1

B. L. AMLANI COLLEGE OF COMMERCE & ECONOMICS

M. R. NATHWANI COLLEGE OF ARTS

LABORATORY WORKBOOK

FOR

PRACTICALS IN

COGNITIVE PROCESSES

AND

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING: PART-I

FOR T.Y.B.A SEMESTER 5

CREDIT BASED GRADING SYSTEM OF

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

2023-24

NAME OF STUDENT: Karuna Choudhary

ROLL NO: 363

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B. L. AMLANI COLLEGE OF COMMERCE & ECONOMICS

M. R. NATHWANI COLLEGE OF ARTS

ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-2024

Certificate

This is to certify that

Ms. Karuna Choudhary of T.Y.B.A., Roll No. – 363 has duly

conducted under supervision the experiments and exercises prescribed for

T.Y.B.A. (Psychology) Course ‘Practical’s in Cognitive Processes and

Psychological Testing: Part I’ of Semester 5 of Credit Based Semester and

Grading System of University of Mumbai and entered the results and reports

as required.

Date: 24/ 11/ 2023

Signature
Stamp of College
Faculty In charge
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INDEX

Sr. No Contents Page No. Date Signature

Introduction to Experimental Psychology and

A.
Statistics in Psychological Research

5. Scales of Measurement 5 04/07/2023

6. Report writing - APA Format 14 12/07/2023

Practice Exercises - Two Exercises

B.

1. Effect of Exercise on Immune 16 18/07/2023

Functioning.

2. Consumption of food (Nutritious vs.

21 21/07/2023
Junk) on aggressive behavior in middle
childhood.

Practice Experiment - Anchoring and

C. 25 31/07/2023
Adjustment

Two Experiments in Cognitive Processes

D.

1. The Automatic Vigilance Experiment. 36 08/08/2023

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2. False memory using the Roediger and

75 05/09/2023
McDermott paradigm.

One Psychological Test - Administration of

Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and Oxford
105 27/09/2023
E. Happiness Questionnaire and Calculations of
Reliability and Validity Coefficients
 5

Scales of Measurement

Measurement is the way of assigning numbers or symbols to characteristics of people or

things according to certain rules. Different variables are measured in different ways depending

on their nature. Some variables are continuous i.e., their values can be divided further; for

example. Height. Some others are discrete such as those involving categories; for example, Male

and Female. They do not have continuity therefore cannot be divided further.

Scales of measurement refer to ways in which these variables/numbers are defined and

categorized. Each scale of measurement has certain properties that distinguish them from the

others. There are four scales of measurement which are remembered by the acronym ‘noir’. Each

letter in noir stands for one scale of measurement in the order of increasingly rigorous scales –

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio.

Nominal scales–

Nominal scale is the simplest form of measurement. It involves the classification or

categorization of variables, such that they make mutually exclusive categories. Variables such as

gender, religion etc. are measured on the nominal scale.

Ordinal scales -

In addition to categories as in the nominal scale, ordinal scales also involve some

ordering of the categories of the variable. Therefore, variables in the ordinal scale can be

compared. For example, Military ranks.

Interval scales -
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Scale of Graphical representation Measures of central Inferential statistics

measurement tendency

Nominal Pie chart, Bar graph Mode Chi square

Ordinal Bar graph Median Chi square

Interval Histogram, bar graphs, line graphs Mean, Median, Mode t test, ANOVA

Ratio Histogram, bar graphs, line graphs Mean, Median, Mode t test, ANOVA

Interval scales imply equal intervals between adjacent values of a variable being

measured. For example, Temperature. The difference between 20 and 30 degrees is the same as

the difference between 40 and 50 degrees.

Ratio scales -

Ratio scales are the most informative. Variables measured on the ratio scale have an absolute

zero i.e., the theoretical absence of the variable exists. For example, money. Because of the

absence of the variable, it can also be compared such as 60rs is double the amount of 30rs.

In every experiment or research, a variable would be measured i.e., the dependent variable. The

kind of descriptive and inferential analysis done with the variable depends on how it is measured.

The different ways in which variables are measured are known as scales of measurement. Each

scale of measurement has certain features, which determine what analysis can be done.

Note – Measurements using the Likert scales, are considered to be ordinal or interval scales.

Since Likert scales involve placing responses into ordered categories, they are generally

considered to be ordinal scales. However, in practice many researchers consider them to be

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interval scales and conduct data analysis accordingly. Since it is very frequently used in research,

it is important to consider these factors while choosing the correct statistical methods to be used

with Likert scale data.

Practice exercises -

Sr. Blood Food IQ Income Socio – Time taken to Marks Grades

no. group preference (per economic solve a

month) class puzzle (in

sec)

1 O +ve Vegetarian 110 16,000 Lower 398 45 D

2 B +ve Vegan 125 38,000 Middle 423 82 O

3 A –ve Non-vegetarian 98 45,500 Upper 632 60 A

4 O +ve Vegetarian 100 12,500 Lower 524 73 O

5 A +ve Non-vegetarian 105 43,000 Upper 523 55 C

6 A –ve Non-vegetarian 110 28,000 Middle 453 65 A

7 B +ve Vegetarian 80 55,500 Upper 621 48 D

8 O +ve Non-vegetarian 95 37,500 Middle 348 67 A

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9 O +ve Vegetarian 86 17,000 Lower 564 53 C

10 B +ve Non-vegetarian 107 28,000 Middle 537 62 A

11 A +ve Non-vegetarian 118 50,000 Upper 600 90 O

12 O +ve Vegetarian 126 9,500 Lower 486 55 B

13 B +ve Non-vegetarian 107 30,500 Middle 384 70 O

14 A +ve Vegetarian 110 20,000 Lower 547 58 B

15 O +ve Vegan 93 25,000 Middle 435 92 O

Calculations – (sample data tables)

Nominal data –

Blood group Frequency Food preference Frequency

O +ve 6 Vegetarian 5

B +ve 4 Non vegetarian 7

A +ve 3 Vegan 2

A –ve 2
 9

Ordinal data –

Socio economic class – 1 = Upper, 2= Middle, 3 = Lower

Grades – 1 = O, 2 = A, 3 = B, 4 = C, 5 = D.

Variable Data Median Rank

Socio economic class 1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,3,3. 2

Grades 1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5. 2

Interval scale –

Sr no IQ scores Marks

1 110 45

2 125 82

3 98 60

4 100 73

5 105 55

6 110 65
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7 80 48

8 95 67

9 86 53

10 107 62

11 118 90

12 126 55

13 107 70

14 110 58

15 93 92

Total 1570 975

Mean 104.66 65

Median 107 62

Mode 110 55

Range 46 47
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SD 12.63 13.78

Variance 159.69 190.13

Ratio scale –

Person Income (per month) Time taken to solve a puzzle (in

sec)

1 16,000 398

2 38,000 423

3 45,500 632

4 12,500 524

5 43,000 523

6 28,000 453

7 55,500 621

8 37,500 348

9 17,000 564
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10 28,000 537

11 50,000 600

12 9,500 486

13 30,500 384

14 20,000 547

15 25,000 435

Total 456000 7475

Mean 30400 498.33

Median 28000 523

Mode 28000 __

Range 46000 248

SD 13667.723 85.70

Variance 186806666.7 7345.95

References
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Basu Prasad Subedi (2016) Using Likert Type Data in Social Science Research:

Confusion, Issues and Challenges, International Journal of Contemporary Applied Sciences.

Online Statistics Education: A Multimedia Course of Study (http://onlinestatbook.com/)

Cohen, J. R, Swerdlik, M.E, Struman, E.D. (2015). Psychological Testing and

Assessment: An Introduction to tests and measurement

Huiping Wu & Shing-On Leung (2017) Can Likert Scales be treated as Interval Scales?

A Simulation Study, Journal of Social Service Research

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Report writing – APA format

Some important points from Manual of the American Psychological Association – 5th Edition

APA

Title:

1. It should not be more than 12 words.

2. It should be boldfaced. All the major words and words longer than 4 letters should be

capitalized (The first letter should be capitalized).

3. The title should be at the center of the page.

4. Avoid abbreviations – STM, and ASPD, and avoid using a colon.

5. Avoid unnecessary words (like a study of, an experiment on). The title should be focused, and

concise and should identify major variables used in the study.

Abstract:

1. Should not be more than 120 words.

2. It should mention the Problem, participants, gender, method, procedure, tools, findings,

significance, conclusion, and implications.

Capitalize:

1. First word after full stop and Colon.

2. Do not capitalize laws and theories, e.g. ‘law of effect’.

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3. Capitalize Test/Scale names. Do not capitalize if used in generic terms – for e.g. Stroop was

used.

4. In references, only the first word is capitalized, all others are in small

Italics:

1. Titles of books, periodical, microfilms.

2. Species and their varieties.

3. New, technical key terms (only first time).

4. Periodical’s volume number in references.

Numbers:

1. All numbers from zero to nine should be written in wore. (e.g., two, six)

2. All numbers from 10 and above should be written numerically, e.g., 12, 200

3. When the comparison is stated, e.g., in the 5th & 10th trials, and for time, date, ratio, and

percentiles – use number, even when it is between o and 9.

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B. Practice Exercise. Two exercise.

1. To Study the Effect of Exercise on Immune Function.

An experiment was conducted to study the effect of exercise on improvement of immune

functioning. The immune functioning was measured using a 5-point rating scale, in terms of

health complaints – constant feeling of fatigue, frequent cold, body aches and pain, health

complaints. One group practiced various Yoga postures, 5 days a week for 40 minutes, for three

months, under the guidance of a teacher. The other group was no exercise group. The

participants were equated on few important variables as age, gender, socioeconomic level and

pre-test immune functioning. The pre and post-test measures of immune function on rating scale

were compared.

1. What is the independent variable, how would you operationally define independent

variable.

The independent variable in this experiment is the exercise condition, specifically the practice of

various Yoga postures. The independent variable in this experiment has two levels, 1. Exercise

group, 2. No exercise group. The operational definition of the independent variable would be the

participation in a yoga program consisting of practicing various yoga postures for 40 minutes, 5

days a week, for three months under the guidance of a teacher.

2. What is the dependent variable, how will you operationally define dependent variable.

The dependent variable in this experiment is immune functioning. The operational definition of

the dependent variable would be the ratings obtained on a 5-point rating scale for health

complaints related to immune functioning, such as constant feeling of fatigue, frequent cold,
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body aches and pain, and general health complaints. The higher the rating, the poorer the

immune functioning in which (1 means low health complaints and 5 means high health

complaints). Therefore, dependent variable is measured on interval scale.

3. Which experimental design would you use and why?

A randomized design would be appropriate for this experiment. Participants would be randomly

assigned to either the exercise (yoga) group or the no exercise group because there are two levels

of independent variable. This design helps control for confounding variables and allows for

assessing the causal relationship between the independent variable (exercise) and the dependent

variable (immune functioning).

4. State the strengths & flaws of the design.

Strengths of the design: Random assignment helps control for potential confounding variables,

leading to a more reliable cause-and-effect inference. Equating participants on important

variables such as age, gender, socioeconomic level, and pretest immune functioning helps reduce

bias and increase internal validity.

No practice and fatigue because of the participants would be divided in random groups because it

has two levels of independent variable in experiment.

Pre and post-test design allows for within-subject comparison, which increases the statistical

power of the study.

 18

Flaws of the design: It may be challenging to blind participants to their group assignment, which

could introduce expectancy effects. The study’s external validity might be limited if the sample

is not representative of the larger population.

5. What kind of controls would you maintain to avoid confounding?

To avoid confounding, it would be important to have control measures in place. These may

include:

a) Random assignment of participants to the exercise and no exercise groups.

b) Equating important variables such as age, gender, socioeconomic level, and pretest immune

functioning between the groups.

c) Implementing standardized instructions for the yoga program, ensuring all participants in the

exercise group receive the same guidance.

d) Monitoring and controlling for extraneous variables that may impact immune functioning,

such as participants’ overall health status or lifestyle factors.

e) Ensuring the assessment of immune functioning is conducted using the same rating scale for

both groups.

6. What would be the appropriate inferential statistical test and why?

The appropriate inferential statistical test would be independent t test since the independent

variable (IV) has two levels and the dependent variable (DV) is measured on interval scale and
 19

experimental design is random design group then the t test would help determined the difference

between two means is statistical significant or not.

