NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 78 (2016) 103–110

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NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences

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Research paper

Development of home garden model for year round production and

consumption for improving resource-poor household food security in
Bangladesh
Zannatul Ferdous a,c , Avishek Datta a,∗ , Anil Kumar Anal b , Mazharul Anwar c ,
A.S.M. Mahbubur Rahman Khan d
a
Agricultural Systems and Engineering, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
b
Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani 12120,
Thailand
c
On-Farm Research Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Agricultural Research Station, Alamnagar, Rangpur, Bangladesh
d
On-Farm Research Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Joydebpur, Gazipur, Bangladesh

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The government of Bangladesh has long been striving to increase food security and to reduce poverty and
Received 18 January 2015 malnutrition. In this regard, home gardens can play an important role in providing enhanced food supply
Received in revised form 15 March 2016 and increased diversity of food to some extent. Studies on niche/ecosystem based homestead gardening
Accepted 9 May 2016
were carried out at Lahirirhat Farming Systems Research and Development site, Rangpur under the On-
Available online 24 May 2016
Farm Research Division of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute during 2008–2009, resulting in
the development of a year round production model, known as the Rangpur (Syedpur) model, for Tista
Keywords:
Meander Floodplain agro-ecological region of Bangladesh. The objective of the study was to utilize the
Homestead gardening model
Vegetable production homestead resources in scientific ways for producing fresh vegetables and fruits over space and time and
Food security to enhance the nutritional supplies for the family throughout the year. A total of 12 households were
Malnutrition selected from landless (no cultivable land), marginal (0.2–0.6 ha) and small (0.61–1.0 ha) farmer groups
Family nutrition and seven production niches were intervened for round the year production following the Rangpur model.
Rural employment The niches were open sunny place, roof top, trellis, fence, boundary, marshy land and partially shady
place. After the intervention, the highest amount of vegetables was produced by the small farmer groups
(511 kg/year) followed by marginal (499 kg/year) and landless (422 kg/year) farmers. The yearly vegetable
requirements of farmers were largely met by the homestead garden with a supply between 55 and
79 kg/head/year compared with the bench mark level of 21–30 kg/head/year before the intervention. The
highest total income (BDT 5030/year) and net income (BDT 4290/year) were obtained from homestead
at small farmers followed by marginal and landless farmers. From this study it is evident that the target
farmers were able to fulfill their daily requirement of vegetables in most parts of the year by following
the Rangpur model. This suggests an increase in food security and a reduction in malnutrition of farm
families in the target households of Rangpur region in Bangladesh. The upscaling of the production model
based on niche/ecosystem in different poverty stricken regions of Bangladesh is recommended to achieve
food security and malnutrition reduction.
© 2016 Royal Netherlands Society for Agricultural Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights
reserved.

