deceased, the more protection he would get in
the afterlife.

In the Graeco-Roman Period, fewer tombs were built and people

used older tombs or deserted houses to bury their dead.
Moreover, the function of the shrouds changed during this
period.

48
In the Ptolemaic Period, Osiris figure on the shroud was
depicted in frontal view and on either side of Osiris, strips of
funerary scenes were painted, thus the shroud became a
substitute for the walls of the tombs because people used older
tombs to bury their dead.

In the Roman Period, the shroud was further developed by

adding female features if the deceased was a woman and the
woman began to take the title of Hathor instead of Osiris.

49
 The Temple Festival Calendars

It is an offering list accompanied by their quantities and the

dates in which they were rendered. Calendars could be depicted
either on religious temples such as El-Karnak temples or on
funerary temples such as Ramesseum and Medinet Habu
Temples.

The oldest calendar discovered so far dates back to the 5 th

Dynasty and it was found in the funerary complex of King
Sahure at Abusir. However, it was not intact and only fragments
of which were discovered.

Other calendars from the 5th and 6th Dynasties were found.
However, most of the scholars believe that the origin of the
calendar may go back to the pre-historic period and calendars
began to take their regular and traditional forms during the 3 rd
and 4th Dynasties, but they were perhaps written on papyrus
rolls and kept in the archive of the temple. They were depicted
for the first time on the walls of a temple during the 5 th Dynasty.

Calendars disappeared during the Middle Kingdom and no

examples were found on the walls of the temples. However,
most of the scholars believe that they existed and there are some
reasons behind their absence or disappearance. The first reason
is perhaps the relatively short period of the Middle Kingdom,
which mainly consists of the 12th Dynasty. The second reason is
that most of the temples of the Middle Kingdom are now
destroyed. They supported their suggestion by the discovery of
a papyrus roll inscribed with a calendar from El-Lahun and it
dates back to the Middle Kingdom.

The New Kingdom was the golden age of calendars because

several calendars were found from this period. During the New
Kingdom, there were two types of calendars: the traditional
calendar and the additional calendar, which is very short

50
calendar. The beat examples are those of King Thutmosis III of
the 18th dynasty who had three calendars. The first calendar was
found at Abydos. The second calendar is to be found on the
extension of the northern tower of the 6th pylon at El-Karnak
Temples. The third calendar is to be found opposite the chapel
of Philip Arrihidaeus at Karnak Temples. King Ramses II of the
19th dynasty had two calendars. The first one was found at his
temple at Abydos. The second one was found at his mortuary
temple known as "Ramesseum" at Luxor. The best and most
complete calendar so far belongs to King Ramses III of the 20 th
dynasty. It was found in his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu.

Calendars disappeared once more from the reign of King

Ramses IV until the end of the 30th Dynasty. In other words,
calendars disappeared for about 1000 years. However, most of
the scholars believe that they were still in use and the reasons of
their disappearance is due to the fact that most of the temples of
this period are now in ruins or calendars were inscribed on
papyrus rolls and they were kept in the archive of the temple,
instead of their depiction on the walls of the temples.

During the Old Kingdom, calendars usually begin with

hieroglyphic text containing the royal decree in which the king
denotes the villages, towns or cities which would provide the
temples with the offerings, then follows the names of offerings,
their quantities and the date on which they were rendered.

In the New Kingdom, calendars usually begin with a scene of

the king, then follows hieroglyphic inscriptions containing the
royal decree which denotes the villages, towns or cities which
would provide the temple with offerings and it ends with the
names of offerings, their quantities and the dates on which they
were rendered.

Eight calendars were discovered from the Graeco-Roman Period

such as the calendar of the temple of Kom Ombo, which is the
best calendar from the Graeco-Roman Period and the calendar

51
of Esna temple. It is the last calendar inscribed in ancient
Egypt.

In the Graeco-Roman Period, the calendar was further

developed.
a. The offering list and their quantities were separated from the
dates in which they were rendered.
b. The offering list became shorter.
c. They added a brief description of the religious rituals which
accompanied the rendering of the offerings.
d. In few cases, they added detailed description of the rituals.

The Function of the Calendar:

Its function was to provide the deities of the temple with a

permanent source of offerings. Each calendar usually begins on
the 19th of July, the day of the New Year in ancient Egypt and
the calendar covers 360 days of the year, but there were no
offerings in the last five days of the year known as 'the five
epogomenal days which were sacred days dedicated for the birth
of Osiris (1st day), Horus (2nd Day), Isis (3rd day), Seth (4th
day) and Nephthys (5th day).
The Mammisi

The mammisi is a Coptic word used by Champollion to describe

small buildings attached to the temple and their walls were
decorated with scenes representing the birth of god Horus or one
of his forms.

The word 'mammisi' consists of two syllables: ma and mici

which means 'the place of birth'. It is derived from the ancient
Egyptian word pr-mst which means 'the house of birth'.

Before Champollion, these buildings were described as or

named as 'Typhoneum', which means 'the place of Typhon', god
of evil in the Graeco-Roman mythology because most of the

52
scenes are depicted with god Bes. The scholars before
Champollion thought that the ugly looking Bes was the god of
evil in ancient Egypt.

The oldest mammisi discovered so far in Egypt belongs to King

Nectanebo I of the 30th Dynasty. It is situated in Dendera.
However, some scholars believe that the origin of mammisi may
go back to the 25th Dynasty, but no building survived.

The standard mammisi usually consists of the following main

elements: a pronaos, a naos which consists of hall of Offerings,
hall of the Ennead (or hall of the Deities), a sanctuary, an
ambulatory ‫ ممر محورى‬and side chambers.

There are common features which distingu characterize all the

mammisi:

1. Most of the façades of the mammisi face east except for the
façade of the mammisi of Philae temple.
2. Light was admitted to the mammisi from the façade of the
pronaos because it consists of columns connected with screen
walls.
3. Mammisi was built on right angle to the main processional
route of the temple.
4. The columns in the ambulatory are always papyrus columns
because the ancient Egyptian word for papyrus is w3dj which
also means 'green or young age' perhaps referring to the young
god Horus.