7. Discuss ethical issues for the experiment.

Ethical Issues:

Informed Consent: Participants must give informed consent before participating, understanding

the study’s purpose, procedures, and potential risks.

Confidentiality: Ensure that participants’ personal information remains confidential and

anonymous.

8. What is the Null Hypothesis? ( Non Directional and Directional )

Null hypothesis: There will be no significant difference in the scores on 5 points rating scale in

which (1 means low health complaints and 5 means high health complaints) in the group who

practice exercise (yoga) for 5 days a week for 40 minutes for 3 months and the group who do not

practice any exercise.

Null directional hypothesis: There will be higher scores in the 5 points rating scale (in which 1

means lower health complaints and 5 means higher health complaints) in the group who do not

practice any exercise as compared to the group who practiced exercise (yoga) for 5 days a week

for 40 minutes for 3 months.

9. What is the Alternative Hypothesis? ( Non Directional and Directional )

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Alternative hypothesis: There will be some significance difference in the scores of 5 point rating

scale in which (1 means lower health complaints and 5 means higher health complaints) in the

group who practice exercise (yoga) for 5 days a week for 40 minutes for 3 months under the

guidance of a teacher and the group who do not practiced any exercise.

Alternative directional hypothesis: There will be lower scores in 5 point rating scales in which (1

means lower health complaints and 5 means higher health complaints) in the group who did

practice exercise (yoga) for 5 days a week for 40 minutes for 3 months under the guidance of a

teacher as compared to the group who do not practiced any exercise.

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2. To study the effect of consumption of food on aggressive behavior in middle

childhood.

Problem– Consumption of food (Nutritious vs. Junk) on aggressive behavior in middle

childhood.

1. What is the independent variable, how would you operationally define independent

variable.

The Independent variable for this experiment is the “Consumption of food” (nutritious vs. junk).

There are two levels of independent variable, nutritious food and Junk food. The operationally

defining Independent variable of nutritious food (e.g., fruits, vegetables, lean proteins) and junk

food (e.g., fast food, sugary snacks).

2. What is the dependent variable, how will you operationally define dependent

variable.

The Dependent variable for this experiment is the “Aggressive behavior”. The operationally

defined as observable behaviors such as number of fights the participant started. Therefore,

dependent variable is measured on ratio scale.

3. Which experimental design would you use and why?

Experimental design: For studying the impact of food consumption (nutritious vs. Junk) on

aggressive behavior in middle childhood, a randomized design would be a suitable experimental

design.

4. State the strengths & flaws of the design.

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Strengths of the design:

Random assignment: Participants can be randomly assigned to the experimental and control

groups, which helps reduce bias and increase the internal validity of the study.

Control over extraneous variables: By specifying the duration and content of the diet for each

group, researchers can control for some of the potential confounding variables that could

influence aggressive behavior.

Objective and subjective measures: Using both behavioral observations and self-report measures

provides a more comprehensive understanding of aggressive behavior.

Flaws of the design:

Ethical considerations: It may be challenging to ethically assign children to a diet high in junk

food, as it can have negative health implications.

Ecological validity: The study’s findings may not generalize to real-life situations, as participants

are following a controlled diet for a specific period, which might not accurately represent their

typical eating habits.

5. What kind of controls would you maintain to avoid confounding?

When studying the impact of food consumption on aggressive behavior in middle childhood, it’s

important to maintain controls to minimize confounding variables. Some controls to consider

include:
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Random Group Design: Randomly assign participants to different groups (nutritious vs. Junk

food) to ensure that individual differences are distributed evenly. Matching: Match participants

in both groups based on relevant variables such as age, gender, socioeconomic status, and pre-

existing aggressive tendencies.

Pre-existing Conditions: Screen participants for any pre-existing health or psychological

conditions that might influence aggressive behavior.

Environmental Factors: Control for external factors such as media exposure, family dynamics,

and social interactions that could contribute to aggressive behavior.

6. What would be the appropriate inferential statistical test and why?

The appropriate inferential statistical test would be independent t test, since the IV has two levels

and DV is measured on ratio scale and experimental design is random design group then the t

test would help determined the difference between two means is statistical significant or not.

7. Discuss ethical issues for the experiment.

Studying the effects of nutritious vs. Junk food consumption on aggressive behavior in middle

childhood could yield valuable insights into the relationship between diet and behavior.

However, conducting such an experiment raises ethical concerns.

Informed Consent: Obtaining informed consent from their parents is crucial. Children might not

fully understand the implications, and parents need to be aware of potential risks and benefits.
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Potential Harm: Exposing children to junk food, which is associated with negative health

outcomes, raises ethical concerns about causing harm. Balancing potential harm with scientific

value is essential.

Privacy and Confidentiality: Protecting the privacy of participants’ dietary habits and personal

information is crucial. Ensuring that data is anonym zed and not used for unintended purposes is

important.

8. What is the Null Hypothesis? (Non-Directional and Directional)

Null hypothesis: There will be no significant difference in level of aggressive behavior which is

measured by number of fights started by children who were given nutritious food and children

who were given junk food during middle childhood.

Null directional hypothesis: There will be higher number in levels of aggressive behavior which

is measured by a number of fight started by children in those who were given nutrition food as

compare to children who were given junk food during middle childhood

9. What is the Alternative Hypothesis? (Non-Directional and Directional)

Alternate hypothesis: There will be a significant difference in levels of aggressive behavior

which is measured by a number of fights started by children who were given nutrition, food and

children who were given junk food during middle childhood

Alternate directional hypothesis: There will be lower number in levels of aggressive behavior

which is measured by a number of fight started by children who were given nutrition food as

compare to children who were given junk food during middle childhood.
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C. Practice experiment –ANCHORING AND ADJUSTMENT

Procedure: For the experiment, Half of the students had chits with numbers 1-50 (lower anchor)

written on them and the other half had chits with number 51-100 (higher anchor) are written on

them. After the class was divided into two groups, one group left the class for 30 minutes. Then

the teacher conducted the lower anchor condition of the experiment by asking the students 10

questions the answer to each of which expressed in percentage. The students were instructed that

after hearing the questions they should pick chits having (number between 1 and 50) read the

number on at the side and write on the sheet of paper 1, whether their estimated answer is higher

or lower or the same as the number on the chit is there actual estimate. After writing down,

estimated percentage of each question, the group leaves the class. The other group enters the

class and the teacher conducts the higher anchor condition of the experiment. The procedure

remains the same, the only difference is that the students pick from chits having number between

51 and 100.

Once the conduction of both conditions is was completed, each student had to calculate the mean

of their estimated percentage. The estimated percentage of the student was collected and the

mean estimate of the two condition was calculated. Independent sample t-test was conducted to

find whether the mean estimate for two conditions are significantly different.

Instructions: The teacher (experimenter) gave the following instructions in this way. This is a

simple experiment. I will ask you 10 questions at a time. Your task is to write the answer to each

question as accurately as possible before you answer each question. You have to pick out 1 chit

on which a number is written. You have to write whether your answer to the question which will
 26

be a number will be higher lower or the same as the number on chit then you have to write the

your actual estimate.

Problem statement: How the levels of anchors will influence the mean percentage estimates.

Variable

Independent variable - The independent variable in the experiment is Anchor. The IV has two

levels of anchors that is Low anchor group Number between 1-50, and High anchor group

number between “50-100”.

Dependent variable - Dependent variable in the experiment is Mean Percentage estimated by the

participants.

Control Variable-

Control variables in the experiment were: Same Person conducted the test, same classroom was

there, Similar Environmental conditions, same number of questions were asked, same

experiment was conducted on both groups.

Null hypothesis: There will be no significant difference in in the scores of mean percentage

estimated by lower or higher anchors.

Null directional hypothesis: There will be higher scores in lower anchor and lower scores in

higher anchor in the scores of mean percentage estimated by the participants.

Alternative hypothesis: There will be some difference in the scores of mean estimated in

percentage estimated by lower and higher anchors.

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Alternative directional hypothesis: The mean percentage estimated will be higher for higher

anchor and lower for lower anchor.

Individual Differences

Individual differences in the experiment were Gender, Age, same college, Qualification.

Experimental Design-

The experimental Design of the experiment is Random group design where two different levels

of Independent variable were given to two different group of participants.

Strength

Strength of the experiments are Less Fatigue effect because of two different groups were made,

No practice effect, No order effect or no Counterbalancing effect.

Weakness.

It was a random group design so it was a very time consuming also very much expensive as two

different groups of Participants were involved in this experiment.

Statistical Analysis

It is an inferential statistics as independent variable has two levels, it is a random group design

where two different groups of Participants were exposed to two different levels of independent

variable and the dependent variable was measured on the mean percentage Estimated by the

participants on the ratio scale. Since there are two levels of independent variable the appropriate
 28

Inferential statistics test will be Independent 1-test to measure the difference between two groups

are Statistically significant or not.

Individual data:

(Table 1) Individual data Anchor, Lower/ Higher and Actual Number.

Sr.no. Anchor Lower/ Higher Actual Number

1 15 H 50

2 14 H 20

3 19 L 15

4 9 L 8

5 4 H 20

6 26 L 10

7 43 L 25

8 40 H 80

9 44 H 70
 29

10 32 H 60

Total 246 358

Mean 24.6 35.8

The total sum of the scores in higher anchor were 558.3 and its mean was 50.75 and the

total sum of scores in lower anchor were 401.63 and its mean was 36.51.

Questions:

1. On an average, what percentage of typing is done with the left hand?

2. What percentage of the earth's land is covered by glaciers?

3. What percentage of plant life is found in the ocean?

4. What percentage of bones in the body is located in the feet?

5. What percentage of the world's spices come from India?

6. What percentage of households in India are single parent families?

7. What percentage of police personnel in India are women?

8. What percentage of the world population consumes rice as staple food?

9. What percentage of their lives do cats spend sleeping?

10. What percentage of the world population lives in Asia?

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Group data:

(Table 2) Group data scores of Higher Anchor and Lower Anchor.

Sr. no Higher Anchor Lower Anchor

1 53.6 35.5

2 62.3 49.4

3 51 31.2

4 49.7 35.3

5 50 38.5

6 38 43.93

7 50.6 35.8

8 54.4 32.4

9 50.5 21.5

10 54.2 35.9
 31

11 44 42.2

Total 558.3 401.63

Mean 50.75 36.51

Graph figure 1: Graphical representation of means of Higher and lower anchor.

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Higher anchor Lower anchor

Mean

Comparison of mean estimated percentage of 22 students in higher and lower anchor

condition. The total of scores of higher anchor of group data is 28712.95, its mean is 260.26, and

its variance is 34.24 And SD is 5.85. The total scores of lower anchor of group data is 15195.53,

its mean is 1381.14, its variance is 48.29 and SD is 6.95. The value of t (20) = 4.982. The test

value is 0.01. The critical value of the experiment is 2.528 and the two test results are 4.982.

Therefore t (20) = 4.982, p<0.01, because the t value is higher than the critical value therefore

null hypothesis is rejected.

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The total of scores of higher anchor of group data is 28712.95, its mean is 260.26, and its

variance is 34.24 And SD is 5.85. The total scores of lower anchor of group data is 15195.53, its

mean is 1381.14, its variance is 48.29 and SD is 6.95. The value of t (20) = 4.982. The test value

is 0.01. The critical value of the experiment is 2.528 and the two test results are 4.982. Therefore

t (20) = 4.982, p<0.01, because the t value is higher than the critical value therefore null

hypothesis is rejected.

Group Data Discuses:

With reference to Table 2; comparison of mean estimated percentages of 11 students

(each) in High and Low Anchor condition. In High anchor Condition, the mean estimated

percentage of 11 Ps was 50.75 percentage. In the Low Anchor condition, the Mean estimated

percentage of 11 Ps was 36.51 percentage.

Thus, individual differences in estimated percentages were observed in both conditions.

There was high degree of variability among Ps estimating percentages in high anchor condition

(SD = 5.85) than in low anchor condition. (SD = 6.95).

As this experiment had a random-groups design with one IV with two levels (High and

Low Anchor condition) and the one D.V. (mean estimated percentages) involved the ratio scale

of measurement, the appropriate inferential statistical test to be used was the Parametric test - an

independent t-test, for Random group design to compare the Mean estimated percentages in the

two conditions.