1. Introduction agriculture-based economy. About 40% people in Bangladesh live

Bangladesh is a developing country of about 156.4 million peo-
ple [1] inhabiting in its 147,570 km2 area and is primarily an
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: datta@ait.ac.th, avishek.ait@gmail.com (A. Datta).
below the food consumption-based poverty line and they could not
afford sufficient food to meet a daily diet of 2122 kcal/day/person
[2]. Malnutrition, especially micronutrient malnutrition in the form
of deficiencies in vitamin A, iron and iodine, is a serious public
health problem in Bangladesh [3]. Vitamin A deficiency adversely
affects nearly 20% preschool aged children and about 25% of women
of reproductive age [4,5]. Similarly, many women are suffering from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2016.05.006
1573-5214/© 2016 Royal Netherlands Society for Agricultural Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
104 Z. Ferdous et al. / NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 78 (2016) 103–110
anemia due to iron deficiency. It has been reported that 93% fam-
ily in Bangladesh is suffering from vitamin C deficiency, 85% in
riboflavin, 81% in vitamin A and calcium, 60% in protein and 59%
in calorie requirement [6]. From human growth and development
standpoint, micronutrient deficiency can result in different types
of diseases, hamper physical growth, retard child growth, increase
the duration and severity of illness, reduce work output, as well as
slow social and cognitive development [7].
Over 80% of the country’s 14.7 million agriculture farm house-
holds are smallholders who occupy less than a quarter of a hectare
of cultivated area and typically practice intensive subsistence agri-
culture [8]. They intensively cultivate a wide variety of plant species
(vegetables, fruits, medicinal plants and trees), and maintain live-
stock and poultry sheds, as well as fishponds around the household
or within a walking distance from the family home, known as
home gardens [9,10]. Home gardens are defined as small areas of
cultivated land immediately surrounding the home or homestead
[11]. These home gardens can play a vital role in the production
of vegetables and fruits throughout the country and can promote
household food self-sufficiency. An increase in the production and
productivity of homegardens may be a viable alternative for provid-
ing food and nutritional security in poor households of Bangladesh.
The important benefits of home gardens include improved food
security, increased availability of food and better nutrition through
food diversity, income and enhanced rural employment, decreased
risk through diversification, as well as environmental benefits
through recycling water and waste nutrients [10,12,13]. Their
potential contributions to food security, income and rural employ-
ment have widely been reported by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations [14], in Asia, for example, in
Bangladesh [2,3], Sri Lanka [10], India [15,16], Indonesia [17] and
the Philippines [18], as well as beyond Asia [11,19].
Home gardens play an important role in household food security
of Bangladesh and have thus become an integral part of rural house-
holds [9,20]. Home gardens are operational farm units, especially
in tropical and subtropical countries, which mainly engage women
family labor and sustain high agricultural production. However,
production is still considered as supplemental rather than a main
source of family consumption and income [9,10,21]. Homestead
area is more effective and common production unit for fulfilling
various household basic needs such as food, fuel, timber and oth-
ers including employment of female and aged household members
[9,18].
Most of the farmers at the Farming Systems Research and Devel-
opment (FSRD) site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur, Bangladesh are having
poor resources. Cultivable land in this region is a scarce resource
and is mostly utilized for growing major field crops including rice
(Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), potato (Solanum tubero-
sum) and jute (Corchorus spp.). Crop yields are relatively lower
largely due to poor management practices and low quality seeds.
Even though most of the farmers have homestead area, but uti-
lized only for growing small amount of vegetables for their own
consumption, not for higher production and income generation.
Moreover, the productivity of the homestead garden is again low
due to insufficient scientific knowledge of crop production and
unavailability of good quality seeds and saplings when needed.
These improperly managed homesteads would be effective to bring
under year round production for improving the family nutrition and
income generation of smallholders [22]. On an average, Bangladeshi
people consume a total of 126 g of vegetables and fruit from an
average national per capita per day consumption of 23 g of leafy
vegetables, 89 g of non-leafy vegetables and 14 g of fruit. This intake
is far below the minimum recommended daily consumption of
400 g of vegetables and fruit [23].
To address the problems of household food insecurity and mal-
nutrition, the On-Farm Research Division (OFRD) of the Bangladesh
Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) initiated a homestead veg-
etable production model known as the “Kalikapur model” in 1984.
The model was subsequently modified based on the existing
ecosystems (niches) of each homestead, where different fruits were
also included along with vegetables [24]. By following the mod-
ified model, the productivity and nutrition supplying capacity of
each homestead increased by 3–4 times than the previous one [6].
Subsequently, 6–10 niches/ecosystems based homestead vegetable
production models were developed in different agro-ecological
regions of the country and henceforth recommended for scaling-up.
Many international and local non-governmental organizations as
well as the BARI have promoted home gardens in Bangladesh [3,4].
The impact of home gardens on improving nutrition and increasing
household income and the quantity of the households” food pro-
duction has been widely studied in Bangladesh [3,25,26]. However,
scientific evidence for the development of a year round production
model and the utilization of this model for producing fresh vegeta-
bles and fruits to enhance the nutritional supplies for the family
throughout the year is still limited in Bangladesh. Therefore, the
objective of the study was to test the Rangpur (Syedpur) model for
designing cropping pattern for year round production systems in
Rangpur, Bangladesh and its impact on family nutrition and income
generation throughout the year. The present study did not evaluate
the crop nutritional values; however, the developed model would
be useful for explaining the combination of production (agronomic
yield) and consumption (crop utilization) in predicting food secu-
rity value of crops in small-scale farming systems.
2. Materials and methods
The study was initiated at Lahirirhat FSRD site, Rangpur,
Bangladesh during 2008–2009 cropping seasons in the homestead
of 12 selected farmers. Small unreplicated trials on farmers’ fields,
known as “dispersed experiments”, were established under local
farm conditions [27]. Only landless, marginal and small farmers
were the target group; therefore, five landless, four marginal and
three small farmers were selected resulting in a total of 12 house-
holds. The landless farmer did not possess any cultivable land
whereas the marginal and the small farmer had between 0.2 and
0.6 ha, and between 0.61 and 1.0 ha cultivable land, respectively.
The study area is located at 21◦ 24 N latitude and 88◦ 23 E longi-
tude with 31 m above mean sea level. The area mostly falls under
high and medium high land areas of the Tista Meander Floodplain
with an extent of 946,803 ha [26]. The soils of this region are mod-
erately acidic (pH of 4.6–6.5), low in organic matter content on the
higher land (<1%), but moderate in the lower parts (∼ 2%). Overall,
the fertility level is low to medium, but the status of K and CEC
is medium in most of the places. Soils in general have good water
holding capacity [28]. The area receives an annual rainfall of around
2160 mm with relatively early onset and late cessation.
The homestead resources, needs and choice assessments were
performed with the active participation of the family members
of the selected households. At each homestead, seven production
niches were identified and brought under cultivation following
the Rangpur (Syedpur) model. The niches were open sunny place,
roof top, trellis, fence, boundary, marshy land and partially shady
place (Table 1). Group meeting of farmers was organized to ori-
ent them on the utilization pattern and production practices of
the homestead vegetables and fruit following the Rangpur model.
The activities of the program were prioritized based on farmer’s
needs, problems, nutritional requirement and income. A work plan
was then developed with the participation of the farmers’. An
open sunny area of 30 m2 was used for implementing pattern
based vegetable cultivation. Each area was divided into five beds;
thus, the area of each bed was 5 m × 6 m. A total of 14 vegetables
 Z. Ferdous et al. / NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 78 (2016) 103–110 105

Table 1
List of homestead garden plant species with local name, English name, scientific name, family and cropping season used by farmers at the farming systems research and
development site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur, Bangladesh during June 2008–May 2009.