The mammisi was built and dedicated for the female member of
the triad as well as the child of the triad of the temple. Daily
offerings were rendered three times per day in the mammisi.
Extra offerings were rendered in other festivals, which took
place in the mammisi. The most important festival in the
mammisi is called 'the Mystery of Divine Birth'.

53
Milk was one of the most important offering rendered in the
mammisi because milk nourishes, purifies and cures. Moreover,
it is very suitable for the child god. Mammisi is usually used to
celebrate and acknowledge the accession of a new king to the
throne.

54
 The Crypt

Crypts are called sbht, igrt or st-sdjy in ancient Egyptian

language. They appeared in ancient Egypt from the New
Kingdom. There are 40 temples discovered so far in Egypt
which have crypts and each temple could have from one crypt
up to eleven crypts. The walls of all these crypts are not
inscribed except for five crypts which their walls are inscribed
with hieroglyphic texts. These five crypts are:

1. The temple of Akhenaten at Sesi-bee at Nubia near the second

cataract.
2. The crypt of the temple of goddess Mut at Karnak, which
dates back to the reign of King Taharqa of the 25th Dynasty.
3. The crypt of the temple of Opet at El-Karnak.
4. The crypt of the temple of Tod, situated 10 km to the south of
Luxor. It dates back to the reign of King Ptolemy VIII
(Eurgetes II)
5. The crypt of the temple of Dendera, which dates back to the
reign of King Ptolemy XII.

From the texts and other archaeological evidence, the functions

of the crypts can be summarized as follows:
1. They were used for storing the older statues of the temple.
2. They were used for storing the valuable objects and utensils
of the temple which were used in the daily rituals.
3. They were used as a resting place for the modern statues of
the temple.
4. Some of the crypts were used for storing the mummies of
some sacred animals, symbol of certain deities. For example the
temples of Kom Ombo, and Kasr Qarun were used for storing
the mummies of crocodiles, symbol of god Sobek.
5. Some of the walls of the crypts were used for writing texts on
them containing the religious beliefs and thoughts as well as the
theology of the temple.

55
Crypts appeared for the first time in the 18 th Dynasty and during
the New Kingdom, crypts were small rooms attached to the
temple on the outside, for example the crypt of the temple of
Abu Simbel. From the 25th Dynasty onwards, crypts were built
inside the side walls of the temple, but their entrances were
concealed. In the Ptolemaic Period, crypts were built under the
foundations of the temples. In the Roman Period, crypts were
built under the pavement (floor) of the wcbt hall (purification
hall). Therefore, crypts could exist either in the underground of
the temple, or in the ground floor or in the floor itself.

56
 The Festivals in the Egyptian temples
during the Graeco-Roman Period

There are four main festivals which are depicted on the walls of
Edfu temple:

1- The New Year Festival.

2- The Coronation of the Hawk.
3- The Sacred Marriage.
4- The Legend of Hours (Hours and Seth and Hours of
Behedety).

1- The New Year Festival:

It was celebrated in all the Egyptian temples from the beginning

of the Egyptian history. It begins on the 19th of July, the New
Year day in ancient Egypt. It starts when Sirius (Sotis) star
appears in the sky after it disappearance for 70 days. It was
called tp rnpt or wp rnpt on the walls of Edfu and Dandara
temples. It is depicted on the sides of the staircase that leads to
the roof of Dendara temple. In this festival, 24 priests carry the
statue of the deity and ascend to the roof of the temple where the
priests place the statue in a room called “the New Year room”.
It is a roofless room. At dawn, the priests perform a religious
ritual called hnmt which means to unite.

The aim of this ritual is to unite the statue of the deity with sun
rays or the solar power in order to regenerate the power of the
deity who gradually loses it due to his stay in the dark sanctuary
for 12 months. Then, the priests carry the statue down to the
temple where they visit different parts of the temple to make
offerings for the deities who are depicted on the walls. Before
the sunset, the priests carry once more the statue to the New

57
Year room on the roof of the temple. They perform the hnmt
ritual for the second time. Finally, they take the statue back to
the sanctuary.
The aim of this festival is to renew and regenerate the power of
the deity because the ancient believe as long as the deity was
powerful a year of prosperity would prevail in Egypt.

2-The Coronation of the Hawk:

It begins when the priests of the temple go to the house of the

falcon to select one of them. This house was usually built in
front of the pylon of the temple. Then, they take this falcon to
the terrace of the temple where they set the falcon free. Then,
they go down to the temple and crown the statue of the falcon
with the double crown of Egypt. The aim of celebrating was to
ensure the peaceful transition of the throne from the king to the
son.

3-The Sacred Marriage:

It is also called as the Good Re-Union. This festival celebrates
the marriage of Hours Behdety, chief god of Edfu, and Hathor,
chief goddess of Dendara. This festival begins on the 11 th night
of the lunar month. The following morning they carry the statue
outside of the temple and place it on a big ship in the Nile. On
either side of the banks of the Nile, crowds of people of all
classes are shown participating, cheering and greeting the statue
of the deity. The ship is shown surrounded with big number of
boats full of people celebrating this event. Therefore, it is a
popular festival. Then, the procession of Hathor sails down on
the Nile while Hours of Behedety sails up the Nile.

58
 The procession of each deity stops at the temple on its route
each night. For example, the procession of Hathor stops at the
temple of goddess Mut in the first night. The priests of the
temple of Mut welcome the arrival of the procession and make
big festival. On the 14th night of the lunar month, the two
processions meet in the Nile and they head to the temple of Edfu
or Dendara depending on the marriage from whom to whom,
whether Hathor to Hours Behedety or Hours Behedety to
Hathor. Then, the two processions return to one of the temples
Edfu or Dendara and the priests carry the two statues and visit
the different parts of the temple while making offerings for the
deities depicted on the walls of the temple. At the end of the
day, the two statues are placed in the sanctuary of the temple.
After some days one of the statues of the deities returns back to
its temple alone while the other statue stays in its sanctuary.
This festival takes 14 days from the beginning till the end.

