ADULT DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1- THEMES AND ISSUES IN ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING

Biopsychosocial approach

Gerontology- scientific study of aging processes

Identity- how people view themselves in biological psychologuical and social domains

FOUR PRINCIPLES OF ADULY DEVELOPMENT AND AGING

1. Changes are continuous over the life span

continuity principle- experiences in older life affected by younger age
2. Only survivors grow old
survivor principle- people who live long age are the ones who could successfully eliminate
threats that caused deaths of others
3. Individuality matters
as people age they become more different from others
4. Normal aging is different from disease
primary aging- normal age related changes
secondary/impaired aging- disease related
tertiary- rapid decline right before end of life

optimal aging- age related changes that improve an individual’s performance

Adulthood transition is 18-29

Functional age- how people perform

1. Biological age- heart performance, muscle. Bone, lungs

2. Psychological age- reaction time , memory, intelligencel, learning ability
3. Social age- expected roles in family and work

Personal vs social aging

personal aging- changes that occur within the individual and reflect the influence of times passage
on bodys structures and functions
social aging- effects of a persons exposure to a changing environment

Normative age graded influence- guide inviduals to choose experiences based on cultural and
historical expectations from that age

Normative history graded influences- specific cultural or geopolitical unit

Non normative influences- random idiosyncratic occurrences with no particular predictability

KEY SOCIAL FACTORS IN ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING

**Social Factors in Adult Development and Aging**

**Sex and Gender:**

- **Gender vs. Biological Sex:**

- **Gender:** Identification as male, female, or nonbinary.

- **Biological Sex:** Inherited predisposition for physiological characteristics associated with

maleness or femaleness.

- **Physiological and Social Influences:**

- Sex hormones influence physical aging processes.

- Gender roles impact societal expectations and opportunities in education and employment.

- **Gender Inequalities:**

- Women historically faced restricted choices, lower earnings.

- Despite progress, traditional gender expectations influence older adults raised in that era.

- **Transgender Individuals:**
 - Emerging area of study in gerontology.

- Reflects the role of social influences on development.

**Race:**

- **Biological vs. Social Concept:**

- **Biological:** Classification based on physical characteristics.

- **Social:** Cultural background associated with a particular biological segment.

- **U.S. Census Categories (2020):**

- White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian or
Other Pacific Islander.

- Includes categories based on national origin, allows selecting more than one racial category.

- **Genetic Inheritance and Cultural Background:**

- Racial differences in functioning may reflect genetic risk factors.

- Interaction with cultural practices may influence disease development.

- **Social and Cultural Aspects:**

- Impact on adulthood development through societal structures.

- Systematic biases and discrimination contribute to health disparities.

- **Health Disparities:**

- African American population faces higher prevalence of certain illnesses than the White
population.

- Disparities attributed to education and job opportunities, along with systematic discrimination
increasing stress levels.

**Ethnicity:**

- **Definition:**

- Captures the cultural background of an individual.

- Reflects predominant values, attitudes, and expectations in which the individual was raised.

- **Influence on Development:**

- **Familial Attitudes and Experiences:**

 - Ethnic backgrounds may influence attitudes toward and experiences with family and aging.

- **Respect for Older Adults:**

- Certain ethnic backgrounds may show greater respect for older adults.

- Stronger sense of obligation to care for aging parents.

- **Physiological Functions:**

- Ethnicity may influence the aging of physiological functions through genetic inheritance and
cultural habits.

- **Discrimination:**

- Discrimination against specific ethnic backgrounds limits opportunities for educational and
occupational achievements.

- **Comparison with Race:**

- Term "ethnicity" gradually replacing "race" as a categorical variable in social research.

- Occasionally, U.S. census combines race (White or Black) and ethnicity (Hispanic or non-Hispanic).

- Census statistics may break down distributions into categories like White non-Hispanic, White
Hispanic, Black non-Hispanic, and Black Hispanic.

**Socioeconomic Status (SES):**

- **Definition:**

- Reflects people's position in the educational and occupational ranks of a society.

- Often referred to as "social class."

- **Calculation of SES:**

- Calculated through a weighted formula considering:

- Highest level of education.

- Prestige level of occupation.

- Various researchers may use different scales for SES calculations.

- **Factors Influencing SES:**

- **Education and Occupation:**

- People with higher education levels tend to have higher-prestige occupations.

- **Income:**
 - Some researchers use income as a proxy for or in addition to SES.