Local name English name Scientific name Family Cropping season Uses

Mula Radish Raphanus sativus Cruciferae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Open sunny space
(year round vegetable
cultivation in the beds)
Badha kopi Cabbage Brassica oleracea var capitata Cruciferae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Open sunny space
Tomato Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Solanaceae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Open sunny space
Begun Brinjal Solanum melongena Solanaceae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Open sunny space
Palongshak Spinach Spinacia oleracea Amaranthaceae Mid Jun–Mid Oct Open sunny space
Rashun Garlic Allium sativum Amaryllidaceae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Open sunny space
Dhaniapata Coriander Coriandrum sativum Apiaceae Mid Jun–Mid Oct Open sunny space
Napashak Chinese mallow Malva verticillata Malvaceae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Open sunny space
Lalshak Joseph’s coat Amaranthus tricolor Amaranthaceae Mid Mar–Mid Oct Open sunny space
Dhedosh Okra Abelmoschus esculentus Malvaceae Mid Mar–Mid Oct Open sunny space
Puishak Indian spinach Basella alba Basellaceae Mid Mar–Mid Jun Open sunny space
Kalmishak Water spinach Ipomoea aquatica Convolvulaceae Mid Jun-Mid Oct Open sunny space
Danta Stem amaranth Amaranthus lividus Amaranthaceae Mid Mar–Mid Jun Open sunny space
Patshak Tossa jute Corchorus olitorius Tiliaceae Mid Mar–Mid Jun Open sunny space
Lau Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria Cucurbitaceae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Roof top
Chalkumda Ash gourd Benincas ahispida Cucurbitaceae Mid Mar–Mid Oct Roof top
Jharsheem French bean Phaseolus vulgaris Fabaceae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Trellis
Chichingga Snake gourd Trichosanthes anguina Cucurbitaceae Mid Mar–Mid Oct Trellis
Ucche/Karala Bitter gourd Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Mid Oct–Mid Mar Fence
Jhingga Ribbed gourd Luffa acutangula Cucurbitaceae Mid Mar–Mid Oct Fence
Papay Papaya Carica papaya Caricaceae Round the year Boundary
Latiraj/Mukhikachu Tannia Xanthosoma sagittifolium Araceae Round the year Marshy land
Ada Ginger Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Round the year Partially shady places
Halud Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Round the year Partially shady places