4-The Legend of Horus:

It is divided into two legends:

A- The legend of Horus and Seth.
B- The legend of Horus Behedety.
The legend of Horus and Seth:

This legend is celebrated as a play of three acts at the sacred

lake of the temple which represents the marches of the Delta
where the true events of the story took place.
The 1st act shows 10 priests wearing the mask of Horus while
each one of them is holding a spear. The 2nd act depicts the
priests while stabbing a red hippopotamus. The 3rd act represents
the priests cutting up the hippopotamus up into small pieces
while people celebrating this event. It symbolizes the

59
destruction of evil. The religious significance of this festival is
to ensure a year of victories for the king over the enemies of
Egypt.
The legend of Horus Behedety:

This legend begins when the minor deities and demons revolted
against god Re. He summoned his son Horus to come and help
him to fight his enemies. In order to support his son Hours, Re
united with him, thus Hours was represented a winged sun disk.
Horus began his fight against the enemies of Re and after
several battles he succeeded in defeating them at a site called
Behedet winged solar disk, at this site to honour Horus. He was
called Horus Behedety or “Horus of Edfu”.

However the victory over the enemies of Re was not

conclusive. Therefore, the minor deities and demons revolted
once more against god Re. Then, Re summoned his son Horus
Behedety for the second time to fight his enemies. After bloody
and fierce battles all over Egypt and Nubia, Hours Behedety
succeeded in achieving a conclusive victory against enemies of
his father. Re ordered that Horus Behedety as a winged sun disc
should be depicted on the façade of all Egyptian temples to
provide them with more protection.

60
 The Temple of Esna

Esna is situated 60 km to the south of Luxor on the west bank of

the Nile. Esna was one of the cities of the third nome of Upper
Egypt which was called Nhn and its capital was El-Kab. The
oldest name of Esna was Iwynt. Then, it was called t3-sny or
sny.

In the Graeco-Roman Period, it was called Latopolis, because

the fish lates (Lates Niloticus) was sacred there. In the Coptic
Period, it was called sny or Esni from which was derived the
Arabic word Esna. There is a hypogeum for the sacred fish at
Kommir to the south of the city. This fish was associated with
the goddess Neith.

The importance of Esna is due to the fact that it was situated at

the end of the trade route between Egypt and Sudan passing
through Qarkur Oasis then El-Der and ending with Esna. This
trade route remained vital until the end of the 19 th century A.D.
Then, it began to lose its importance.

The present Esna temple dates back to the Graeco-Roman

Period. The greater part of this temple is now in ruins and
nothing remains from this temple except for the pronaos. This
temple is situated 200 m. from the Nile. In other words, it is
now situated in the middle of the present city. It is situated 9 m.
below the level of the street. There was a road which connected
the landing stage of the temple to the River Nile. This road
might have been also the festival route of the temple.

Fortunately, parts of the limestone landing stage survived, and

there is an inscription on the stones of this road carrying the
name of the Roman Emperor 'Marcus Aurelius' (161-180 AD).

61
In addition to the present temple, there were four other temples;
three of them were situated to the north of the present temple
while the fourth was situated on the east bank of the Nile.
Unfortunately, these four temples completely disappeared now,
although some parts of them were still visible until the end of
the 19th century A.D.

The principal main deities worshipped in this temple are: 1. god

Khnum, 2. goddess Nbwt or Nbtw, 3. goddess Neith, goddess of
the fields. She is represented as a young beautiful woman. 4.
Goddess Menhyt who was one of the local goddesses
representing one of the forms of goddess Sekhmet. 5. God Shu.
6. Goddess Tefnut. 7. The child god hq3.

In modern times, this temple was used as a store for cotton

during the reign of Mohamed Ali. Then, it was cleared, cleaned
and opened for the visitors.

Most scholars believe that the origin of this temple goes back to
the reign of King Thutmosis III of the 18th Dynasty as some
blocks of stone were found carrying his name there. Then, this
temple was renewed during the 26th Dynasty and it was finally
rebuilt during the Graeco-Roman Period. It would seem that the
final reconstruction of this temple perhaps began during the
reign of King Ptolemy V (Epiphanus), but it was decorated by
Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII.

The original length of this temple was from 40 to 45 m. and its

width is 16 m. The pronaos which is the only surviving part of
this temple measures about 11m in length and 16.5 m. in width.
The main axis of this temple runs from east to west. The
construction of this temple took about 4 centuries started by
Ptolemy V and completely finished during the reign of the
Roman Emperor 'Decius', (249 AD-251 AD), most probably in
the middle of the 3rd Century A.D. The inscriptions in this
temple were the last imperial hieroglyphs known to have been
sculpted in ancient Egypt.

62
The Pronaos:

It is the only surviving part in this temple. The roof of this

pronaos is supported by 24 columns, arranged in four rows.
Each row consists of 6 columns whose capitals are either
papyrus capitals or palm capitals. The height of each column
was about 12 m.

The importance of this temple is due to the temple festival

calendar which describes the different festivals of deities,
especially for Khnum.

The western wall of the pronaos is its oldest part. It is inscribed

with the names of Kings Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII. It is
also decorated with scenes representing royal figures while
making offerings and presenting the pottery wheel for god
Khnum. It should be mentioned that the standard of carving of
the scenes on this wall is higher than the other scenes. The rest
of the scenes on the other walls date back to the Roman Period.
They represent some Roman emperors in the guise of Egyptian
kings while performing some of the religious rituals and making
offerings. Some names of these Roman Emperors are
mentioned in this hall: Claudius, Vespesian, Trajan, Hadrian,
Antonious Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severius and
Caracalla.

The most important scenes in the pronaos are to be found on the

inner side of the northern wall which represents the Roman
Emperor Claudius as god Horus, while pulling the net which
was full of fish and fowls with the help of god Khnum. Among
the fish and fowls ‫ طيور‬are some enemies of Egypt. This event
is being watched by other Egyptian deities.

On the outer side of the northern and southern walls of the

pronaos, there are scenes representing the king while grabbing

63
some enemies and smiting them. There are also some
hieroglyphic texts giving the names of the defeated countries.

The façade of the pronaos is decorated with votive texts from

the reign of the Roman Emperor Claudius (41 – 54 A.D) and the
Roman Emperor Vespasian (69 – 79).