As predicted by the hypothesis, the Mean estimated percentages of high anchor condition

(M = 50.75 percentages) was significantly higher than that the low anchor Condition M = 36.51
 33

percentages), t (20) = 4.982, p < 0.01, one-tailed. That is, the Ps who belonged to high anchor

Condition, significantly estimated higher means than the Ps who belonged to the low anchor

condition.

Literature Review:

Adjustment and Anchoring in Estimation and Decision Making

The phenomenon of adjustment and anchoring, wherein individuals use initial values as

starting points to make estimates or judgments, has been extensively studied across various

contexts, revealing biases in human decision-making processes. This literature review examines

the key findings, methodologies, and implications of research related to adjustment and

anchoring.

Introduction: In many decision-making scenarios, individuals rely on initial values or

anchors as reference points when making estimates or assessments. The anchoring effect,

observed when these initial values bias final judgments, has been studied in fields such as

psychology, behavioral economics, and decision analysis. This review synthesizes research on

anchoring across different contexts, highlighting its influence on estimation, risk assessment, and

subjective probability distributions.

Anchoring in Estimation: Early studies by Tversky and Kahneman (1974) explored the anchoring

effect in the domain of estimation. Subjects were asked to estimate quantities after being exposed

to arbitrary starting points. These starting points, even if irrelevant, influenced participants’

estimates. For instance, when subjects were asked to estimate the percentage of African countries

in the United Nations, different initial values led to significantly different median estimates. This
 34

phenomenon was termed "insufficient adjustment," as adjustments made from anchors were

typically inadequate, resulting in biased estimates.

Anchoring in Numerical Estimation: Anchoring effects were further demonstrated in situations

where subjects performed incomplete computations to estimate values. Research showed that

individuals estimated the product of descending sequences (e.g., 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1) to be much

smaller than ascending sequences (e.g., 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8). Despite performing basic

computations, participants' adjustments were insufficient, leading to significant underestimation

of the actual value.

Biases in Evaluating Compound Events: Bar-Hillel's study (1980) highlighted biases in

evaluating conjunctive and disjunctive events. People tended to overestimate the probability of

conjunctive events and underestimate disjunctive events. The anchoring effect explained these

biases, as subjects anchored their estimates to the probabilities of elementary events. The

structure of the event influenced the direction of anchoring bias, with chain-like structures

leading to overestimation and funnel-like structures to underestimation. These biases were

particularly relevant in planning and risk assessment contexts.

Anchoring in Subjective Probability Distributions: Anchoring also played a significant role in the

assessment of subjective probability distributions. Experts constructing probability distributions

for uncertain quantities often anchored their estimates on initial values. Research showed that

experts tended to provide overly narrow confidence intervals, reflecting unwarranted certainty.

Different elicitation procedures influenced the extent of anchoring and subsequent biases in

probability distributions.
 35

Methodologies and Implications: Studies on anchoring employed various experimental

methodologies, including estimation tasks, risk assessment scenarios, and probability distribution

elicitation. These methodologies consistently revealed that anchoring biases affected individuals’

judgments and decisions. Anchoring had broad implications for estimation accuracy, risk

assessment, and decision-making processes, often leading to suboptimal outcomes due to

insufficient adjustments from initial anchors.

In summary, the literature on adjustment and anchoring underscores the pervasive

influence of initial values on human judgment and decision-making. The anchoring effect is a

robust phenomenon that impacts various domains, including estimation, risk assessment, and

subjective probability distributions. Researchers continue to investigate the mechanisms

underlying anchoring and its implications for improving decision-making processes and

accuracy. Understanding the anchoring effect is crucial for both researchers and practitioners

aiming to enhance decision quality and mitigate cognitive biases.

Conclusion:

The main trends were consistent with the past research. IV Anchoring (High/Low)

showed a significant impact on DV mean estimated percentages. The data is in line with

alternative hypothesis. The mean percentage estimated higher for higher anchor group and lower

for lower anchor group.

References:

Tversky, A., Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases.

Science185, 1124-1131.
 36

D. Two Experiments in Cognitive Processes

1. The Automatic Vigilance Experiment

Title: The Automatic Vigilance Experiment.

Abstract:

The present study experimentally investigated automatic vigilance towards social information,

whether there is a difference in color naming time and number of words recalled as a function of

valence of the material, positive versus negative. 13 college students participated in this

experiment where a repeated measures design was used where the same participants were

exposed to both levels of the independent variable - undesirable and desirable trait words.

Counterbalancing was used where half of the participants received undesirable trait words first

and the other half received desirable trait words first to avoid order effect. Individual and group

data were collected and analyzed using descriptive statistics and two t-tests. The significant t-

tests lead to the conclusion that the group data was in line with the alternative hypotheses and

validated the alternative hypotheses which stated that the time taken for color naming will be

higher for undesirable trait words and the words recalled will be higher for undesirable trait

words than desirable trait words.

Introduction:

Automatic vigilance is a mechanism in which the participants' attention tends to get directed

toward undesirable/negative stimuli much more as compared to desirable/positive stimuli. The

criteria of Automatic Vigilance are as follows:

 37

Automatic vigilance takes place without any intention and without that individual being aware of

it happening. The mechanism of directing attentional capacity to undesirable stimuli does not

interfere with other cognitive activities.

The ‘Stroop Effect’ was the result of the combined efforts of Janesch (1929) and Stroop (1935).

It was an experiment in which the participants were shown the words ‘red’, ‘green’, ‘yellow’,

and ‘blue’ printed in the color inks but in an incongruent combination of color words. Naming

the colors in incongruent color word units was harder than naming colors in simple strips of

colors and congruent color word combinations. The word interfering with the naming of the

color is a reflection of S’s experience such as the volume of S’s voice going up, reading falters,

words breaking abortively, and there are embarrassed giggles. These and other kinds of strain are

common. The color names and the irrelevant color words must involve identical motor

responses.

The features of the Stroop task are as follows:

● One must name aloud the color the word is written in.

● Two motor-linguistic responses are implicated in the word-color unit, vocalizing the

color name and reading the color word.

● One of these two responses must prevail which is vocalizing the color name.

● This required response can be obstructed by the arousal of a motor response that is

incompatible with it and due to this the greater the tendency to read the word, the harder it is to

name the color.

 38

The different variations of the Stroop task are as follows:

 Picture-word interference task: - Congruent or incongruent embedded words inside line

drawings- Incongruent words inside line drawings interfered substantially with picture-

naming than congruent words.

 Embossing color words in white letters on colored plastic tape and Ps had to name the

tape color: - Interference greater in Incongruent color-word condition than in Congruent

color-word condition.

 Sorting or Matching Incongruent Vs. congruent color word cards: - Sorting color- only

cards was much faster than sorting incongruent color-word cards into categories

identified by color patches.

 Auditory Analog: - The “High” word was presented at a low pitch tone of 110 Hz and the

“Low” word was presented at a high pitch tone- of 175 Hz and participants were asked to

name the pitch whether it was high or low. The incompatible condition took longer to

name than the compatible condition. 5. Hue variations: - Chromatic (red, green, blue

shades) Vs. Achromatic color-word units (white, black, grey) were used. Interference was

greater in chromatic than achromatic color word units.

Wentura, Rothermund, and Bak (2000) conducted research in which they varied using a

modified version of the Stroop color-word interference paradigm. Researchers varied the

Valence (positive or negative) and Relevance (Other relevant traits or possessor relevant traits)

of stimuli. ORTs indicate unconditionally positive or negative consequences for persons in the

social environment of the holder of the trait (e.g., honest, brutal, tolerant, aggressive). PRTs

indicate unconditionally positive or negative consequences for the trait holder (e.g., happy,
 39

depressive, self-confident, shy). Color-naming latencies for other-relevant stimuli compared with

possessor-relevant words are longer because of their attention-attracting characteristic that is,

larger interference effects were found for ORTs than PRTs. It is always important to know

whether those around us behave in a way that is good or bad for us so that we can adjust our

behavior accordingly. If there is an automatic vigilance process to scan the social environment

for relevant information, it is highly plausible that this process will be more sensitive to other-

relevant trait terms than to possessor-relevant ones.

Only other relevant terms signal opportunities or dangers in our social environment. In such

situations, an organism must react immediately to escape the danger. They, therefore, assume

that other-relevant stimuli automatically capture attention because of their relevance for

approach or avoidance behavior.

According to the Automatic vigilance hypothesis through the Stroop color interference paradigm,

individuals tend to attend to negative stimuli faster disrupting the processing of other stimulus

properties (Estes, Z., &; Adelman, J. S., 2008). •For example, when undesirable words are

printed in various colors, participants tend to attend to the words (negative valence) which causes

a delay in color naming. Thus negative words typically elicit slower color naming than neutral or

positive words. The reasons for interference in color naming due to the desirability value of

information are as follows:

 People assign relatively more value, importance, and weight to events that have negative.

 Pratto, John (1991) in their study, presented a series of Personality-trait adjectives, such

as sadistic, honest, and outgoing, and subjects named the color in which the adjectives

were presented. They predicted that participants would attend more too undesirable traits
 40

than to desirable traits and that this additional attention would lead to relatively longer

color- naming latencies for undesirable traits.

 In the stimulus sets, they included traits covering a wide range of evaluations, ranging

from extremely undesirable (e.g., sadistic, wicked, mean) to extremely desirable (e.g.,

kind, friendly, honest).

Pratto, John (1991) argued that negative information is weighted more heavily than positive

information because negative affect carries an important signal value as it signifies to the

organism the need to change or adjust its current state or activity. Chahut, Mama, Levy, and

Algom (2010) proposed that longer color-naming latencies in the laboratory were a result of

giving a counter-instinctual response approach response a key) to emotional words/undesirable

words. From an Evolutionary perspective, we seem to avoid undesirable/negative stimulus

events and approach positive/desirable events to aid our survival. This was the base for their

hypothesis. So, in their experiments, first, they provided avoidance as well as approach response

options. Second, the testing was in vivo, observing the natural movement of the entire body

under realistic conditions. The participant was simply walking toward the monitor displaying the

stimulus or walking away from it. The results of the research by Chahut, Mama, Levy, and

Algom (2010) indicated that approach responses to undesirable/emotional words were

significantly slower than to neutral items. In contrast, avoidance responses to emotional stimuli

were significantly faster than it was for neutral stimuli. Responses are faster when there is a

match than when there is a mismatch between our evolutionarily affected responses. Ben-Haim,

Williams, Howard, Mama, Eidels, and Algom (2016) proposed that the emotional Stroop effect

(ESE) is the result of longer naming latencies to ink colors of emotional words than to ink colors

of neutral words. The difference shows that people are affected by the emotional content
 41

conveyed by the carrier words even though they are irrelevant to the color-naming task at hand.

The ESE has been widely deployed with patient populations, as well as with non-selected

populations because the emotional words can be selected to match the tested pathology. The ESE

is a powerful tool, yet it is vulnerable to various threats to its validity.

The most prevalent threat to the validity of existing ESE studies is sustained effects and

habituation wrought about by repeated exposure to emotional stimuli. Consequently, the order of

exposure to emotional and neutral stimuli is of utmost importance. They showed that in the

standard design, only one specific order produces the ESE. Williams, Mathews, and MacLeod

(1996) proposed that if we adopt a PDP model (Cohen et al., 1990) to explain interference

displayed during the emotional Stroop task, then stronger connections in the word pathway will

exist with words that are considered to be emotionally salient to a particular subject.

Concomitantly, participants will display higher Reaction times to the emotionally salient words.

It is proposed that there is now stronger activation to overcome in the word processing pathway.