such as radish (Raphanus sativus), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var.
capitata), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), brinjal (Solanum melon-
gena), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), garlic (Allium sativum), coriander
(Coriandrum sativum), Chinese mallow (Malva verticillata), Joseph’s
coat (Amaranthus tricolor), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), Indian
spinach (Basella alba), water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), stem ama-
ranth (Amaranthus lividus) and Tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius) were
selected for year round vegetable cultivation in the beds under the
open sunny space (Table 1). The creepers such as bottle gourd (Lage-
naria siceraria) and ash gourd (Benincasa hispida) were grown on
the roof top. The trellis was provided with French bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris) and snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina). The fence was
utilized by bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) and ribbed gourd
(Luffa acutangula). Six to nine papaya (Carica papaya) seedlings
were planted on the boundary. Marshy lands were utilized by
tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium). A partially shady place was uti-
lized by ginger (Zingiber officinale) and turmeric (Curcuma longa)
(Table 1). The vegetable pattern was initiated from kharif-2 (mid-
June to mid-October) and plantation of a quick growing fruit tree
(papaya) was started thereafter. Locally adaptable and culturally
acceptable vegetables and fruit tree was selected based on year
round production potential with better nutritional value and mar-
ket demand. Farmers were encouraged to apply organic fertilizers
such as cow dung, poultry manure, compost, kitchen ash, vegetable
refuse, crop residues and tree litters from their own sources. Appli-
cation of kitchen waste, animal manure and other organic residues
has been a practice amongst home gardeners and this exercise has
helped to considerably increase the productivity and fertility of
these gardens [29]. Irrigation was provided as and when required.
Pests were controlled mainly by mechanical ways without any pes-
ticide application unless severe infestations were observed.
Before implementing the study activities, a household survey
was carried out and detailed information such as number of fam-
ily members, total production and vegetable utilization patterns
(consumption, distribution and sale) from the selected households
was documented. Accordingly action plan for each of the selected
household was prepared considering its available resources, needs
and choice with active participation of both the male and female
members of the family and members of the local networking
group. The participated farmers of each farm group were provided
orientation separately on the programme activities prior to imple-
mentation. During the implementation period of study activities,
site working group meeting, review workshop, field day cum field
visit and training for farmers and field staffs were organized. For
proper implementation of the activities, many stakeholders as net-
working members were selected from different public and private
organizations.
Socio-agro-economic data from each of the programme activity
of all the selected households were recorded. Crop yield, household
consumption, distribution, sale and some other socio-economic
data were collected, analyzed and presented based on the average
of each farmer group. The year round total vegetable produc-
tion data were collected after harvesting of each crop from each
production niche of three groups of farmers. Data on vegetable
utilization patterns (consumption, distribution and sale) and total
income from each production niche of three groups of farmers were
recorded after completion of each target activity and are presented
by three groups of farmers. A statistical method SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Science) was used to analyze the data in order to
produce descriptive statistics.
3. Results
3.1. Year round homestead vegetable pattern
A total of 14 vegetables were selected for year round veg-
etable cultivation and were planted in five beds under the open
sunny place (Table 2). The year round vegetable patterns under
the seven production niches were divided into three cropping
seasons per year including rabi (mid-October to mid-March), pre-
monsoon kharif-1 (mid-March to mid-June) and kharif-2 (mid-June
to mid-October). Some vegetables under each production niche
were grown only in one season, some were grown in two seasons
and some were grown round the year. For example, radish was
grown only in rabi whereas Joseph’s coat was cultivated in kharif-
1 and kharif-2 under the open sunny space. In contrast, papaya
106 Z. Ferdous et al. / NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 78 (2016) 103–110
Table 2
Year round homestead production pattern used by farmers following the Rangpur (Syedpur) model at the farming systems research and development site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur,
Bangladesh during June 2008–May 2009.
Niche/space Year round homestead production pattern
Rabi (Mid Oct–Mid Mar)
1. Open sunny space
Bed 1 Radish
Bed 2 Cabbage
Bed 3 Brinjal + Joseph’s coat
Bed 4 Tomato + Chinese mallow
Bed 5 Garlic
2. Roof top Bottle gourd
3. Trellis French bean
4. Fence Bitter gourd
5. Boundary Papaya
6. Marshy land Tannia
7. Partially shady place Ginger and turmeric
under the boundary, tannia under the marshy land and ginger and
turmeric under the partially shady place were grown throughout
the year. Bottle gourd, French bean and bitter gourd were planted
in rabi whereas ash gourd, snake gourd and ribbed gourd were
grown in both kharif-1 and kharif-2 on the roof top, trellis and fence,
respectively.
3.2. Year round vegetable production by farmers group
Irrespective of farm categories, the season-wise production
was the highest in rabi (224.6, 269.6 and 271.6 kg/farm in
landless, marginal and small farms, respectively) followed by
kharif-2 (121.9 kg/farm in landless, 136.1 kg/farm in marginal and
141.6 kg/farm in small farms) (Tables 3, 4 and 5). The lowest amount
of vegetables was produced in kharif-1. This is mainly due to the fact
that kharif-1 continues from mid-March to mid-June which is also
the driest part of the year in Bangladesh resulting in poor vegetable
growth and production.
Irrespective of seasons, the higher amount of vegetables was
produced by small farms (511.2 kg/year) followed by marginal
(499.1 kg/year) and landless (421.7 kg/year) farm categories (Tables
3, 4 and 5). This suggests that vegetable production declined
towards poor farmers probably due to partial involvement of those
farmers in other income generating activities to ensure the daily
expenses to some extent may be due to smaller land size. Irrespec-
tive of different niches and except the open sunny space, it was
observed that niche wise vegetable production was the highest in
the roof top followed by the boundary for landless and small farm-
ers group (Tables 3, 4 and 5). In marginal farmers group, the highest
amount of vegetables was produced in the boundary followed by
the roof top. The minimum amount of vegetable was produced in
marshy land regardless of the farmers group.
3.3. Utilization pattern of vegetables by farmers group
The consumption of vegetables varied among the farm
categories. The total consumption was the highest in small
(316.2 kg/year) followed by marginal (296.9 kg/year) and landless
(218.2 kg/year) farmers (Tables 3, 4 and 5). The average vegetable
intake/head/year was higher in small farmers (79.1 kg) followed by
marginal (59.3 kg) and landless (54.6 kg) farmers (Table 6) suggest-
ing that vegetable intake decreased with decreasing farm size. This
is probably because of selling greater proportion of vegetables by
landless farmers to the market to meet their family needs compared
with marginal and small farmers.
The intake of vegetables/head/year before the intervention was
the highest (30.0 kg) among small farmers followed by marginal
(23.6 kg) and landless (21.3 kg) farmers (Table 6). It is interesting to
Pre-monsoon Kharif-1 (Mid Mar–Mid Kharif-2 (Mid Jun–Mid Oct)
Jun)
Joseph’s coat Water spinach
Stem amaranth Coriander
Indian spinach Spinach
Okra Joseph’s coat
Tossa jute Okra
Ash gourd Ash gourd
Snake gourd Snake gourd
Ribbed gourd Ribbed gourd
Papaya Papaya
Tannia Tannia
Ginger and turmeric Ginger and turmeric
note that the intake of vegetables/head/year after the intervention
also followed the same trends. However, the intake of vegetables
increased almost two and a half times after utilization of this model
compared with vegetable intake before the intervention.
The highest amount of vegetables was distributed by small farm-
ers (53.0 kg/year) followed by marginal (51.2 kg/year) and landless
farmers (48.5 kg/year) (Tables 3, 4 and 5). All of the farmers dis-
tributed a portion of their produce to the neighbors and relatives
to maintain a social relationship. Each farm family sold some
amount of vegetables to the market to meet their family needs.
The highest amount of vegetables was sold by landless farmers
(155 kg/year) followed by marginal (151 kg/year) and small farm-
ers (142 kg/year). This pattern of selling indicates that selling of
vegetables increased towards poor farmers. Resource poor farm-
ers in some cases might not have other alternatives than selling
vegetables to meet their family demands compared with resource
rich farmers. The overall results suggest that the production, intake
and distribution of vegetables increased with increasing farm sizes
whereas selling of vegetables increased with decreasing farm sizes.
In case of overall vegetable utilization, the consumption, distribu-
tion and selling of vegetables increased in all farmer categories
after the intervention with this model compared with before the
intervention.
3.4. Economic returns of homestead gardening
The highest amount of vegetable production before the inter-
vention was 172.2 kg in small farmers group followed by marginal
(157.1 kg) farmers (Table 6).The lowest (134.2 kg) was found at
landless farms. After bringing those farmers under the production
model, the highest amount of vegetables (511.2 kg) after the inter-
vention was produced by small farmers group followed by marginal
(499.1 kg) and landless (421.7 kg) farmers. When farmers produce
higher amount of vegetables in their farms, their intake of veg-
etables increase per family and at the same time they rely less on
buying vegetables from the market.
Each farm family sold a portion of their produce to the local
market to meet their daily necessities. The economic return was
also calculated on the basis of total production. The highest
cash income from selling vegetables was recorded from landless
farms (BDT 1,560.0/year) followed by marginal (BDT 1,510.0/year)
and small farms (BDT 1,446.0/year) (Table 7). The highest total
income (BDT 5,030.4/year) and net income (BDT 4,290.4/year) was
earned by small farmers followed by marginal and landless farm-
ers (Table 7). The total vegetable production by each farmer group
might influence these income trends. The annual income levels of
the beneficiary farmers increased after the implementation of the
Table 3
Year round production from different niches and disposal pattern by landless group of farmers (no cultivable land) at the farming systems research and development site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur, Bangladesh during June 2008–May
2009.