This temple was dedicated to two distinctive deities and their

respective entourages in an attempt to supply order and
coherence. God Khnum accompanied by Nebetu and Menhit
and the child god Heka are the first group. The second group
was headed by goddess Neith,her theological son Khamanefer
(the crocodile god) and Tutu.

64
65
 The Temple of Dendera

Dendera is the Arabic name for the ancient Egyptian town Iwn
or Iwnt. In the Late Period, the epithet 't3-ntrt' 'of the goddess'
was added to its name Iwnt which means Iwnt of the Goddess,
referring to goddess Hathor, the chief goddess of Dendera. In
the Graeco-Roman Period, Dendera was called Tentira. In the
Coptic Period, it was called Ni-tentεvpε.

Dendera is situated on the edge of the Western Desert on the

west bank of the Nile, about 60 km. to the north-west of Luxor
and 4 km to the north of Qena. Dendera was the capital of the
6th nome of Upper Egypt, which was called 'ik'. It was
represented as a crocodile whose head is surmounted by a
feather and a spear. In the Graeco-Roman Period, this crocodile
was replaced by another symbol representing the temple of Isis,
which is situated to the south of the present temple of Hathor at
Dendera.

The importance of Dendera was due to the fact that it was the
main cult center of goddess Hathor whom the Greeks identified
with Aphrodite, their goddess of love, music and beauty.
Moreover, it was situated at the crossroad of Eastern Desert and
the Red Sea. The triad of Dendera consists of Hathor and Horus
Behdety and their son Ihy. Dendera flourished twice during its
long history. The first time was during the Old Kingdom and
the second time was during the Graeco-Roman Period.

The cemetery of Dendera is situated outside the mud brick

enclosure wall of the Dendera temple to the south side. This
cemetery extends for a distance of 2/3 of a mile and it covers an
area of about 100 acres. This cemetery was in use from the
Pharaonic Period until the Islamic Period.

Excavations were carried out in the necropolis of Dendera in

1897-98 by Petrie for the first time there. Then, at the beginning

66
of the 20th Century, another excavation was carried out by
Charles Rosher. Finally, Florence Fischer carried out the final
excavation in 1915-1918. He discovered more than 2000 tombs.

The History of the Construction of this Temple:

The history of the construction of Dendera temple goes back to

the early period of the Egyptian history, then, it was renewed
during the reign of King Cheops when the cult of Ihy was
introduced. Then, this temple was restored during the 6th
Dynasty. King Mentuhotep (Nb-Hpt-Ra) of the 11th Dynasty
built a limestone chapel there, which is now in the Cairo
Museum.

Stone blocks carrying the names of Amenemhat I, Senusert I

and Amenemhat III of the 12th Dynasty as well as the name of
King Ahmose of the 18th Dynasty were found there. Some
scholars believe that King Thutmosis III rebuilt this temple.
Moreover, he built another temple for god Amun-Re. There are
also some objects which date back to the reign of King Ramses
II and King Ramses III. King Shabaqa of the 25th Dynasty built
the enclosure wall of the temple. There is also a mammisi
which dates back to the reign of King Nectanebo I of the 30 th
Dynasty as well as another mammisi which dates back to the
Roman Period.

Recent studies revealed that there were three temples at

Dendera:

The first one for Hathor, the second was for Horus Behdty and
the third one for their son Ihy. The temple of Hathor is the only
temple which survived. This temple was built at the right angle
of the Nile and its main axis runs from east to west.

The construction of the present temple of Hathor goes back to

the 27th year of the reign of King Ptolemy XII (Neos Dionysis)
(16th of July 54 B.C). Then, this temple was completed in the

67
9th year of the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus Octavious,
and therefore it is believed that the construction of this temple
took about 34 years. However, other scholars believed that this
temple was completed in the 21st year of the reign of the Roman
Emperor Tiberius (35 A.D).

According to some scholars, the name of Queen Cleopatra VII

was mentioned twice in this temple, while other scholars
believed that the name was mentioned 73 times.

Description of the temple:

This temple was dedicated for the cult of goddess Hathor and
her triad. It measures 221 m in length, 230 m in width and 10 m
in thickness.

The Temenos:

The present temple is surrounded by a large temenos. It

measures 280 m.(930 f.) in length and its height varies between
10 to 20 m. This temenos (enclosure wall) suffered from some
damage at the hands of the Copts. It contains many monuments.
They are the temple of Hathor, the domain of Isis, the Sacred
lake, the chapel of the barge, wells, the mammisi of Nectanebo
I, the Roman mammisi, the chapel of Montuhotep II, the chapel
of Thoth's oracle, the sanatorium and the Coptic basilica.

The gate to the temple is situated at the middle of the northern

side of the temenos wall. It consists of two Corinthian columns.
On either side of the gate, there is a scene representing the
Roman Emperor Domitian while presenting wine and fowls to
goddess Hathor, god Horus, goddess Maat, and many other
deities. There were three other scenes which were visible until
the beginning of the 19th Century, but they now disappeared.
This gate dates back to the reigns of the Roman Emperors
Domitian and Trajan.

68
The temple proper of Hathor consists of a pronaos and a naos
which consists of a hypostyle hall, an offering hall, hall of the
Ennead and the sanctuary. It is surrounded by ambulatory and
side chambers.

The Pronaos:

It was built during the reign of the Roman Emperor 'Augustus

Octavious', and it was decorated during the reign of the Roman
Emperor 'Tiberius'. The roof of the pronaos is supported by 24
Hathoric columns arranged in four rows.

The façade of the pronaos consists of six Hathoric columns

connected with each other by screen walls. They were decorated
with scenes representing the Roman Emperor 'Tiberius' and the
Roman Emperor 'Claudius' while making offerings for the chief
deities of the temple: Hathor, Horus Bhdty and Ihy. There is
also another scene representing the Roman Emperor 'Tiberius' as
a sphinx before Hathor and Ihy.

The inner walls of the pronaos are decorated with scenes

representing the foundation of the temple. There is also another
scene representing the Roman emperor while leaving the royal
palace while god Horus and god Djhwty pouring water over him
in order to purify him.

The roof of the pronaos is decorated with astronomical scenes,

the most important of which is a scene representing goddess Nut
as a woman while swallowing the sun-disk and giving birth to it
again.