Stroop interference effects of sexual and aggressive word stimuli for violent and sexual offender

populations. Researchers tested 10 sexual offenders, 10 violent offenders, 10 non-violent

offenders, and 13 Undergraduates using an emotional Stroop task that consisted of the random

presentation of neutral words, aggression-related words, positive- and negative-affect words, and

sexual words, all matched for word length and word frequency. •It was found that sexual

offenders displayed longer latencies to sexually themed words, while violent offenders took

longer to name the color of aggression-themed words. MacLeod (1991) proposed that the Stroop

effect is best explained using a Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) (‘‘connectionist’’) model

(Cohen et al., 1990). This model states that parallel pathways are activated upon the presentation
 42

of the stimulus. In the case of the Stroop task, the parallel pathways are a color information

pathway and a word information pathway. Williams, Mathews and McLeod (1996) reviewed

research in the clinical population showing that patients are often slower to name the color of a

word associated with concerns relevant to their clinical condition. Color naming of emotional

words was slowed in groups of people who are emotionally disturbed as compared with the color

naming of neutral words. The students with high- and low-trait anxiety were tested on two

occasions, in the week before their end-of-semester examinations when their state anxiety was

high and early in the next semester when their state anxiety was low. These researchers found

that the tendency to display color-naming interference on negative words related to examinations

(e.g., test and inept)—relative to positive words related to examinations (e.g., scholarly and

merit) on the emotional Stroop—was an interactive function of trait anxiety and stress. When

state anxiety was low, the groups with low- and high-trait anxiety showed equivalent patterns of

color naming. When state anxiety was high because of the imminent exams, however, the

participants with high trait anxiety displayed increasing color-naming interference on the

negatively toned examination words. Gotlib and McCann (1984) selected depression-related

words for their study of students with mild depression. They found that the valence of the word

made little difference to the participants without depression in color naming speed. However, the

participants with mild depression were significantly slower (23 ms) in naming the colors of the

negative words than of the positive or neutral words. In one study, not only did patients with

anxiety show slower color naming for the threat words than for the non-threat words (a mean

interference of 44 ms), but also there was a relationship between the type of threat word that

most disrupted color naming and the type of worries that predominated in the patient. In their

experiment 2, they proposed that undesirable traits require more time in the color naming task
 43

because negatively valence stimuli are automatically attended. In general, the material that

subjects attend to during presentation will be recalled better. If attention is indeed diverted away

from the color-naming task to undesirable traits, as the vigilance account suggests, some

incidental learning of these traits should occur, and recall should be greater for undesirable than

for desirable traits. They compared the incidental learning of undesirable and desirable traits.

Incidental learning was measured by free recall directly following the presentation of desirable

and undesirable traits in the color-naming task. Predictions for the present experiment and the

Rationale for the hypothesis are as follows:

Prediction: - Undesirable trait words will interfere with color-naming more than desirable trait

words and also undesirable trait words will be recalled more than desirable trait words.

Rationale: - Based on the Automatic Vigilance Hypothesis, negative emotional words have

attention-grabbing power because of our need to scan our environment and adjust our behaviors

accordingly, and as they are attended more, they will be recalled more and longer color naming

time will be required for them as compared to desirable trait words.

Problem

To study the automatic vigilance towards social information (difference in color naming time

and number of words recalled) as a function of the valence of the material (positive versus

negative)

Hypotheses

Alternative Hypotheses
 44

1. Undesirable trait words produce more interference with color naming than the desirable

trait words. Total time taken to name the colors of undesirable trait words are more than

that of desirable trait words.

2. The undesirable trait words are recalled more than the desirable trait words.

Null Hypotheses

1. Undesirable trait words do not produce more interference with color naming more than

the desirable trait words. Total time taken to name the colors of undesirable trait words

is less than or equal to that of desirable trait words.

2. The undesirable trait words are recalled less than or equal to the desirable trait words.

Operational Definitions of the Variables:

Independent Variable

Desirability value of the information-1 Independent Variable with 2 levels.

Presentation of (i) Undesirable trait words and (ii) Desirable trait words in the colors: Red,

Green, Blue, Pink, Orange and Brown.

Dependent Variables

1. Total time taken (in seconds) to name the colors of desirable and undesirable trait words.

2. Total number of desirable and undesirable trait words recalled.

 45

Note: The number of errors made while naming the colors can be noted down and discussed in

ancillary observations of the individual data

Control Variables

1. There were separate color-word sheets for the two conditions, desirable and undesirable

trait words. Each sheet had 30 desirable/undesirable trait words and 06 neutral words

repeated twice.

2. The two sheets were presented successively. Half of the Es’ in the class presented the

desirable trait words sheet first followed by the undesirable trait words sheet. The other

half of the Es’ used the reverse order of presentation.

3. The first and the last column of both the sheets had neutral words, to avoid primacy and

regency effects while recalling the desirable and undesirable trait words in the free recall

task.

4. No mention of the recall test was made during the initial color naming task.

5. The order of the colors to be named in both the conditions was the same.

6. The order of the colors was random with the constraint that each color occurred once in

each column and twice in each row.

7. The sheets of the stimulus words for the two conditions were comparable in the

arrangement and spacing of the color-word units and in the number of letters comprising

each unit.
 46

8. There was an unfilled interval of 30 seconds between the presentations of the two

successive cards.

Method:

Participants

Individual Data:

Name (Optional) Age Class Emotional State

Participant 1 Urmi 19 FYBA Good

Group Data:

College Students: N=13 participants

Apparatus and Materials

1. Two separate color-word sheets, for the two conditions: desirable color-word units and

undesirable color-word units, each containing 72 color-word units in lower-case letters.

(6 color-word units in each column and 12 color-word units in each row).

2. Two scoring sheets for the color naming task.

3. One demonstration card with 2 columns of 6 units each having the word ‘example’

written in all the different colors that will be used in the actual task.
 47

4. A recall sheet for the recall test.

5. Stopwatch

6. Stationery

7. Screen

Design

Repeated measures design with one independent variable having 2 levels. Each participant was

exposed to both the levels – desirable and undesirable trait words.

Procedure

The E arranged the screen and the materials and called the P to the laboratory. She/he was made

to sit comfortably, rapport was built, and s/he was given the following instructions.

Instructions for the first task

"This is a simple experiment on naming colors.

You will be presented with two sheets, one after the other. Each sheet will have series of colors

in the context of words. Your task is to name aloud only the color in which the words have been

written, as quickly and as accurately, as you can. Begin from the first column, top most word

and proceed vertically down the column. Move from one column to the next without skipping

any column. Do not use your finger to point out or do not nod your head while you name the

colors.” E explained P all the above instructions one by one with the help of demo sheet. E
 48

asked P to name the colors in the demo sheet twice making sure all the instructions are

understood and followed well by the P.

After ensuring that the P had understood the task, s/he was given the first sheet of 72 words. E

said ‘Start’, started the stopwatch the moment P started naming the colors. If the P engaged in

nodding or pointing, E stopped the stopwatch, noted the time till then, cautioned P not use those

behaviors, and continued timing him or her. If P engaged in reading the words instead of naming

the ink colors for three consecutive times, E stopped the stopwatch, noted the time till then,

cautioned P not use those behaviors, and continued timing him or her. The time taken to name

the colors of the first sheet was carefully noted. The errors, if any, were carefully noted. 30

seconds unfilled interval was given after the first sheet was completed. Then the second sheet

was given. The same procedure was ensured while giving this sheet as in the first sheet.

Instructions for the second task

"In the second task, you have to write down on this sheet of paper (show the blank sheet to the

P), as many words as possible, that you remember having seen on both sheets presented earlier.

Please don't write the colors you named. The order of the words and whether they are from the

first or the second sheet is not important. You can write them as you remember them. You have

10 minutes to recall and write the words. Please write the words vertically, one below the other.

Please begin. "

E gave the pencil and the recall Sheet and said 'start' and started the stopwatch simultaneously. E

noted the recall time taken by the P.

Post-task Questions
 49

1. Have you heard anything about this experiment before?

2. Do you have any comments about this experiment?

3. What do you think was the purpose of this experiment?

4. Did you find anything unusual about this experiment?

5. Did you feel anxious at any point during the experiment? If so, explain.

6. Did you notice any difference in the words or how you named the colors on the 2

cards? If yes, please explain.

7. Did nature of the words make any difference to how fast you named their colors and

how well you remembered them? If yes, please explain how?

8. Did you find the words on any one card more distracting than the other? Did that make

it easier or more difficult to name the colors on any one card? If yes, please explain

how that affected your experience.

9. Did you anticipate that there would be another task following the color-naming task? If

yes, how and what did you anticipate?

10. Did you experience any difficulty in recalling the words? If yes, specify.

11. Did you feel that some words were easier to remember or stood out among the rest? If

so, which were they and why do you think you remembered them better?

Debriefing
 50

The purpose of the experiment was to study whether color-naming time was longer for

undesirable trait words as compared to desirable trait words and whether undesirable trait words

were remembered better than desirable trait words. The participant was shown the two cards and

the difference between them was explained.

The participant was told that the task of naming the color shows that people are sensitive to the

emotion entailed in the stimulus word though this feature is completely irrelevant to the task.

One way that people evaluate stimuli is to immediately find out whether a stimulus is ‘good for

me’ or ‘bad for me’ without much conscious thought. Then our attention gets directed to the

stimulus that is evaluated as negative or undesirable. This shift in attention occurs even without

the intention of the person. Negative words divert attention away from the color name due to a

mechanism called ‘automatic vigilance’ in which people monitor their environment for potential

danger.

Thus, in the present experiment, it was expected that undesirable trait words would cause

problems disengaging attention from the words and focusing on the color dimension. Therefore,

participant would take longer to name the colors of the undesirable trait words as compared to

the desirable trait words. It was also expected that some incidental learning (which occurs

without the learner’s intention) of the words would also occur. As undesirable information would

hold attention for longer, recall would be greater for the undesirable trait words as compared to

the desirable trait words. Results were explained to the participant with respect to time taken to

name the colors and number of words recalled in the two conditions.

This task has been used in clinical studies using words specific to the individual’s concerns such

as anxiety, phobia etc. e.g. depressed individuals would be slower in naming depressive words as
 51

compared to neutral words. Past research indicates a specific attention mechanism sensitive to

positive and negative adjectives used to characterize safe and risky social environments. There is

an adaptive advantage for organisms having the capacity to attend to undesirable stimulus

quickly and with little effort.

The application to daily life is how automatic processing plays a role in impression formation,

stereotypes and group processing. Automatic vigilance can lead to a negative bias in judgment

and memory. It explains how unfavorable information, about individual or stereotyped groups, is

often noticed and remembered better than favorable information even without the perceiver

intending to do so, thus making the person’s impression of that individual or social group

negatively biased. Therefore, people’s greater attention to negative information may protect them

from immediate harm but one should be mindful that it can also contribute to prejudice and

conflict in social interaction.

Analysis of data:

Individual data:

(Table 1): Individual data of time taken for words.

Participant Time taken for undesirable Time taken for desirable traits

words words

1 88 86

Graph figure 1: Graphical representation of Individual data.

 52

Individual data:

(Table 2): Individual data of no. of words recalled.

Participant No of words recalled ( No of words recalled

undesirable) (desirable)

1 4 0

Graph figure 2: Graphical representation of Individual data.

 53

As in the PTQs the participant didn’t knew anything about the present experiment as mentioned.

According to research undesirable trait word take more time while naming that is people give

more importance to the negative aspects of an event as compared to the positive aspects(Pratto &

John,1991) in them they make decisions and also have communications based on the negative

information as compared to the positive ones (kahneman & Tversky, 1984). As seen in table 1

time taken to recall undesirable words is greater as compared to desirable. Also undesirable trait

words were recalled better than desirable cause according to research the primary task of the

experiment is naming the color in which the trait words are embedded, a high recall for the

undesirable trait words 98 80 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 undesirable words desirable words time

taken color naming time Series 1 4 elucidates incidental learning. Incidental learning refers to a

learning that is not premeditated, deliberate, or intentional and that is acquired as a result of some

other, possibly unrelated, mental activity (APA). This non-intentional learning of undesirable

words leads to enhanced recall of trait words as the negative stimuli are more heavily weighted
 54

and trigger elaborate information processes which lead to better memory for the same (Wentura

& Rothurmund, 2000). As seen in table no. 2 recall of words for undesirable words is greater

than desirable word in the experiment performed. The participant was naming the color faster

and did not pay much attention to the demo, confounds was the participant was not able to pay

attention which was required during introduction to cause there was some event near the lab area

and music was creating disturbance. The participant was naming the color faster and did not pay

much attention to the demo, confounds was the participant was not able to pay attention which

was required during introduction to cause there was some event near the lab area and music was

creating disturbance.

Group data:

(Table 3): Group data of color naming for words and its difference and difference 2

Sr. Color naming for Color naming for Difference Difference2

no Undesirable Trait Desirable Trait

Words (in seconds) Words (in seconds)

1 69 63 6 36

2 88 86 2 4

3 310 52 258 66564

4 58 68 -10 100
 55

5 92 105 -13 169

6 62 55 7 49

7 66 63 3 9

8 94 88 6 36

9 80 67 13 169

10 67 65 2 4

11 145 130 15 225

12 71 62 9 81

13 98 80 18 324

Total 1300 984 316 67770

Mean 100 75.69

The total time for color naming for undesirable trait words were 1300 seconds and the mean of

the total timing were 100 seconds for undesirable trait words. The total time color naming for

desirable trait words were 984 seconds and the mean of the total timing were 75.69 seconds

for desirable trait words.