Niches Cropping season Total (kg) Yield (t/ha) Standard Harvesting Disposal Cash income Total income
error month pattern (BDTa ) (BDTa )

Rabi (Mid Kharif-1 (Mid Kharif-2 (Mid Vegetable utilization

Oct–Mid Mar–Mid Jun) Jun–Mid Oct)
Mar)

(kg) (kg) (kg) Consumption (kg) Distribution (kg) Sale (kg)

1. Open sunny place

Bed 1 25.3 ± 2.5 16.0 ± 2.0 19.2 ± 2.3 60.5 ± 5.1 6.7 ± 1.2 0.51 Jun/08 5.3 ± 0.6 3.0 ± 0.3 9.0 ± 0.8 81.0 155.7
Bed 2 14.0 ± 2.6 15.0 ± 2.7 24.5 ± 6.1 53.5 ± 9.4 5.9 ± 1.2 0.39 July/08 1.5 ± 0.3 2.0 ± 0.4 13.0 ± 1.5 117.0 148.0
Bed 3 24.0 ± 3.6 11.0 ± 2.5 10.0 ± 2.9 45.0 ± 8.6 5.0 ± 0.9 0.24 Aug/08 16.2 ± 1.6 4.0 ± 0.7 13.0 ± 2.7 169.0 431.6
Bed 4 27.0 ± 3.4 6.0 ± 2.3 4.1 ± 1.2 37.1 ± 4.6 4.1 ± 1.0 0.19 Sep/08 3.0 ± 0.3 2.0 ± 0.2 11.0 ± 1.8 143.0 208.0

Z. Ferdous et al. / NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 78 (2016) 103–110

Bed 5 4.0 ± 1.5 3.5 ± 1.4 20.3 ± 3.7 27.8 ± 5.5 3.1 ± 1.0 0.23 Oct/08 20.7 ± 3.1 5.0 ± 0.7 13.0 ± 2.9 182.0 541.8
2. Roof top 45.0 ± 6.5 5.0 ± 1.2 2.0 ± 0.7 52.0 ± 8.2 17.3 ± 2.8 0.31 Nov/08 6.5 ± 1.3 2.5 ± 0.5 6.0 ± 1.5 48.0 120.0
3. Trellis 21.5 ± 3.6 9.5 ± 1.8 2.3 ± 0.8 33.3 ± 5.6 13.8 ± 2.9 0.37 Dec/08 29.0 ± 4.1 6.0 ± 1.4 16.0 ± 2.5 128.0 408.0
4. Fence 6.0 ± 1.8 5.2 ± 1.2 6.0 ± 1.5 17.2 ± 4.2 11.5 ± 2.0 0.45 Jan/09 28.0 ± 5.1 7.0 ± 2.2 19.0 ± 2.3 209.0 594.0
5. Boundary 26.0 ± 3.1 4.0 ± 1.1 21.5 ± 3.6 51.5 ± 7.1 17.1 ± 2.7b 0.25 Feb/09 30.5 ± 3.8 4.0 ± 1.2 16.0 ± 2.1 144.0 454.5
6. Marshy land 7.3 ± 1.5 – – 7.3 ± 1.5 7.3 ± 1.5 0.24 Mar/09 30.2 ± 3.1 5.0 ± 1.5 12.0 ± 2.8 108.0 424.8
7. Partially shady place 24.5 ± 3.1 – 12.0 ± 2.5 36.5 ± 4.9 18.3 ± 1.8 0.20 Apr/09 32.3 ± 3.6 3.0 ± 0.9 13.0 ± 2.5 91.0 338.1
May/09 15.0 ± 2.5 5.0 ± 1.6 14.0 ± 3.2 140.0 340.0
Total 224.6 75.2 121.9 421.7 218.2 48.5 155.0 1560.0 4164.5
b
The yield (t/ha) in ‘Boundary’ is in kg/plant.
a
1 USD = 78 BDT (Bangladeshi Taka) as on 18.01.2015.

Table 4
Year round production from different niches and disposal pattern by marginal group of farmers (0.2–0.6 ha) at the farming systems research and development site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur, Bangladesh during June 2008–May 2009.