The Naos:

I. The Hypostyle Hall:

It is also called 'the Hall of Appearance'. Its roof is supported by

six Hathoric pillars arranged in three rows. This hall is square
in shape and its walls are decorated with offering scenes and one

69
of the most important scenes is that representing the Roman
Emperor 'Augustus Octavious' while giving a golden necklace
and a pendant to goddess Hathor. On the wall of this hall, there
is a temple festival calendar. This hall is surrounded by 6 rooms,
three on either side.

On the left hand side:

The first room is called 'the Perfume Room'.
The second room is called 'the Harvest Room'.
The third room is called 'the Offering Room'.

On the other side:

The left room is called 'the Jewellery Room'.
The central room is called 'the Nile Room'.
The last room is called 'the Offering Room', which has a
staircase leading to the roof of the temple.

II. The Hall of Offerings:

Its wall is decorated with a scene representing King Ptolemy XII

(Neos Dionysus) while burning incense and giving flowers to
goddess Hathor.
There is also a scene for god Hapy, the Nile god, and goddess
Sekhat, goddess of the fields. This hall was used for performing
the daily rituals.

III. The Hall of the Ennead / Deities:

The most important scene on the walls of this hall is

representing King Ptolemy XII while giving offerings to Horus
Behdety. This hall was the place where the deities meet in order
to protect goddess Hathor during the religious festivals.

IV. The Sanctuary:

A doorway at the back of the Ennead Hall leads to the
sanctuary. It is now empty from its contents, but according to

70
the scenes on its wall, there was a naos containing a statue of
goddess Hathor and the sacred bark.

V. The Ambulatory and VI. The Side Chambers:

The sanctuary is surrounded by an ambulatory and 11 side

chambers. They are divided as follows: three on the right-hand
side; four at the back; and four on the left-hand side.

The 1st, 5th, 8th, 10th and the 11th are known as 'the side chambers
of Hathor'. The 2nd one is known as 'the chamber of Isis'. The 3rd
one is known as 'the chamber of Sokar-Osiris'. The 4th one is
known as 'the chamber of Horus'. The 6th one is known as 'the
chamber of Sistra'.
The 9th one is known as 'the chamber of the throne of Re'.

On either side of the staircase leading to the roof of the temple,

there are scenes representing 24 priests while carrying the
statues for goddess Hathor in order to celebrate the New Year
festival, which was celebrated on the 19th of July.

Other festivals were celebrated at this temple such as: 'the

Festival of Darkness', which took place on the 20th of Twt and
'the Festival of the Sacred Marriage' or 'the Good Reunion'.

On the roof of the temple, there are:

a. The Chapel of Osiris

b. The New Year Room which has no roof.

71
72
 The Temple of Edfu

Edfu is situated 132 km to the south of Luxor. It was the capital

of the second nome of Upper Egypt. In ancient times, it was
called 'Behdet', but in the Graeco-Roman Period, it was called
'Apollinopolis Magna' because the Greeks identified their god
Apollo with the local god of Edfu, Horus of Behdet, who is
represented as a winged solar-disk. The triad of Edfu consists
of: Hor Behdety, his wife Hathor and their son Horus sm3-t3wy.
The most important monument in Edfu is its temple which is
now situated at the center of the city.

Edfu is situated on the west bank of the Nile. Its ancient name
was Djbat which means 'to adorn' or 'robing chamber', then
called Behdet. This temple dates back to the prehistoric period.
Other monuments dating back to the Ramesside period as well
as the 25th and 26th Dynasties were found there. It took from
237BC to 57BC to build and decorate the main temple.

Foundation stone of the temple was laid in 23August 237BC. In

212 BC the decoration of the hypostyle began and finished in
206 BC. The naos measures 53m in length (160 f) and its width
is 33m (100 f). Foundation stone was laid in2nd of July 140 BC
and completed in 124 BC. It was decorated from year 122 to
116 BC. The whole temple was completed on the 7th of
February 70 BC. The temple was consecrated on the 5th of
December 57 BC when they placed the large doors.

This temple measures 137m in length (425f) and 47m in width

(155f).
The hypostyle hall was the space of exaltation for the power of
Horus. The pronaos provided the visualization of primordial
place from which sprang the creation. It is a scaled-down image
of Egyptian territory, with all nome capitals represented. The
courtyard was a mythic place where the snake of origin was

73
slain there. The pylon records the glory of Horus, based on the
transfer of power to Horus from Osiris and Re.

The crowning of the falcon took place on the first day of Tybi,
immediately following the birth of Osiris that had been
celebrated in the last day of the month of Khoiak. It symbolized
the renewal of power of Horus with his sacred animal acting as
intermediary. The sacred marriage festival was on the month of
Epiphi. The celebration of the victory of Horus over Seth was
on 21st of Mechir. Dendera and Mesen/Sile. This temple was
intended as replica of the great temple of Heliopolis. Edfu was
considered the Mesen of the South.

Description of the temple:

The Pylon:

It dates back to the Ptolemaic Period, and it is the biggest and

greatest pylon of all Egyptian temples. Its height is about 36 m
while its width is about 64 m. The pylon is usually considered
the gate to the residence of the deity on earth. This pylon
consists of two towers. Each tower is surmounted with a cavetto
cornice. The two towers are connected together with 'the Terrace
of Appearance' ‫ شرفة االشراق‬on which the falcon was set free
during 'the Festival of the Coronation of the Hawk'. Each tower
has a staircase which consists of 145 steps and each tower is
also divided into 4 inner storeys. Each staircase leads to some
inner rooms in the pylon and to the roof.

The scenes on the tower consist of two themes:

The upper part, which is smaller, depicts the king while

welcoming some of the deities as guests of the temple. The
lower part contains the main scene which represents King
Ptolemy XII (Neos Dionysos) while smiting a group of enemies
and presenting them to Horus Behdty and Hathor.

74
In front of the pylon, there are two granite statues of falcons
wearing the Double Crown and representing Horus Behdty. It is
also believed that there were two obelisks in front of the temple.
There are also remains of a smaller pylon which dates back to
the Ramesside Period and it is situated at a right angle on the
eastern tower of the Ptolemaic pylon.