Graph figure 3: Graphical representation of mean and total scores of Group data
 56

Group data:

(Table 4): Group data of No. of words recalled and its difference and difference 2

Sr. No. of words recalled No. of words recalled Difference2

Difference
no (undesirable trait (desirable trait words)

words)

1 0 1 -1 1

2 4 0 4 16
 57

3 1 4 -3 9

4 0 2 -2 4

5 5 2 3 9

6 2 2 0 0

7 0 2 -2 4

8 2 1 1 1

9 4 0 4 16

10 7 4 3 9

11 2 2 0 0

12 3 1 2 4

13 7 0 7 49

Total 37 21 16 122

Mean 2.84 1.61

 58

The words recalled in undesirable trait words were 37 words and the total mean of words were

2.84 for undesirable trait words. The words recalled in desirable trait words were 21 words and

the total mean of words were 1.61 for desirable trait words.

Graph figure 4: Graphical representation of mean and total scores of Group Data

Results and Discussion:

Individual data discussion:

The color naming time for undesirable trait words was 88 seconds and for desirable trait words

was 86 seconds. The differences in undesirable and desirable trait words is of 2 seconds. The
 59

number of words recalled in undesirable trait words was 4 words and for the desirable trait words

were 0.

The experiment’s goal was to investigate the effect of a color naming task, for which a

random group design was used. The materials were set up by the Experimenter (E), and then the

participant (P) was called to the lab. The E then got to know the P well enough to make him or

her feel at ease and stay calm. According to the idea of counterbalancing, there are two sheets.

The first sheet had words for traits that were bad/ undesirable and the second sheet had words for

traits that were good/ desirable. The E started the experiment by telling the P how to do the task

by giving them the instructions and then showing the P how it was done. Sheet 1 was shown and

then there was a 30 seconds break before the Sheet 2 was shown. When Sheet 1 was done, Sheet

2 was shown. On both sheets, the time is taken and mistakes are carefully written down. After

the first task was done, the P was told how to do the second one, "Recall," and given 3 minutes

to remember words and write them down. After both tasks were done, E asked the P the post-

task questions and then told the P what the experiment was all about. The P was then thanked,

and he or she was thanked out of the lab.

We tested the effect of trait valence to see if undesirable traits interfered with the color-

naming task more than desirable traits (desirable vs. undesirable). Despite the fact that

undesirable traits elicited significantly more interest than desirable traits. In fact, participants

reported that they ignored the words and focused on recognizing the colors as instructed despite

the fact that the participants had no intention of processing the trait terms and were unaware of

their differential attention to desirable and undesirable traits.

 60

With reference to Table 1: 'Color naming time in seconds and No. of words recalled for

undesirable and desirable trait words, According to the data collected, the participant's time for

color naming in Undesirable Trait Words was 1.28 seconds, while it took 1.26 seconds in

Desirable Trait Words. Participants in the recall-task scored 4 for undesirable and 0 for desirable.

So the data would be aligned with the hypothesis. Time interval for inference in seconds (color

naming time in undesirable and desirable trait words; no of errors made while color naming). We

are attempting to examine interference based on time and errors in this experiment since it is

impossible to study interference without taking time and error into account. A key feature of this

investigation is speed accuracy. There was no misunderstanding about the names of the colors

when watching the participation (orange, brown, red). The participant made mistakes by pausing

during the color naming task. Studies of automatic vigilance, which build on earlier examples of

automatic evaluations, show that people pay more attention to things that aren't good than to

things that are good. As a counterbalance, the participant was given the undesirable sheet first.

The findings provide the most support for the hypothesis that undesirable characteristics

inherently try to gain more attention and are, as a result, more easily recalled than desirable

characteristics. The lengthier the time it takes to name a color is an indicator of greater attention

to a stimulus, and whatever a participant pays attention to is likely to be more easily recalled.

Because, according to the Pollyanna principles, people expect positive outcomes even when

faced with information to the contrary, as desirable events tend to be as common and frequently

occurring while undesirable events tend to be seen as uncommon and infrequent, negative

information tends to be perceived as being more diagnostic than positive information. And as a

result, unfavorable characteristics ought to be given more weight than desirable characteristics,
 61

given that rare or infrequent terms are considered to be informative and diagnostic, as well as

attractive.

According to the alternation hypothesis, the amount of time spent naming colors for

undesirable trait words was significantly longer than the amount of time spent naming colors for

desirable trait words. The total amount of time spent naming colors for undesirable trait words

was 1 minute and 28 seconds, while the amount of time spent naming colors for desirable trait

words was 1 minute and 26seconds. The difference in the amount of time spent was 2 seconds.

The number of words associated with undesirable traits that were recalled was 4, while

the number of words associated with desirable traits was 0. 1. Therefore, the words describing

the desirable traits were better remembered (recalled) than the words describing the undesirable

traits. Because it was the first sheet, it took P a little longer to name the colors than it did to name

the desirable words. Also, the noise from another participant nearby was the opposite finding,

which was the confounding variable. The number of undesirable words that were recalled was

greater than the number of desirable trait words, which were respectively 4 and 0. Because there

was not a single word that came to mind for desirable words, but there was one word that came

to mind for undesirable words.

Therefore, the trend is consistent with what was expected by the hypothesis.

In the color naming task, the participant made 6 errors in undesirable trait words and 2

errors in desirable trait words, which was more than undesirable trait words. The most common

error in both undesirable and desirable situations was to pause. There was a color- word sheet for

each condition, desirable and undesirable trait words. Each sheet contained 30 desirable /
 62

undesirable trait words as well as 6 neutral words that were repeated twice. The order of the

words was random with constraint that each color occurred once in each column and twice in

each row the sheets of the stimulus words for the two condition were comparable in the

arrangement and spacing of the color - words units and in the number of letters comparing each

unit. When giving instructions and performing the demonstration, the experiment did not point to

the color unit word. If a participant was pointing, nodding, tapping a hand or foot, or reading in

singing manner, the experimenter would stop and record the time.so however the confounding

variable were noise, temperature the participants listen.

Following the post- task question, it was discovered that the participant was more focused

on colors than words. In the color naming task, there was no hesitation or misnaming of colors.

In this experiment, mistakes were made while attempting to name the colors as quickly as

possible. More errors are produced by faster responses. As a result, it was determined that speed

accuracy was observed in this experiment.

The participants were instructed to name the colors as quickly and accurately as possible,

and any participant who misnamed, hesitated, or repeated the colors was considered an error.

Participants either took less time and made more mistakes when naming the colors or took more

time and made fewer mistakes. As a result, speed accuracy was observed.

As a result, the trends in the Individual data for the total time taken to name the colors of

undesirable and desirable trait words and the number of undesirable and desirable trait words

recalled for both were consistent with the relevant past research theory.

Group data discussion:

 63

The aim of the experiment was to understand the automatic vigilance towards social information

(difference in color naming time and number of words recalled) as a function of the valence of

the material (positive versus negative) Hypotheses:

The mean time to name colors in undesirable words is 100 seconds with a standard deviation of

67.09, and the mean time to name colors in desirable trait word condition is 79.69 seconds with a

standard deviation of 22.04, as can be seen from table 2, which displays a comparative analysis

of the color naming times for undesirable and desirable trait words of 13 participants. The

group's trend is in the anticipated direction since it takes longer on average to name the color in

an unwanted word than it does in a good trait word condition. Table 3 displays a comparison of

the recall scores for 13 participants' undesirable and desirable trait words. It can be seen that,

while the mean recall time for undesirable trait words is 2.84 seconds with a standard deviation

of 2.44, the mean recall time for desirable trait words is 1.61 seconds with a standard deviation

of 0.36. The group data trend is expected since the mean number of desirable trait words recalled

is lower than the mean number of negative trait words recalled. Nevertheless, the group's trend

can be examined using the mean's trend. An inferential statistic from the t test was employed to

determine whether there was a significant difference between the two conditions. Additionally,

since there were two sets of data to be analyzed and the data was on a ratio scale of

measurement, the t-test was the right choice of inferential statistic. A t test was performed

because there were two sets of data from the same group. t (12)= 1.51 because the obtained t

value was 1.51 and our df is 12, which is significant at the 0.05 level.
 64

This suggests that the two means differ significantly from one another. Because the hypothesis

and our data were consistent, we can reject the null and accept the alternative. It claims that the

memory ratings for favorable and disagreeable trait words differ significantly from one another.

This experiment, which looks for the stroop effect, may be based on it. According to Posner and

Snyder (1975), there is a conflict between the ink color and the vocal response to the printed

word that causes the Stroop Effect. Names of colors cannot be read as rapidly as words. The

automaticity account states that naming colors demands more attention than reading words.

Word reading occurs quite naturally. Extreme caution must be utilized when identifying eight

colors. Semantically relevant behavior trends found in processor-related properties result in

shorter color naming latencies. Automatic vigilance and prolonged attentional monitoring of

negative stimuli cause slower reactions to negative stimuli than to positive ones on most

cognitive tasks. (Rothermund & Wentura, 2000)

Desirable and unfavorable trait terms were listed on different color-coded word sheets for each

condition in the experiment. 30 desirable/undesirable trait words and 6 neutral words that were

repeated twice were included on each sheet. The two sheets were shown one after the other. The

desired trait words sheet was delivered by half of the students in the class before the unwanted

trait words sheet. The presenting order was reversed for the other half of the Es. In order to

prevent primacy and recency effects when recalling the desirable and undesirable trait words in

the free recall task, neutral terms were used in the first and last columns of both sheets. The

recall exam was not mentioned at all during the first color-naming exercise. In all scenarios, the

order in which the colors were to be named remained the same. With the restriction that each

color appear once in each column and twice in each row, the color order was arbitrary. The
 65

color-word units and the amount of letters in each unit were arranged and paced similarly in the

stimulus word sheets for the two conditions. The presentation of the next two cards was

separated by an empty 30 second break.

The degree of confidence that the casual relationship under test is reliable and unaffected by

outside circumstances is known as internal validity. Internal validity of this experiment is good

because our dv changed as a result of our iv. Instead of precisely reconstructing real-life

occurrences, experimental realism—which is the key to capturing real-life situations—is the

important component of real-life situations in an experimental form. The degree to which the

materials and methods used in an experiment are comparable to events happening outside of a

laboratory is known as mundane realism. The level of correlation between the results of a

laboratory experiment and the results obtained from a comparable task administered outside of

the laboratory is known as external validity. While the experiment's experimental realism is

strong, its mundane realism is low because, in most real-world scenarios, participants are not

required to name the colors in a stimulus that conflicts with a color word. When it comes to

external validity, the results' generalizations may be strong, particularly in social contexts where

observing and reacting to situations deemed unfavorable are involved.

Conclusion:

The main trends in the Individual Data were consistent with the relevant past research and

theories for total time taken to name the colors of undesirable and desirable trait words alone, but

inconsistent with number of undesirable and desirable trait words recalled alone.

The hypothesis that

 66

1) ‘Total time taken to name the colors of undesirable trait words are more than that of desirable

trait words’, was validated by the Group Data, on the basis of the obtained t value, t (12)= 1.51

and its significant.

2) ‘The undesirable trait words are recalled more than the desirable trait words’, was validated by

the Group Data, on the basis of the obtained t value and its significance. Thus we accept the

alternate hypothesis and reject the null.

References:

Automatic Vigilance: The Attention Grabbing Power of Approach and Avoidance-

Related Social Information. Journal of personality and social psychology. 78. 1024-37.

10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1024.

Ben-Haim, Moshe Shay & Williams, Paul & Howard, Zachary & Mama, Yaniv & Eidels,

Ami & Algom, Daniel. (2016). the Emotional Stroop Task: Assessing Cognitive Performance

under Exposure to Emotional Content. Journal of Visualized Experiments. 2016. 10.3791/53720.

Chajut, Eran & Mama, Yaniv & Levy, Leora & Algom, Daniel. (2010). Avoiding the Approach

Trap: A Response Bias Theory of the Emotional Stroop Effect. Journal of experimental

psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition. 36. 1567- 72. 10.1037/a0020710.