Niches Cropping season Total (kg) Yield (t/ha) Standard Harvesting Disposal Cash income Total income
error month pattern (BDTa ) (BDTa )

Rabi (Mid Kharif-1 (Mid Kharif-2 (Mid Vegetable utilization

Oct–Mid Mar) Mar–Mid Jun) Jun–Mid Oct)

(kg) (kg) (kg) Consumption (kg) Distribution (kg) Sale (kg)

1. Open sunny place

Bed 1 27.3 ± 3.8 24.1 ± 3.1 21.3 ± 2.9 72.7 ± 3.5 8.1 ± 1.8 0.28 Jun/08 12.0 ± 1.9 2.5 ± 0.4 13.0 ± 3.1 117.0 247.5
Bed 2 27.6 ± 1.8 17.2 ± 2.1 26.2 ± 2.2 71.0 ± 2.8 7.9 ± 1.2 0.40 July/08 5.0 ± 1.3 3.7 ± 1.0 12.0 ± 3.1 108.0 186.3
Bed 3 26.0 ± 1.4 12.0 ± 1.7 11.7 ± 0.8 49.7 ± 3.9 5.5 ± 0.7 0.47 Aug/08 19.0 ± 2.9 4.0 ± 2.1 13.0 ± 3.9 169.0 468.0
Bed 4 19.3 ± 2.2 9.0 ± 0.7 4.0 ± 0.8 32.3 ± 3.3 3.6 ± 0.8 0.25 Sep/08 7.50 ± 1.4 2.0 ± 0.8 9.0 ± 1.2 117.0 240.5
Bed 5 6.5 ± 0.8 3.0 ± 0.6 12.5 ± 2.2 22.0 ± 3.4 2.4 ± 0.5 0.29 Oct/08 17.6 ± 2.2 3.0 ± 0.8 12.0 ± 1.8 168.0 448.0
2. Roof top 47.0 ± 4.3 6.3 ± 1.1 2.2 ± 0.5 55.5 ± 5.9 18.5 ± 2.3 0.71 Nov/08 11.3 ± 2.3 2.0 ± 0.8 9.0 ± 1.6 72.0 178.4
3. Trellis 23.5 ± 1.8 11.2 ± 2.1 3.2 ± 0.6 37.9 ± 4.1 15.8 ± 1.9 0.64 Dec/08 35.4 ± 1.7 8.2 ± 0.9 15.0 ± 2.8 120.0 468.8
4. Fence 5.5 ± 0.5 6.3 ± 0.7 7.0 ± 1.4 18.8 ± 1.2 12.5 ± 1.5 0.70 Jan/09 42.8 ± 4.1 6.5 ± 1.6 18.0 ± 3.4 198.0 739.8
5. Boundary 41.6 ± 4.3 4.3 ± 1.2 25.8 ± 2.7 71.7 ± 8.1 23.9 ± 1.7b 0.86 Feb/09 46.2 ± 4.7 3.3 ± 0.8 14.0 ± 1.8 126.0 571.5
6. Marshy land 19.0 ± 2.5 – – 19.0 ± 2.5 19.0 ± 2.5 0.91 Mar/09 34.5 ± 2.5 7.0 ± 1.2 12.0 ± 2.5 108.0 481.5
7. Partially shady place 26.3 ± 2.2 – 22.2 ± 2.5 48.4 ± 2.7 24.2 ± 2.4 0.47 Apr/09 42.4 ± 4.9 4.0 ± 0.8 11.0 ± 2.1 77.0 401.8
May/09 23.2 ± 2.8 5.0 ± 1.1 13.0 ± 2.9 130.0 412.0
Total 269.6 93.4 136.1 499.1 296.9 51.2 151.0 1510.0 4844.1
b
The yield (t/ha) in ‘Boundary’ is in kg/plant.
a
1 USD = 78 BDT (Bangladeshi Taka) as on 18.01.2015.

107
108 Z. Ferdous et al. / NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 78 (2016) 103–110

year round homestead vegetable production model. Our findings

Total income
Year round production from different niches and disposal pattern by small group of farmers (0.61–1.0 ha) at the farming systems research and development site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur, Bangladesh during June 2008–May 2009.

are similar to the previous studies [30].

The total income of farmers regardless of their farm sizes

5030.4
(BDTa )

247.5

249.6

117.6

588.6
707.3

550.8
increased; therefore, homestead vegetable production can be

494

413
426
207

609

420
viewed as economically viable systems. Home gardening would
be a good means to improve household food security and at the
same time could be a source of additional income because the
Cash income

household can sell a portion of the garden’s produce and acquire

household self-sufficiency [31]. Women are the main caretakers of
(BDTa )

1446
117
156
143

176
210

108

120
the home gardening activities, which empower them resulting in
81

56
96

99

84
better utilization of the income from the garden for food and an
13.0 ± 1.2

11.0 ± 2.6

12.0 ± 2.1
16.0 ± 2.5
11.0 ± 1.7
12.0 ± 2.2
12.0 ± 1.1
12.0 ± 1.0

15.0 ± 2.0

12.0 ± 2.0
Consumption (kg) Distribution (kg) Sale (kg)

7.0 ± 1.1
9.0 ± 0.8

improvement in family welfare. All these benefits are important

contributions towards poverty alleviation, securing the food and

142
nutrition and sustainable income for livelihoods. A study of home
gardens in Bangladesh found that households earned an average of
US$8 bimonthly from selling their fruits and vegetables, and house-
7.0 ± 1.1
5.0 ± 1.1