In front of the pylon, on the eastern side, there are remains of

the 'House of Horus'. It was used for breeding the falcons, one
of which was chosen a falcon each year by the high priest during
the 'Festival of the Coronation of the Hawk'.

The Open Court:

It is surrounded on three sides by composite floral capital

columns, which are decorated with scenes representing the king
while making offerings to various deities of Egypt. On the back
wall of the pylon, there are scenes representing the Sacred
Marriage Festival.

On the left side, scenes representing the arrival of Hathor,

goddess of Dendera, on her sacred bark in Edfu to see her
husband Horus Behdety. To the right side, there are scenes
representing the return of Hathor to her temple at Dendera. The
floor of this court was paved with limestone, parts of which
survive.

I. The Pronaos:

The back wall of the court forms the façade of the pronaos. Its
entrance is guarded by two falcons, but one of them is broken.

The façade of the pronaos consists of six columns connected

together with screen walls. They are decorated with scenes
representing King Ptolemy II while standing between god Horus
and god Djhwty, who are pouring water over him in order to
purify him. The water is represented with the ankh and w3s

75
signs. Then, there is another scene representing goddess
Nekhbet and goddess Wadjet while supervising the coronation
of the king.

The roof of the pronaos is supported by twelve columns

representing the twelve hours of the night. On the right and left
of this hall, there are two square rooms. Each side measures 2.2
m.

The first room is called the 'pr ankh' ' pr-md3t'or the library
(right). The second room is called 'pr-wcbt' or 'pr- dw3t' the
'House of Purification' (left), in which the high priest was
purified before performing the religious rituals in the temple.

The most important scenes on the walls of the pronaos are those
representing the foundation of the temple. Other scenes depict
the king while dancing before Horus of Behdet during the
foundation of the temple.

II. The Naos:

It consists of a hypostyle hall, hall of offerings, a hall of

deities/ennead and the sanctuary which is surrounded by an
ambulatory and side- chambers.

- The Hypostyle Hall:

It has twelve pillars arranged in three rows and each row

consists of four columns, with composite floral capitals. The
walls are decorated with scenes dating back to the reign of King
Ptolemy IV (Philopator). The style of carving in this hall is
higher than that of the pronaos.

On either side of this hall, there are two doors: on the eastern
side, the first door leads to the ambulatory, while the second
door leads to a staircase which leads to the roof of the temple.

76
 On the western side, the first door leads to the Nile room
which was used for keeping the jars containing water for daily
use. The scenes on its walls depict the king while offering the
sacred water to Horus, Hathor and other deities. The Nile god
Hcpy is also frequently depicted. The second door leads to the
Perfume Room (Laboratory), the walls of which are decorated
with scenes representing the offering of perfumes, unguents and
incense. There are also long hieroglyphic inscriptions
containing the formulae for making different kinds of perfumes
and unguents. This room has a door leading to the outer
corridor.

The Hall of Offerings:

It is also known as 'the Hall of the First Reception Room'. ‫حجرة‬

‫االستقبال‬
The scenes on its walls depict offerings of meat, fish and fowls.
There is a door in this room which leads to another room with
another door which leads to a room known as 'the Treasury
Room'. ‫الخزانة‬

The walls of this room are covered with scenes of jewelry and
precious objects. There is also a door in this room which leads
to a small hall with two floral capital columns.

The Presentation Hall: ‫صالة التقديمات‬

On the walls of this hall, there is a scene representing king,

queen and priests carrying different standards representing
nomes of Egypt while shaking sistra. There is also a scene that
depicts them while burning incense and carrying different kinds
of offerings and a naos.

On the western side of this room, there is a staircase leading to

the descending passage used during the processions of the New
Year Festivals. The western staircase reaches the roof in one

77
straight flight while the eastern one makes several 90 degree
turns.

The Hall of Deities:

It is situated in front of the sanctuary and its walls are decorated
with scenes representing the king while making offerings to
different deities.
The Wcbt Hall
In the east of the transversal hall that leads to the ambulatory, a
door opens into the wcbt hall, the sanctuary used for the
celebration of the merging of Horus with the sun disc. It
consists of an open court and a cult chapel which is approached
by steps. This court is known as 'the Court of the New Year' or
'the Hall of Nut'. It is a small chapel approached by a flight of 6
steps. The roof of this hall is decorated with a scene representing
goddess Nut. The court itself is decorated with a scene
representing Ptolemy I and his wife Berenice while adoring
different deities of Egypt.

There are also scenes representing 'the seven Hathors' who

brought the good or bad luck at the birth of the child. This
previous scene depicts them while playing on the drums in
happiness. In front of this court, there is a small chapel to god
Min, god of fertility in ancient Egypt.

- The Sanctuary:

At the middle of the sanctuary, there is a pedestal on which was

placed the sacred bark of god Horus Behdety. There is also a
naos which contained a statue of god Horus Behdety.

- The Side Chambers:

78
The sanctuary is surrounded by 10 side chambers and the name
of each chamber is written on the lower part of its outer wall.
For example:
1. The central chamber at the back of the sanctuary is called 'the
Cradle Room' ‫ حجرة المهد‬because the scenes on the wall are
represented with the bringing up of Horus Behdety.
2. The side chamber to the west is depicted with Osiris and god
Khentiamentiu.
3. Another room is called 'the Costume Room'.

The Outer Corridor:

This temple is surrounded by an outer corridor. The walls of this

corridor are decorated with the 'Legend of Horus and Seth'.
This legend is depicted as a play of three acts:
The first act: 10 priests wearing the mask of Horus and holding
a spear.
The second act: depicts the priest while slaying the hippopotami.
The third act: the king is shown while cutting the hippopotamus,
symbol of god Seth, into small pieces while people celebrate
this event.

On the opposite wall or the outer wall of the temple are scenes
representing the Legend of Horus Behdety.

The Nilometer:

It is also known as 'the sacred well'. It is situated to the east of

the temple.

The Mammisi:

It was constructed by King Ptolemy VIII (Eurgetes II) and

Ptolemy IX (Soter II). It is similar in design to a temple from
the Graeco-Roman Period. It consists of a pronaos and a naos
which consists of:
i. Hall of Offerings.