- **Income Inequality:**

- Measured by the Gini coefficient.

- Indicates the distribution of wealth in a given economy.

- Higher Gini coefficient reflects higher income inequality.

- **Importance in Aging Process:**

- Often unrecognized influence on the aging process.

- Connected to health outcomes and opportunities.

- **Whitehall II Study:**

- Landmark investigation focusing on relationships among health, social class, and occupation.

- Initiated in 1985 by Sir Michael Marmot.

- Investigates social and occupational influences on health and illness.

- Continues to produce important findings regarding equity and health inequalities.

- **Connection to Health:**

- Studies, including Whitehall II, show associations between SES and health outcomes.

- Lower social class often associated with poorer health, even when controlling for health habits.
**Baby Boomers Grow Up: Changes in the Middle-Aged and Older Populations**

- **Overview of U.S. Population by Age and Sex:**

- Age–sex structure provides a useful way to examine the population.

- A 'young' population looks like a pyramid, an 'old' population like an upside-down pyramid, and a
stable population like a rectangle.

- **Baby Boom Generation:**

- Refers to individuals born in the post-World War II years of 1946 to 1964.

- Represented a significant increase in births.

- By 1964, Baby Boomers made up nearly 40% of the entire U.S. population.
- **Generational Terms:**

- Terms like Silent Generation, Greatest Generation, Gen X, and Millennials define individuals by the
year of birth.

- Provide convenient categories for analysis.

- **United States Aging Population:**

- In 1900, over 65 population was 3.1 million (4% of the population).

- By 2017, 65 and older population was 50.9 million (5.6% of the population).

- Estimated 94.7 million adults 65 and older by 2060, representing 23% of the total population.

- **Centenarians Growth:**

- In 1990, 37,306 people over 100 lived in the U.S.

- By 2015, this number increased to 72,000.

- Projected to reach 604,000 by 2060.

- **Increase in Aging Population and Life Expectancy:**

- Advances in life expectancy from 1940 to 2015 (62.9 to 78.8 years).

- People turning 65 in 2013 could expect to live an additional 19.4 years.

- Aging population due to both high birth rates and increased life expectancy.

- **Health Expectancy:**

- Number of years a person could expect to live in good health if current mortality and morbidity
rates persist.

- Compression of morbidity ideal, where illness burden is reduced, and disability occurs closer to
death.

- **Geographic Variations:**

- Uneven distribution of the over-65 population in the U.S.

 - In 2016, over half lived in 10 states, with California having the largest number but a smaller
proportion.

- Florida has the highest percentage of people 65 and older (19.9%).

- **Gender and Racial Variations:**

- Women over 65 outnumber men.

- Women expected to constitute 54% of the 65 and older population by 2050.

- Racial and ethnic distribution shifting, with minority populations increasing.

- **Projected Demographic Shifts:**

- Between 2014 and 2060, the percentage of non-minority individuals 65 and older will decrease
from 78% to 55%.

- People of Hispanic origin will show the largest increase, from 8% to 22%.

- Demographic shifts influenced by increasing migration into the United States.

**Aging Around the World**

- **Global Aging Trends:**

- In 2015, there were 617 million people worldwide over 65.

- Predictions indicate this number will triple to 1.57 billion by 2050.

- China had the largest number of older adults in 2015 (136.9 million), while Japan had the highest
percentage of people 65 and older (26.6%).

- **Regional Variation in Aging:**

- Disproportionate aging rates across world regions.

- Asia and Africa will experience the greatest increases, while Europe, North America, Oceania, and
Latin America will see decreases in the percentage of the 65 and older population.

- Oldest countries in 2015 were Japan, Germany, Italy, Greece, and Finland.
- **Aging Beyond 80:**

- The 80-and-older population worldwide will increase from 126 million in 2015 to 447 million by
2050.

- Asia will show rapid growth in this age group.

- 23 countries in Asia will experience a quadrupling of the 80-and-older population, compared to

only one European country, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

- **Implications:**

- Aging populations will strain economies and health care systems globally.

- Strain particularly pronounced in nations lacking resources to support the rise in the older adult
population, especially in low-income countries.

- Future implications for individuals entering and moving through adulthood:

- Increased socialization opportunities due to a larger population of peers.

- Encouraging news for males, more likely to live into old age.

- Favorable career prospects in aging-related fields given the higher number of older clients.

- Anticipated lifestyle changes in entertainment and media to accommodate an aging population.