6.0 ± 1.6
5.0 ± 1.1
3.0 ± 1.0
4.0 ± 0.5
5.0 ± 0.5
3.0 ± 0.4
4.0 ± 0.7
3.0 ± 0.4

4.0 ± 1.0

4.0 ± 0.8
holds mainly used this income to purchase additional food and to
53
invest in other income-generating activities [3].
Vegetable utilization
Disposal pattern

4. Discussion
24.5 ± 1.2

33.5 ± 3.2
43.3 ± 4.1

43.2 ± 2.7

26.6 ± 1.8
11.3 ± 0.7

21.0 ± 2.3

50.4 ± 2.1

42.0 ± 5.2
10.5 ± 0.3

5.2 ± 0.9

4.7 ± 0.8

At least 200 g of vegetables per day is needed for an adult

316.2

man/woman, whereas Bangladeshi people are consuming only

around 35 g/head/day, except potato and sweet potato [23].
Research findings also suggest that malnutrition problem increases
Harvesting

due to the lack of nutritional knowledge of rural people, thus

May/09
Mar/09
Nov/08
Aug/08

Dec/08

Apr/09
Sep/08

Feb/09
month

Oct/08
Jun/08

Jan/09
Jul/08

reduced intake of balanced food including green vegetables [32].

Therefore, a scientific model of home garden programmes is
required, which would provide year round vegetables and fruits
and economic benefit to the ultra-poor farmers. The scientific
Standard

model for home gardens would help increase the consumption of

error

1.45
0.57
0.33
0.56
0.33
0.23
0.88

0.57
0.88
0.87
1.2

vegetables and fruits improving farmers’ livelihoods by improv-

ing their nutrition [13,33,34]. It also helps reduce the malnutrition
Yield (t/ha)

17.3 ± 1.15

problem especially for children and woman and improve the nutri-
16.3 ± 1.6b
18.1 ± 2.6

14.4 ± 1.5

23.3 ± 2.5
12.0 ± 1.1
3.80 ± 0.4
9.3 ± 1.8

6.4 ± 1.5
7.4 ± 0.9

4.9 ± 0.9

tional problem faced by majority of rural Bangladeshi people. To

address these issues, the Rangpur model was developed for year
round vegetable production in the homesteads. This model helped
improve the household food security through enhanced nutri-
83.9 ± 9.1
66.2 ± 6.1
57.9 ± 2.8
43.7 ± 3.4
34.2 ± 4.7
54.3 ± 4.4
41.7 ± 3.1
21.7 ± 2.4

46.6 ± 3.9
12.0 ± 1.1
Total (kg)

49.0 ±8.4

tious food intake and sustenance of poor farm family through

511.2

increased intake of home-grown vegetables and creation of addi-

tional income for farmers by selling excess vegetables. Before
conducting the study, the baseline data were collected from house-
hold survey where the vegetable intake of farmers was only
Jun–Mid Oct)
Kharif-2(Mid

21–30 kg/head/year. After applying the Rangpur model, the farm-

23.5 ± 3.9
27.2 ± 3.6
13.6 ± 1.7

21.2 ± 2.4

17.1 ± 3.3

17.4±2.6
5.5 ± 1.2

8.7 ± 1.2
3.1 ± 0.2
4.3 ± 0.9

ers gained knowledge on the year round homestead gardening and

141.6
(kg)

their consumption increased to 55–79 kg/head/year.

–

Most of the farmers in the study area are landless, poor or

ultra-poor and unable to buy vegetables from the market every
Mar–Mid Jun)
Kharif-1(Mid

day. The intake of vegetables significantly increased by the farm-

1 USD = 78 BDT (Bangladeshi Taka) as on 18.01.2015.
31.2 ± 3.4

12.4 ± 1.5
15.0 ± 0.8

ers after growing vegetables in their homestead farms at different

9.5 ± 1.4

7.2 ± 1.6

6.4 ± 1.2
7.0 ± 1.1
4.0 ± 1.3

5.3 ± 0.9

98.01

niches by following the Rangpur model compared with their grow-

(kg)

ing of vegetables at only one niche without following the model.

–
–

The yield (t/ha) in ‘Boundary’ is in kg/plant.

Similarly, it has been also observed that poor and marginalized

Cropping season

Oct–Mid Mar)

families are unable to afford expensive animal products to fulfill

their nutritional needs, especially proteins, essential amino acids,
29.2 ± 2.6
29.5 ± 2.5

31.2 ± 3.1

25.5 ± 4.1

29.2 ± 2.8
29.3 ± 0.8

44.0 ± 3.6
25.0 ± 1.5

12.0 ± 1.1
7.70 ± 0.5
Rabi(Mid

9.0 ± 1.5

some vitamins and minerals [3,35]. Thus, home gardens do offer

271.6
(kg)

an inexpensive source of nutritious foods. Home gardens can con-

tribute to household money-making security, thus ensure better
7. Partially shady place

livelihood and food and nutrition security [14]. In Vietnam, home

1. Open sunny place

gardening activities increased more than 22% of cash income in

6. Marshy land

mountain areas [36].

5. Boundary
2. Roof top

The Rangpur model of year round production helped enhance

3. Trellis
4. Fence

food security and access to adequate, safe and nutritious food

Niches

Bed 1
Bed 2
Bed 3
Bed 4
Bed 5
Table 5

Total

among the studied farmers of Rangpur region in Bangladesh. It

a

has been reported that year round homestead production help

b
 Z. Ferdous et al. / NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 78 (2016) 103–110 109

Table 6
Disposal pattern and intake by different farm categories at the farming systems research and development site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur, Bangladesh during June 2008–May 2009.