79
ii. Hall of the Ennead.
iii. The sanctuary surrounded by: an ambulatory and the
side chambers. The walls of this mummisi are decorated
with scenes representing the Divine Birth of Horus.

80
81
82
 The Façade of aTemple
from the Graeco-Roman Period

About fifty medium-size and large temple buildings are known

from the Ptolemaic period. The Ptolemaic architecture or style
had its roots in the 26th dynasty and was further developed in
the 30th after its disappearance after the New Kingdom.

The most distinctive features of the temples of the Ptolemaic

period were the screen walls across the front of the hypostyle
hall and the columns are decorated with new varieties of
capitals, often no two alike. It is the usage and their
combination which gave them their distinctive character. The
screen walls were used in the temple of king Sheshonq I at el-
Heba. The earliest surviving examples of the composite
columns date back to the reign of king Nectanebo I at the temple
of Hibis in the entrance kiosk or portico built in front of the
temple.

83
 Al-Ashmonein

It is situated 208 km to the south of Cairo; it was the capital of

the 15th nome of Upper Egypt which was called the Hare nome.
Al-Ashmonein is the modern Arabic name of the ancient
Egyptian town (#mnw) which means eight: a clear reference to
the Ogdoad of Al-Ashmonein. In late Egyptian, the two letters x
and S interchanged and therefore this town was called hmnw.

In the Graeco-Roman Period, it was called Hermopolis Magna;

the name Hermopolis was given to this city by the Greeks
because they identified their god Hermes with the Egyptian
local god (Djehuty) or Thoth in his lunar aspect. The epithet
Magna was given to this city in order to differentiate between it
and another city called Hermopolis Parva in the Delta. In the
Coptic Period, it was called Shmun from which derived the
Arabic name Ashmonein.

During the Pharaonic era, Al-Ashmonein was situated on both

banks of the Nile but in the Graeco-Roman Period, it was only
located on the west bank of the Nile.

The most important monuments in Al-Ashmonein are two red

granite statues of baboons carrying the name of King
Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty, these two statues were
standing in front of the pylon of the temple of God Djehuty at
Al-Ashmonein, but this temple is completely destroyed now.
There are also large numbers of columns that survive there, they
were thought to be the remains of an Agora, but recent
excavations and studies revealed that they are the remains of a
basilica (a church of royal style).

84
 The Tomb of Petosiris

Petosiris is the Greek form of the Ancient Egyptian name “

p3 di wsir which means "the gift of Osiris". He was the high
priest of god Thot or Djhwty about 300 B.C. He built this
tomb for his father Seshu or Shesu and his brother Djed
Djhwty iw.f Ankh (Djhwty says: he is the life) and for
himself.

This tomb was mainly built of limestone however some parts

of which were built of sandstone. The façade of this tomb
takes the shape of an Ancient Egyptian temple from the
Graeco-Roman Period.

In front of the tomb by few meters there is a high horned

Altar of Greek type. It was made of Limestone and its height
is about 2.4m. This tomb consists of 2 rooms known as the
pronaos and the naos.
The tomb is famous for its scenes which show mixed
iconography between Egyptian art and Greek art. Moreover a
new colour appeared in this tomb it is the gay light blue
colour which is a Greek colour.

The Façade of the Tomb

The façade of the tomb consists of 4 columns with floral

capitals connected with screen walls. At either end of the
façade there is a pilaster which is divided into 3 registers.
The screen walls are decorated with scenes representing
Petosiris while making offerings to god Thot, once as an Ibis-
headed figure and once as a Baboon-headed figure.

Each pilaster is divided into 3 registers. The western pilaster

shows Petosiris while making offerings to god Sokar, Osiris
and goddess Isis. The eastern pilaster is divided into 3

85
registers. The upper one is damaged, the middle one shows
Petosiris while making offerings to god Osiris. The lower
register depicts Petosiris while making offerings to goddess
Nephtys.

The entrance to the tomb is situated to the middle of the

façade. On either side of the entrance there are some
hieroglyphic inscriptions containing a short autobiography of
Petosiris as well as his speech which is addressed to the
visitors of the tomb. In this speech, Petosiris asks the visitors
of the tomb to give him thousands of bread, thousands of
beer, thousands of oxen and thousands of fowl
…………extra. He also asks them to pour water for him.

The façade of the tomb kept the Egyptian tradition and does
not show any mixed iconography.

The Pronaos

1-The scenes here are divided into 4 registers:

The Upper register:
It shows two men seated on either side of a pile of ointment
seeds, most probably myrtle berries.
A third man is shown standing pouring more seeds into the
pile from a sack. The two men are selecting the bad berries in
order to throw them away.
The Second register:
It depicts two different ways for grinding and crashing the
ointment seeds in order to extract the perfume oil.
The Third register:
It depicts some carpenters while making funerary boxes.
The Fourth register:
It depicts some carpenters in different stages of work while
making a lion funerary bed.

2- The Scenes here:

Upper register:

86
 It depicts two men while blowing air into the fire in order to
melt gold placed in two pots.
The Second register:
It represents some goldsmiths while making pieces of golden
jewelry.
The Third register:
It shows some carpenters while making some funerary
objects.
The Fourth & Bottom register:
It represents some bead workers while fashioning some beads
into different shapes.

3-The scenes here are to be read from bottom to top.

The Bottom register:
It depicts two different ways of ploughing the fields. The 1st
way is by a plough and the 2nd way by men holding hoes.
Then, there are 2 men throwing seeds by two different ways;
each man is holding a sack, the 1st man is shown throwing
the seeds from the sack while the 2nd man is showed
throwing the seeds with his hands. At the end of the register
there is a tree beneath which sets Petosiris.
The middle register:
It represents the harvesting of flax by plucking the plant from
the ground. Then, the harvested flax was turned into bundles
stacked one on top of the other. Finally, some donkeys are
shown carrying the flax into the store rooms.
The upper register:
It represents the harvesting of wheat. Some men are shown
harvesting the wheat by using sickles. Men, women and
children are shown carrying the harvested wheat in baskets
and going towards a heap of wheat around which stands some
men holding heavy sticks for threshing the wheat. Finally,
donkeys are shown carrying sacks full of wheat and going
towards the granaries.