Pratto, Felicia & John, Oliver. (1991). Automatic Vigilance: The Attention-Grabbing

Power of Negative Social Information. Journal of personality and social psychology. 61. 380-91.

10.1037//0022-3514.61.3.380.

Price, Shelley & Beech, Anthony & Mitchell, Ian & Humphreys, Glyn. (2011). the

promises and perils of the emotional Stroop task: A general review and considerations for use
 67

with forensic samples. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 2011. 1–16.

10.1080/13552600.2010.545149. Wentura, Dirk & Rothermund, Klaus & Bak, Peter. (2000)

Williams JM, Mathews A, MacLeod C. The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology.

Psychological Bulletin. 1996; 120(1):3-24. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3

Yiend, Jenny. (2010). the effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of

emotional information. Cognition & Emotion. 24. 3-47. 10.1080/02699930903205698.

 68

APPENDICES

Scoring Sheets Undesirable trait words

Row Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

No.
C W C W C W C W

1 Red modern Pink cruel Brown violent Green unforgiving

2 Green unknown Blue biased Red boastful Brown brutal

3 Brown harmless Green listless Blue dismissive Orange conniving

4 Pink careful Red incapable Orange rough Blue mean

5 Orange undemanding Brown quarrelsome Green selfish Pink jealous

6 Blue realistic Orange bossy Pink merciless Red aggressive

Row Column 5 Column 6 Column 7 Column 8

No.
C W C W C W C W

1 Orange wicked Blue vicious Red bossy Pink brutal

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2 Pink depressed Orange sluggish Green merciless Blue isolated

3 Red isolated Pink apathetic Brown aggressive Green immature

4 Green lonely Brown immature Pink stingy Red incapable

5 Blue ruthless Red dull Orange intolerant Brown selfish

6 Brown stingy Green intolerant Blue violent Orange apathetic

Row Column 9 Column 10 Column 11 Column 12

No.
C W C W C W C W

1 Brown mean Green wicked Orange lonely Blue realistic

2 Red biased Brown dismissive Pink sluggish Orange modern

3 Blue conniving Orange vicious Red ruthless Pink harmless

4 Orange dull Blue unforgiving Green depressed Brown unknown

5 Green jealous Pink boastful Blue cruel Red undemanding

6 Pink quarrelsome Red listless Brown rough Green careful

 70

Desirable trait words

Row Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

No.
C W C W C W C W

1 Red normal Pink witty Brown cordial Green sympathetic

2 Green choosey Blue honest Red creative Brown humble

3 Brown reserved Green carefree Blue persistent Orange sensitive

4 Pink curious Red inventive Orange smart Blue fair

5 Orange complicated Brown considerate Green content Pink sincere

6 Blue systematic Orange happy Pink confident Red hospitable

Row Column 5 Column 6 Column 7 Column 8

No.
C W C W C W C W

1 Orange clever Blue helpful Red happy Pink humble

2 Pink organized Orange flexible Green confident Blue generous

 71

3 Red generous Pink brilliant Brown hospitable Green skilful

4 Green active Brown skilful Pink loving Red inventive

5 Blue friendly Red kind Orange optimistic Brown content

6 Brown loving Green optimistic Blue cordial Orange brilliant

Row Column 9 Column 10 Column 11 Column 12

No.
C W C W C W C W

1 Brown fair Green clever Orange active Blue systematic

2 Red honest Brown persistent Pink flexible Orange normal

3 Blue sensitive Orange helpful Red friendly Pink reserved

4 Orange kind Blue sympathetic Green organized Brown choosey

5 Green sincere Pink creative Blue witty Red complicated

6 Pink considerate Red carefree Brown smart Green curious

 72

Word lists

No. Neutral words Undesirable trait words Desirable trait words

1 modern cruel witty

2 unknown biased honest

3 harmless listless carefree

4 careful incapable inventive

5 undemanding quarrelsome considerate

6 realistic bossy happy

7 normal violent cordial

8 choosey boastful creative

9 reserved dismissive persistent

10 curious rough smart

11 complicated selfish content

12 systematic merciless confident

 73

13 unforgiving sympathetic

14 brutal humble

15 conniving sensitive

16 mean fair

17 jealous sincere

18 aggressive hospitable

19 wicked clever

20 depressed organized

21 isolated generous

22 lonely active

23 ruthless friendly

24 stingy loving

25 vicious helpful

26 sluggish flexible
 74

27 apathetic brilliant

28 immature skilful

29 dull kind

30 intolerant optimistic

Undesirable and desirable word cards:

 75

2. False memory using the Roediger and McDermott paradigm.

Title: False memory using the Roediger and McDermott paradigm.

Abstract:

The present experiment scientifically explored the phenomenon of false memory, where

individuals recall events differently from their actual occurrence or even remember events that

never happened. The study aimed to investigate the impact of the mode of presentation (visual or

auditory) on the inducement of false memory. In a random groups design, 26 participants were

exposed to either visually presented words or heard the same words. Participants were later

asked to recall the presented words and distinguish old from new words, including critical lures

designed to test false memory in a recognition task. Individual data on hit rate and false memory

were collected. Group data analysis, employing mean, standard deviation, and variance and a t-

test indicated a statistically significant difference. The t-test confirmed that the verbal mode of

presentation led to a higher inducement of false memory. The research hypothesis suggesting a

higher mean recognition score for false memory in verbal presentation compared to visual

presentation was validated by the group data.

Introduction:

Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later

retrieving information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage,

and retrieval. Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information.

However, this is not a flawless process. There are mainly four types of memory 1)

Sensory memory where raw information from the senses is held for a very brief period of time.
 76

2) Working memory, which can last just seconds. It is used to hold information in our head while

we engage in other cognitive processes. 3) Short term memory in which information is held for a

brief period of time while being used. 4) Long term memory in which information is stored more

or less permanently. These two are further subdivided in various types such as Echoic and Iconic

sensory memory in sensory memory and Episodic, Autobiographical, Semantic memory in long

term memory. Some of the models of memory are: The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, also

called the three-box model, (Atkinson & Schifrin, 1968) describes three stages, or boxes, in the

active process of creating memory information that is transferred between these stores in a linear

sequence. According to this approach, information begins in sensory memory, moves to short-

term memory, and eventually moves to long-term memory. However, not all information makes

it through all three stages. Another model is the Parallel Distributed Processing model in which

memory processes take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.

In the Information-processing model processing of information for memory storage is

similar to the way computers process memory in a series of 3 stages. Malleability, with reference

to psychology, is the process of brain augmentation through neuroplasticity. Memory

Malleability refers to memories that can be changed or manipulated in the long run. This means

that what we remember may not be exactly accurate. They can be invented, planted or changed

by time which makes them a participant in distortion. This can be explained through several

researches.

The 'Seven Sins of Memory' by Daniel Schacter (2001) stated seven reasons for memory

distortions. These are transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility,

bias, and persistence. False memory can occur during the retrieval process. For example. People
 77

use lax criteria (not careful about maintaining high standards) for searching memory. For

instance, accepting memories that are vaguely familiar as true. A variety of brain mechanisms

underlie the occurrence of true and false memories. (Schacter, 2001)

Particular external suggestions like leading questions can affect the information about

events. This was explained by Loftus and Palmer in their study called Reconstruction of

Automobile Destruction' which was conducted in the year 1974. The purpose of the experiment

was to examine whether making changes in the critical word in the leading questions for the

investigation of an ear crash would affect one's estimation of speed in kilometers per hour. The

participants exposed to the word 'smashed' caused higher speed estimates while the ones exposed

to the word 'contacted' caused lower speed estimates. It was concluded that the verbal labels

which were added to the misleading questions triggered pre-existing schemas which influenced

memory recall. (Loftus and Palmer, 1974)

Conversations with co-witnesses can also lead to false memories. Daniel Wright, Gail

Self and Chris Justice in their study stated that when a person was provided with misinformation

the accuracy was lowered whereas when provided accurate information the accuracy increased.

It was also found that even though the initial memories were accurate, conversation with other

people having different perspectives lowered the accuracy. (Wright, Self and Justice, 2000)

Individuals can be led to remember past events in such ways that they can even

remember complete details of their past events that never really occurred. People are often

confident in their distorted or false memories when this sort of distortion occurs. This is the

reason why people remember things that are biologically or geographically impossible. The
 78

findings do not give us the ability to reliably distinguish between real and false memories

without independent corroboration. (Loftus and Pickrell, 1995)

Reconstructive memory is a theory of memory recall, in which the act of remembering is

influenced by various other cognitive processes including perception, imagination, semantic

memory and beliefs, amongst others. The complexity required for reconstructing some episodes

is quite demanding and can result in incorrect or incomplete recall. This complexity leaves

individuals susceptible to phenomena such as the misinformation effect across subsequent

recollections. Misinformation research, which had already established that human memory is

prone to substantial errors than can wreak havoc on the justice system (Belli, 2012; Clancy,

2009; Davis & Loftus, 2007). In typical "misinformation effect" studies, research participants are

asked to view an event, often a mock crime o• accident (Loftus, Miller, & Burns, 1978; Zhu et

al., 2012). Some participants are then exposed to misleading information about what happened

during the event. This misinformation leads to errors in these participants' memories, such that

they end up less accurate in subsequent memory tests than are control participants who did not

receive the misinformation. These studies provide further evidence that human memory does not

function like a video recorder that can be rewind and replayed (Clifasefi, Garry, & Loftus, 2007):

rather, our memories are malleable. The false memory research group, by contrast, argues that

decades of research has demonstrated that human memory can be extremely malleable (Davis &

Loftis, 2007)

In his 1932 study, Bartlett asked his English participants to read a North American Indian

folk tale called "The War of the Ghosts", after which they tried to recall the story. Bartlett found

the participants' recall distorted the content and style of the original story. The story was
 79

shortened, and the phrases, and often words, were changed to be similar to the English language

and concepts (e.g., "boat" instead of "canoe"). He also found other kinds of errors, including

flattening (failure to recall unfamiliar details) and sharpening (elaboration of certain details).

Bartlett's main idea is that our memory is grouped into categories called "schemas". We

have schemas for all sorts of things - for what a "criminal" is like, for what counts as "food" and

how to behave at the service counter in a fast-food restaurant. Sometimes we assimilate new

information, changing our schemas to fit what we have learned. Sometimes we accommodate

new information, changing our memories to keep our schemas intact and unchanged.

Loftus and Palmer in 1974 conducted à study on students of University of Washington

with the hypothesis that the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter the memory. They

performed the experiment and found that results were in line with the hypothesis. The results

show that the verb conveyed an impression of the speed the car was traveling and this altered the

participants' perceptions. In other words, eyewitness testimony might be biased by the way

questions are asked after a crime is committed. Loftus and Palmer offer two possible

explanations for this result: Response-bias factors: The misleading information provided may

have simply influenced the answer a person gave (a 'response-biases) but didn't actually lead to a

false memory of the event. For example, the different speed estimates occur because the critical

word (e.g., 'smash' or 'hit) influences or biases a person's response. The memory representation is

altered: The critical verb changes a person's perception of the accident - some critical words

would lead someone to have a perception of the accident being more serious. This perception is

then stored in a person's memory of the event. If the second explanation is true, we would expect

participants to remember other details that are not true. Loftus and Palmer tested this in their
 80

second experiment. The results from experiment two suggest that this effect is not just due to a

response-bias because leading questions actually altered the memory a participant had for the

event. The addition of false details to a memory of an event is referred to as confabulation.

Consequently, Loftus and Palmer support the reconstructive memory hypothesis -

arguing that information gathered at the time of an event is modified by data gathered afterwards.

The Desse Roediger and McDermott (DRM) task is a false memory paradigm where subjects are

exposed to semantically related words in series of lists on encoding, after a time interval the

subject is asked to recall or recognize the words which were exposed initially. The DRM task

was initially created by Deese but revitalized by seminal paper of Roediger and Mcdermott, the

motivation behind the revitalization of the experiment was due to the fact that there was no

reliable laboratory paradigm to induce false recall.