Farm Category Number of Before After

average intervention intervention
family (2007–2008)a (2008–2009)
member

Total Disposal Intake/ Total Disposal Intake/

production head/ production head/
(kg) year (kg) (kg) year (kg)

Consumption Distribution Sale (kg) Consumption Distribution Sale (kg)

(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)

Landless (No cultivable land) 4 134.2 85 10 39.2 21.3 421.7 218.2 48.5 155 54.6
Marginal (0.2–0.6 ha) 5 157.1 118.1 14 25 23.6 499.1 296.9 51.2 151 59.3
Small (0.61–1.0 ha) 4 172.2 120 23 29.2 30 511.2 316.02 53 142 79.1
a
Before intervention data were collected by interviewing the concerned farmers at the farming systems research and development site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur.

Table 7
Year round total production (kg), utilization pattern and net income of different group of farmers at the farming systems research and development site, Lahirirhat, Rangpur,
Bangladesh during June 2008–May 2009.

Farmers Total production Vegetable utilization (kg) Cash income Total income Total cost Net income
group (kg) (BDTa ) (BDTa ) (BDTa ) (BDTa )
Consumption Distribution Sale

Landless (No cultivable land) 421.7 218.2 48.5 155.0 1560.0 4164.5 475.0 3689.5
Marginal (0.2–0.6 ha) 499.1 296.9 51.2 151.0 1510.0 4844.1 623.0 4221.1
Small (0.61–1.0 ha) 511.2 316.2 53.0 142.0 1446.0 5030.4 740.0 4290.4
Total 1431.4 831.3 152.7 448.0 4516.0 14039.0 1838.0 12201.0
Mean 477.1 271.1 50.9 149.3 1505.3 4679.6 612.7 4067.0
a
1 USD = 78 BDT (Bangladeshi Taka) as on 18.01.2015.

solve food and nutritional problem by increasing household food
availability, enabling greater physical, economic and social access,
protecting and buffering the household against food shortages
[25,37,38]. Supporting this premise, different studies concluded
that, while adding to the caloric quantity, home gardens sup-
plement staple-based diet with a significant portion of proteins,
vitamins and minerals, leading to an enriched and balanced diet
particularly for women and children [13,39–41].
Malnutrition in Bangladeshi people exists in terms of vitamin A,
iron and iodine deficiencies in children under five and in pregnant
and lactating mothers [31]. Therefore, the year round production
programme should utilize homestead resources in scientific ways
for producing fresh vegetables and fruit over space and time and
to enhance the nutrient requirement of the family throughout the
year involving employment of female members. Women directly
participate in home garden activities and get economic benefit;
therefore, home gardens help their empowerment and at the same
time homestead resources are better utilized and caring within the
household improves [31]. The primary aims of the year round pro-
duction model are to increase the production, income, employment
opportunity, nutrition and ultimately enhance livelihood status of
the target farmers leading to poverty elimination. It is important to
mention that the target group of farmers in this study grew mini-
mum amount of vegetables during kharif-1 because it falls within
the driest part of the year. With proper policy interventions from
the government it might be possible to provide irrigation facili-
ties during the dry season in rural areas and increase production in
dry period. There is an urgent need to upscale the year round pro-
duction model in different poverty stricken regions of Bangladesh
to achieve food security. If successfully implemented, this produc-
tion model would also support the “one-house-one-farm” policy
undertaken by the government of Bangladesh for the poor and dis-
tressed people in order to create employment in the rural areas and
reduce poverty [31]. An important feature of this model is being
local in character, using indigenous knowledge, including tradi-
tional cultivars and ways of natural resources management. Some
are largely closed systems with little external inputs or influences.
Many developing countries have the potential to increase vegetable
production in a more sustainable way, improve food and nutrition
security and to increase the agro-ecosystem resilience [42].
5. Conclusion
There is plenty of scope available to bring the remaining home-
steads of Rangpur region, Bangladesh under proper and efficient
utilization systems following the Rangpur model though often
hampered by fragmentation of homestead. Farmers generally grow
different vegetables and fruits in the surrounding area of their
households in unplanned and non-scientific manner. Scientific pro-
duction and utilization of the homestead can reduce purchase of
expensive vegetables from outside source, earn a small cash income
by selling vegetables and fruits and ensure more intakes. By follow-
ing the Rangpur model, it was possible that farmers were able to
fulfill their daily requirement of vegetables in most months of the
year suggesting an improvement in food security and malnutrition
reduction in rural Bangladesh. This will in turn help achieve the
objectives of the National Agricultural Policy (NAP) formulated by
the government of Bangladesh in 1999 [43] where the emphasis
was to reduce poverty and malnutrition by creating rural employ-
ment.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Director General of the
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) and Dr. Jalal
Uddin Sarker, Chief Scientific Officer of the On-Farm Research Divi-
sion of BARI, Gazipur, Bangladesh for providing financial and other
related supports. The authors also thankfully acknowledge each
and every farmer who participated in this study for providing their
valuable time and information regarding their homestead gardens.
The help provided by staffs from different organizations during data
collection is also duly acknowledged.
110 Z. Ferdous et al. / NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 78 (2016) 103–110
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