4th & 5th Scenes:

87
 They represent Petosiris and his wife and some members of
his family

6-The Scenes here:

The Upper register:

It is damaged but the remaining parts show some cattle which
meeting.

The Second register:

It depicts a cow while delivering a young calf. A man is
helping the cow in its delivery. Then a man is shown seated
beneath a cow while milking it. In front of the cow stands the
young calf screaming from hunger. Then there is another cow
in labour, its body is contracted from pain. Finally, a
shepherd is carrying a calf and crossing a canal, he is
followed by a herd of cattle among which is the mother of the
calf.

The Bottom register:

It depicts men, women and children while gathering bunches
of grapes from a vineyard and carrying them in baskets.
They go towards a large stone basin in which stands 2 or 3
naked men while crushing the grapes by their feet. At the
other end of the stone basin stands a man holding a small jar
receiving the grape juice. Then there are some amphorae
filled with grape juice. At the end of the register, a scribe is
shown seated writing down the number of amphorae filled
with juice in order to be fermented.

7- The scenes here:

The Upper register:
It shows some metal workers while decorating small pieces
of the Senate game.
The Second register:
Some metal offering tables of different types are shown.
The Bottom register:

88
It depicts a metal worker while hammering a flat piece of
metal in order to turn it into a pot.

8- The scenes here:

The Upper register:
It depicts a man attending to a balance of two scales in order
to adjust it in order to weigh a metal pot.
The Middle register:
It depicts some metal offering tables.
The Bottom register:
It shows a metal worker while trimming the edge of a pot.

The scenes in the pro-naos show mixed iconography which

can be summarized as follows:
Human figures are depicted in frontal view.
Men, women and children wear Greek tunic.
Human figures are shown with curly hair.
Some of the scenes are in gay light blue colour.

The Naos

9 – On either side of the entrance there are some hieroglyphic

inscriptions containing a Lengthy autobiography of Petosiris
and his family.

10- Scenes representing Shesu (Petosiris's father) and his

wife standing in front of the scared tree of Heliopolis (the
Ished-tree) while goddess Nut (the sky goddess) comes out
of it.

11- Scenes representing rows of servants and followers while

carrying different funerary objects such as funerary boxes and
going towards the tomb .The most important scene here
represents the transportation of the canopic chest on a cart
with wheels.

89
12- Scenes representing Shesu as a mummy standing on the
staircase of his tomb which is depicted with pyramidal top
,in front of Shesu stands Zeho the son of Petosiris and the
grandson of Shesu as high priest (bald headed and wearing
Leopard skin) pouring water from 2 jars over the mummy in
order to purify it. Beneath the stair case of the tomb there are
scenes representing the slaughtering of oxen in order to be
rendered as offerings. Behind Zeho there is a scene
representing the 4 sons of Horus and each one of them
carrying a component of the human body ( Khet,kA,rn and
ib).

13- The wall here is divided into 9 squares:

The 1st group of three squares contains 3 human headed
figures.
The 2nd group of three squares contains 3 crocodile headed
figures.
The last group of three squares contains 3 Jackal headed
figures.
In front of these figures his name is inscribed, these are some
Genii or Demons.

15- The wall here is also divided into 9 squares and each
square contains a human headed figure, they are also some
Genii.

14- The god Khepri is shown as a scarab wearing the Atef

crown. On either side of god Khepri there is a figure of a
woman. One of them is with a vulture head representing
goddess Nekhbet and the other one is with a serpent head
representing goddess Wadjet. Behind each woman there is
another woman, the 1st one is goddess Imntt (goddess of the
West) and the other woman is goddess Mnhyt one of the
goddess of the Dead of western Thebes.

16 -The Scene here represents 9 baboon described here as

worshippers of Re. There are also scenes representing Djed

90
Djhwty iw.f Ankh while standing in front of several files of
Egyptian deities.

17 – Scenes representing 12 serpents representing the

guardians of the 12 gates of the underworld.
Scenes represent Djed Djhwty iw.f Ankh while standing in
front of several files of Egyptian deities.

18 -Djed Djhwty iw.f Ankh is represented in front of

different deities.

The 4 pillars of the Naos are decorated with scenes Shesu (

left) and Djd djhwty iw.f ankh (right), while embracing
different deities of Egypt and receiving blessings from them.

In the Middle of the Naos there is the burial shaft the depth of
which 8 m. At the bottom of the shaft there is the burial
chamber which contained the burials of 3 generations of the
high priests of god Thot. The naos is decorated with religious
and funerary scenes of Egyptian nature. Therefore, they kept
the old traditions and they don’t show any mixed
iconography.

N.B.The coffin of Petosiris is now in the Cairo Museum. It is

made out of wood and inlaid with stained glass or coloured
glass and ivory.

91
 The Tomb of Isadora

This tomb is one of the funerary houses which are discovered

at Tuna El Gebel. It is built of mud bricks. This tomb was
built for Isadora who was a beautiful girl drowned at the Nile
while crossing it to meet her lover. Her father felt sad after
her death and built his tomb to honor her. Isadora lived
during the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian.

The entrance of this tomb is approached by a flight of steps

and it leads to the 1 st room, the walls of which are covered by
a large of Stucco, they bear no reliefs or inscriptions.
However there are papyri attached at either side of the back
wall of the 1st room. These papyri were written in Greek and
they contained some poems describing the beauty of Isadora
and the grief of her father.

The walls of the 2nd room are also covered by a layer of

stucco and they carry no reliefs or inscriptions. At the middle
of the back wall, there is a niche, the top of which there is an
imitation of a shell. On either side of the niche, there are the
remains of scenes painted in water colour and they represent
the flora and fauna life in Egypt. The lower part of the niche
contains a Kline on which was placed the mummy of Isadora.

On either side of the niche, there are the remains of scenes

painted in water colour and they represent the flora and fauna
life in Egypt.
On the northern wall of the 2nd room there are 2 recesses the
exact purpose of which is uncertain. Some scholars
suggested that there were used for placing the offerings.
Others suggested that they were used for placing lambs to
lighten the tomb during the visits.

92