DRM encoding only requires a quick presentation and learning list of words compared to

the other non laboratical experiment in which subjects were presented with pictures, slides and

videos and then the subject's interpretation may lead to misleading information due to the

contents misleading nature itself. Recognition and recall task of DRM is equally convenient

regardless of the particular method used. In a recognition test subject is exposed to a list of words

containing encoded words, critical lure words and unrelated lure words the subject has to judge

whether they remember words or not, in recall testing similar words were shown the subject has

to write the words which they saw earlier. The DRM task does not need intervention of some

sorts prior or midway of the experiment as false memories through the DRM task are

spontaneously self-generated. The DRM task is said to be highly robust across different studies

and shown to be quite reliable. The DRM task has been employed to a wide variety of
 81

populations such as children and older adults and used in a wide variety of research such as

neuroimaging and neuropsychology as well. There is an ongoing debate regarding the DRM false

memories are prone to Autobiographical memory distortions, fantastic Autobiographical

memories and recovered Autobiographical memories However still DRM task has proven to be

useful to investigate neurocognitive underpinnings of reconstructive memory.

Problem:

To study the effect of mode of presentation of material on inducement of false memory

Hypothesis:

Alternative Hypothesis: The Verbal mode of presentation of material yields higher inducement

of false memory. That is, the mean recognition scores of false memory is higher for verbal

presentation than for visual presentation of word list.

Null Hypothesis: The Verbal mode of presentation of material does not yield higher inducement

of false memory. That is, the mean recognition scores of false memory is not higher for verbal

presentation; it is lower than or equal to that for visual presentation of word list.

Operational Definitions of the Variables:

Independent Variable

Presentation list of words, varied at two levels Verbal and Visual.

Dependent Variable
 82

Inducement of false memory, measured in terms of the mean recognition scores for false

memory for lure words not initially presented on the list

Control Variables

1. Exposure time of each word was 2 seconds

2. All the lists had the same number of words (12 words each)

3. The three lists were counterbalanced in presentation of 3 sets, such that one third of the

class followed set 1-the order of presentation being- list1, then 2 then 3, second third of

the class followed set 2 - the order of presentation being- list 2, then 3, then 1 and the last

third of the class followed set 3 - the order of presentation being - list 3, then list 1 and

then list 2 respectively.

4. An interval of 12 unfilled seconds was given between the three lists.

5. Recognition list was constructed in blocks; there were 7 items per block, and each block

corresponded to a studied list (2 studied words, 2 related words, 2 unrelated words, and

the critical non studied lure). The order of the blocks corresponded to the order in which

lists had been studied. Each block of test items always began with a studied word and

ended with the critical lure; the other items were arranged haphazardly in between.

6. Three recognition sheets were prepared as per the 3 sets of word lists, such that the order

of blocks on the recognition sheets were similar to the order of lists presented.

Method:
 83

Participants

Individual Data:

Name (Optional) Age Class Emotional State

Participant 1 Siddhi 19 SYBA Good

Participant 2 Mishri 19 SYBA Cool

Group Data: College Students: N=26 participants

Apparatus and Materials

1. Three lists from the materials listed in Deese's (1959) article (3 lists of associatively

related words)

2. Recognition sheet (The 21-item recognition test included 6 studied and 15 non studied

items. There were three types of non- studied items, or lures: (a) the 3 critical lure words,

from which the lists were generated (e.g., chair), (b) 6 words generally unrelated to any

items on the three lists, and (c) 6 words weakly related to the lists (2 per list). One of the

two studied words that were tested occurred in the first position of the study list (and

therefore was the strongest associate to the critical item); the other occurred somewhere

in the first 6 positions of the study list).

3. Stopwatch/Metronome

4. Stationery
 84

5. Screen

Design

Random groups design with one independent variable having 2 levels. Different participants are

exposed to the two levels (one is presented material through verbal means and the other through

visual means).

Procedure

All the required materials were checked and arranged by the E. The participant was called inside

the laboratory and made to sit comfortably facing the wooden screen. A few general questions

were asked in order to build rapport, and then the following instructions were given.

Instructions for the first participant

“This is a simple experiment on memory process, I will read aloud a list of words, one at a time,

at the speed of one word per 2 seconds. Your task is to listen to each word carefully as you will

be tested for it later at the end of the experiment. After I finish reading the first list, I will give

you a small interval of a few seconds and then read the second list. After I finish reading the

second list, I will give you a small interval of a few seconds again and then read the third list.

This way I will read aloud three lists of words, one by one. Before starting the words on each list,

I will specify the list number. Have you understood? Do you have any doubts?”

Once the E ensured that the P understood the instructions properly, the E started the experiment

by saying
 85

“Ready” followed by naming the list – “List – 1” and then reading the first word on that list, E

continued reading aloud the words on the list at the speed of one word per 2 seconds. At the end

of the first list, E gives a small unfilled break of 12 seconds. After 12 seconds, the E says,

“Ready”, and then names the second list as “List – 2”, then starts reading the second list, in the

same way as the first (at the rate of one word per 2 seconds). At the end of the second list, the

same procedure is followed, a small gap of unfilled 12 seconds is allowed to pass by, before E

says “Ready” again, followed by naming the third list as “List – 3”, and then reading aloud

words on the list one by one at the speed of one word per 2 seconds, till the list is completed.

Instructions for the second participant

“This is a simple experiment on the memory process; I will present to you some cards that have a

word typed on it. Each card will be presented one at a time at the speed of one word per 2

seconds. Your task is to look at each word carefully as you will be tested for it later at the end of

the experiment. After I finish showing the first list, I will give you a small interval of a few

seconds and then present the second list of words. After I finish showing the second list, I will

give you a small interval of a few seconds again and then present the third list. This way I will

show you three lists of words, one by one. Before starting the words on each list, I will specify

the list number. Have you understood? Do you have any doubts?” The experimenter presents the

list of words from the first list at the rate of one word per two seconds, followed by words from

list two and then words from list three.

Once the E ensured that the P understood the instructions properly, the E started the experiment

by saying “Ready” followed by naming the list – “List – 1” and then visually showing on card

the first word on that list, E continued reading aloud/ presenting the words on the list at the speed
 86

of one word per 2 seconds. At the end of the first list, E gives a small unfilled break of 12

seconds. After 12 seconds, the E says,

“Ready”, and then names the second list as “List – 2”, then starts visually showing cards on the

second list, in the same way as the first (at the rate of one word per 2 seconds). At the end of the

second list, the same procedure is followed, a small gap of unfilled 12 seconds is allowed to pass

by, before E says “Ready” again, followed by naming the third list as “List – 3”, and then

visually showing cards one by one at the speed of one word per 2 seconds, till the list is

completed.

Free recall test

"This part of the task involves a simple memory test. I will give you a sheet of paper, Please

write down all the words you can remember from the three lists you heard/ seen in the last

session on that sheet. Their order is not important. You can write them as you remember them.

You may begin from the last few words or words from the first or the second list, as per your

preference. Please write the words vertically, one below the other. You have three minutes to

recall all the words you can. Do you have any questions?" E answers any questions the

participant may have. E sets the timer and instructs the P to “Start”. After three minutes are over,

the E stops the P and takes the sheet away.

Recognition test

"This is a simple recognition task. I will give you a sheet of paper, on which many words are

printed. Some of the words are from the three lists of words you heard/ saw in the first part of the

experiment, and there are many new words added to it. Your task is to indicate whether each
 87

word is old (that is, on one of the lists you heard/saw previously) or new. You will say “O” if

you think the word is old and “N” if you think the word is new. This is self-paced, and you can

take your time, but try to respond as accurately as you can (it generally does not take longer than

three minutes). Begin when I say “Start”, and let me know when you are done. Do you have any

questions? “E answers any questions the participant may have. E starts the recognition test and

waits for the participant to finish.

Post-task Questions

1. Have you heard anything about this experiment before?

2. Do you have any comments about this experiment?

3. Did you find anything unusual about this experiment?

4. What do you think was the purpose of this experiment?

5. Do you remember seeing/ hearing all the words that you recalled / recognized or you just

know they were there?

6. Could you observe any pattern or theme in the words on the lists?

7. Did you feel confused about whether or not a word was presented to you earlier while

recognizing words?

Debriefing

The purpose of this experiment was to study human memory to test its fallibility and whether it

is participant to false memories or not. In this experiment, the term false memories is used to
 88

characterize the recall of events that never occurred or in other words remembering words that

were never shown in the list. The purpose is also to Study the effect of mode of presentation of

material on inducement of false memory that is to know whether visual mode of material

presentation or auditory mode of material presentation leads to more false memory.

This experiment had two participants, one was shown the words one by one and the other heard

the same words. The words that appeared in a list were closely associated to another word that

was included in the recognition sheet but which was not actually seen / heard by the participant

when the words were exposed initially. Recognizing those unseen/ unheard words as being on

the list would be evidence of false memory. Sharing the scores obtained by the participant

explain if evidence of false memory was observable.

This experiment was first performed by Roediger and McDermott in which they found that

human memory was highly reconstructive in nature and therefore participant to false memories.

Work by Smith and Hunt shows that visually presented material leads to lesser false memory

scores than verbally presented material. One explanation of why false memories are created for

words not shown/ read is that when we see or hear a word, it causes semantic activation.

According to activation theories, words are linked to one another in a network, and the activation

of one lexical concept results in the spread of activation to surrounding concepts (Collins &

Loftus, 1975). Studying a list of semantically related items will thus result in strong activation of

an item (i.e., the critical lure- use the critical lure that the P remembered/ recognized in 2nd and

3rd task respectively) associated to all list items. Consequently, the critical lure may be falsely

remembered due to the heightened activation.

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Understanding that false memories can arise is essential, particularly in the clinical and forensic

context. Since many decisions and judgments that might impact mental health and /or future life

of people may be based on what people say they remember from memory, production of false

memories may compromise the reliability of the reports and testimonies of patients, suspects or

victims of crime. Thus, it is possible for patients, suspects or victims of crime to report

information/events in a different way from reality, unintentionally distorting facts, conditioning

and compromising their veracity. Currently, the occurrence of false memories is a phenomenon

widely investigated in forensic psychology since the majority of the judicial systems worldwide

use eye-witness as a source for decision making.

Analysis of Data:

Individual Data:

Table 1: Individual data of Comparison of Hit rate and false memory scores in recall task

for Verbal and Visual presentation of Words

Verbal Visual

Presentation of Presentation of

list the list

Hit rate (words False memory Hit rate (words False memory

correctly (recall of words correctly (recall of words

recalled) not present on recalled) not present on

the list) the list)

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List 1 7 1 7 0

List 2 3 0 8 1

List 3 3 2 6 0

Total 13 3 21 1

Mean 4.3 1 7 0.3

Table 2: Individual data of Comparison of Hit rate and false memory scores in recognition

task for Verbal and Visual presentation of Words

Verbal Visual

Presentation of Presentation of

list the list

Hit rate (max 6) False memory Hit rate (max 6) False memory

(max 3) (max 3)

List 1 5 2 6 2

List 2 5 2 7 0

List 3 5 2 6 1
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Total 15 6 19 3

Mean 5 3 6.3 1

Group Data:

Table 3: Group data of scores of verbal and visual mode of presentation.

Participant number Verbal presentation score Visual presentation score

1 15 9

2 9 4

3 14 5

4 11 18

5 11 6

6 12 4

7 12 4

8 5 3

9 6 1
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10 6 3

11 8 6

12 11 5

13 7 3

Total 127 71

Mean 9.769 5.461

Descriptive Statistics of Verbal and Visual Presentation

Mean Number of Standard Standard

Participants Deviation Mean

Error

Verbal Presentation 9.769 13 3.192 0.884

Visual Presentation 5.41 13 4.234 1.174

Figure 2: Group data.

Graphical representation of mean of Verbal and Visual Representation.

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T-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances

Graphical Representation of mean.

12

10

0
Verbal Visual

Independent Samples T-Test

Sr. no Mean Variance df P Value

Visual 5.461538462 17.93589744 24 0.005

Verbal 9.769230769 10.19230769 24 0.005

Results and Discussion:

Individual data:

The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the effect of material presentation mode

on the induction of false memory. The experimenter [E] first arranged the materials before
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inviting the first participant P1] to the laboratory. In this experiment, there were two participants:

P1 was exposed to the verbal mode of representation, and P2 was exposed to the visual mode of

representation. The supervisor decided who would be P1 and P2.

Before beginning the conduction, the E established a rapport with P1 (verbal mode) in

order to calm and comfort him/her. The E instructed P1 on the first task, in which E presented

three lists of cards, each of 12 sets, one after the other at the rate of one word every two seconds,

with a 12-second interval between each list unfilled. Then, E instructed P1 for a recall task in

which 3 minutes were given for recall, followed by a recognition task in which the lists were

constructed in blocks of 7 items per block, with each block corresponding to a studied list, and

time was also noted. The subject was then instructed to wait in another classroom while P1 was

given the post-task questions. Next, P2 was led into the laboratory (visual mode), and the same

procedure was followed for P2, with the exception that P2's subject was visually shown the cards

in the first part of the experiment and the rest of the instructions were the same. After P2 had

completed all three tasks, P1 was also called back to the laboratory, and then debriefing about the

experiment was conducted. After being thanked, participant 1 and participant 2 were led out of

the lab.

With reference to Table 1: 'Comparison of hit rate and False Memory scores in the recall

task for verbal and visual presentation of words list representation for P1 in verbal form Words

from list 1 had a hit rate of 7, words from list 2 had a hit rate of 3, words from list 3 had a hit rate

of 3, making a total of 13, and the total mean was 4.3. Then, the False Memory, which is the

recall of words not in the list, was 1 from list 1, 0 from list 2, and 2 from list 3, giving a total of 3

and a total mean of 1.

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For the P2 Hit rate words that are correctly recalled, list 1 had an average of 7, list 2 had

an average of 8, list 3 had an average of 6, making a total of 21 words, with a mean of 7. In this

case, the False Memory, which is the recall of words not on the list, list 1 was 0, list 2 was 1, and

list 3 was also 0, so the sum of all was 1, and the overall mean was therefore 0.3.The total

number of words from each list is divided by the total number of lists to determine the mean.

With reference to table 2: 'Comparison of hit rate and False Memory scores in the

recognition task for verbal and visual presentation of words' For a verbal mode of P1 recognition

scores, the hit rate [max 6] of list 1 was 5, list 2 was 5, and list 3 was 5, for a total of 15 and a

total mean of 5. Scores for False Memory Recognition [max 3] List 1 had 2, List 2 had 2, and

List 3 had 2, making a total of 6. Mean of 2.

Hit rate [max6] for list 1 was 6, list 2 was 7, and list 3 was 6, making a total of 19 and a

total mean of 6.3 for the visual mode of representation of the P2 recognition task. Then, for false

memory [max 3], list 1 recognition was 2, list 2 recognition was 0, and list 3 recognition was 1,

making a total of 3 and a total mean of 1. The total number of words from each list are divided

by the total number of lists to determine the mean.

No. of false memory scores on visual compared to verbal. The false memory score in the

recognition task for visual was the same as it was for verbal, which means that the total number

of false memories was 3, and the mean was 1 for visual, while the total number of false

memories for verbal was also 3, and the mean was 1.

There is evidence of a false memory in the recall task, whereas in the verbal mode of

presentation, P1 recalled two words that were chair (related to list 1: table, wood, stool) and
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sleep (related to list 2: bed, rest, blanket), even though these two words were not present in the

list, and there was no false alarm from list 3.And then, for a visual mode of presentation, P2

recalled two words that were sofa and chair (related to list 1: table, wood, chair), but was not

present in the list, and there was no false alarm from list 2 and list 3 respectively. Therefore, both

Pl and P2 incorrectly remembered one word each from table 1 of the recognition sheet. The word

in question is "chair," which was denoted with the letter "O." When we compared the word that

was incorrectly remembered from the recognition sheet table 1 with the hit rate, we found that

both had the same result: one word was recognized.

There was evidence of false memory in both the visual and verbal modes of presentation;

consequently, the number of words correctly recalled for the verbal mode was equal to the

number of words falsely recalled for the visual mode. There was a response bias factor in which

misleading information was given to the person, influencing them but not leading to a false

memory of the event. Different speed estimates, for example, occur because the critical word

[e.g. 'smash' or 'hit'] influences or biases a person's response. So, when the critical verb is

changed in the memory representation, it changes a person's perception of the accident of some

critical words, which leads to someone having a perception of the accident being more serious,

and this perception is then stored in a person's memory of the event (Lotus and Palmer, 1974)

Therefore, in this experiment, the P was influenced due to misleading information, the critical

lure words which changed the person's perception as a result, in the visual presentation false

memory led to higher scores than the verbal presentation because the Participant got influenced

by looking at the words and making its own view and judgment of the situation.
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The trend is not as expected because in the visual false memory recognition task P2 has

shown dishonesty by marking [O] old in most of the places except for three places so it went

90%+ right due to which visual was more than verbal false memory recognition. Visual false

memory scores were higher than verbal false memory scores. This is the reason why the trend

was consistent with the null hypothesis, as the mean recognition scores for verbal tests were

lower than those for visual tests. In PTQ the trends for P1 for her, this experiment were about

memory, and she believed that there were some words when she was given a recall task. In

addition, she thought that there was a correlation between the two. In addition to this, she noticed

that there was a pattern in the list of words. She also experienced confusion while simultaneously

recognizing her words (for example road, furniture, and light), P2 understood that there was a

repeating structure in the word list, which was the primary objective of this experiment. In

addition, she demonstrated a visual advantage in terms of her ability to remember the words. It

wasn't clear to her whether there was a chair or not, so she was unsure what to do.

Group data:

This experiment looked at whether or not people could be made to learn fake memories.

False memory, or recalling a word that wasn't on the list, is the term employed in this experiment

to describe the recall of events that never happened. Additionally, the goal is to investigate how

the form of material presentation affects the induction of false memory, specifically whether a

visual mode of material presentation results in a higher rate of false memory.

Table 3, which presents a comparative analysis of the participants' false memory scores

for verbal and visual word presentations, demonstrates this. For verbal presentation, the mean

false memory score was 9.4 with SD 3.1 and variance 10.19, while for visual presentation, it was
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5.4 with SD 4.2 and variance 17.93. So our result is Significant at 0.003, and critical value is

1.70. The group data trend is expected because the mean false memory score for the visual form

of presentation was lower than the mean score for the verbal mode.

Even though the trends in the means can be utilized to analyze the group data trend, the t

test's inferential statistic was employed to determine whether there was a significant difference

between the two circumstances. Given that the dependent variable had a ratio scale of

measurement and was quantitative in character, the parametric inferential statistic (t test) was

employed because the study used a random group design. The degree of freedom (df) is 24, as

the acquired t value was deemed to be significant by consulting the t test table of norms (one

tailed test df=N1+N2-2).

The t test value would be because, as table 3 shows, the mean false memory for verbal

presentation was M= 9.4, SD=3.1, and the mean false memory for visual presentation was M=

5.4, SD=4.2. Instead of precisely reconstructing real-life occurrences, experimental realism—

which is the key to capturing real-life situations—is the important component of real-life

situations in an experimental form. The degree to which the materials and methods used in an

experiment are comparable to events happening outside of a laboratory is known as mundane

realism.

The level of correlation between the results of a laboratory experiment and the results

obtained from a comparable task administered outside of the laboratory is known as external

validity. While the experiment's level of internal or experimental realism is high, its level of

mundane realism is moderate, given that in real-world scenarios, participants may be required to

recall a list of random words, and they may mistakenly recall or recognize words that were not
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there at first. For instance, while attempting to recall a shopping list of things to buy, it makes

more sense to view the written list than to get it from someone else.

Smith and Hunt (1998) conducted experiments on modality effects on false memory,

replicating Deese's (1959) and Roediger and McDermott's (1995) studies. Visual presentation

reduced false memories compared to auditory, and equivalent recall occurred only in the auditory

condition. They suggested modality effects stem from associated items at study and test, or the\

ability to differentiate internal and external cues in the visual modality. Repeating the experiment

with a pleasantness rating still showed visual modality led to fewer false alarms, and the rating

reduced memory distortion in both modalities. The authors proposed that memory errors arise

when critical words come to mind during study, with visual study providing a better foundation

for discriminating presented stimuli from those merely thought of.

Conclusion

The main trends in the Individual Data were consistent with the relevant past research

and theories for false memory scores of visual and verbal presentation of words.

The data is consistent with the alternative hypothesis because the t test result was

significant. Our finding has a critical value of 1.70 and is significant at 0.003. Given that the

mean false memory score for the visual mode of presentation was lower than the mean score for

the verbal mode, the group data trend is as expected.

References:
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Roediger, H.L., & McDermott, K.B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering

words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and

Cognition, 21, 803- 814.

Roediger, H., Watson, J., McDermott, K. and Gallo, D., 2001. Factors that determine

false recall: A multiple regression analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(3), pp.385-407.

McDermott KB. The Persistence of False Memories in List Recall. J Mem Lang. 1996;

35(2):212–230. [Google Scholar]

Smith RE, Hunt RR. Presentation modality affects false memory. Psychon Bull

Rev. 1998; 5(4):710–715. [Google Scholar]

Gallo DA, McDermott KB, Percer JM, Roediger HL., III Modality effects in false recall

and false recognition. J Exp Psychol: Learn Mem Cogn. 2001; 27(2):339–

353. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/false-memory
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APPENDIX

List 1: TABLE, SIT, LEGS, SEAT, SOFT, DESK, ARM, SOFA, WOOD, CUSHION,

REST, STOOL.

Critical lure: Chair

List 2: BED, REST, AWAKE, TIRED, DREAM, WAKE, NIGHT, BLANKET, DOZE,

SLUMBER, SNORE, AND PILLOW.

Critical lure: Sleep

List 3: RIPE, CITRUS, VEGETABLE, JUICE, BANANA, ORANGE, BASKET,

BOWL, SALAD, PEAR, and APPLE, CHERRY.

Critical lure: Fruit

SET 1 – List 1, 2 & 3

SET 2 – List 2, 3 & 1

SET 3 – List 3, 1 & 2

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Recognition sheet – set 1

TABLE BED RIPE

TARGET ALARM CEMENT

FLOOR FIGHT SALAD

SAND DINNER BAKE

WOOD ROAD SEED

SLOUCH NIGHT TREE

CHAIR SLEEP FRUIT

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Recognition sheet – set 2

BED RIPE TABLE

ALARM CEMENT TARGET

FIGHT SALAD FLOOR

DINNER BAKE SAND

ROAD SEED WOOD

NIGHT TREE SLOUCH

SLEEP FRUIT CHAIR

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Recognition sheet – set 3

RIPE TABLE BED

CEMENT TARGET ALARM

SALAD FLOOR FIGHT

BAKE SAND DINNER

SEED WOOD ROAD

TREE SLOUCH NIGHT

FRUIT CHAIR SLEEP

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E. One Psychological Test

1. Administration, Scoring and Interpretation of the Test

2. Writing report on the findings of the test

3. Calculate Reliability / Validity of the test

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Title: Administration of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and Oxford Happiness

Questionnaire and Calculations of Reliability and Validity Coefficients

Introduction:

The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale is the most widely used measure of self-esteem,

devised by Morris Rosenberg in 1965. According to Rosenberg, self-esteem is the individual’s

overall positive evaluation of self. Having high self-esteem means that the individual is

respecting himself and considers himself worthy. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a one-

dimensional scale consists of ten statements, five of which are positively worded (e.g., "I feel

that I am a person of worth") and five are negatively worded (e.g., "I feel I do not have much to

be proud of"). The simplicity of the measure contributes to the ease of administration and scoring

of responses. Respondents are asked to indicate their level of agreement with each statement on a

four-point Likert scale, typically ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." The

scores are then summed, with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. The scale has been

referred to as a measure of global self-esteem. The scale does it by measuring both the positive

and negative feeling self.

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High self-esteem refers to a highly favorable global evaluation of the self. It may refer to

an accurate, justified, balanced appreciation of one’s worth as a person and one’s successes and

competencies. It can also be an inflated, arrogant, grandiose, unwarranted sense of conceited

superiority over others. Low self-esteem, refers to an unfavorable definition of the self. Low self-

esteem is an accurate, well- founded understanding of one’s shortcomings as a person. It can also

be a distorted, even pathological sense of insecurity and inferiority.

The scale has high psychometric soundness. The test retest reliability of the scale ranges

from .82-.88 (Blascovich and Tomaka, 1993). The scale is used across age groups although it

was initially developed for its use with adolescence. The scale has gained cross cultural support

as it is translated into about 28 languages (Schmitt & Allik, 2005). Schmitt & Allik (2005)

administered this scale to 16,998 participants across 53 nations, and found that its scores

correlated with neuroticism, extraversion, and romantic attachment styles within nearly all

nations, providing additional support for cross-cultural equivalence of the scale.

There has been disagreement about the dimensionality of the self-esteem construct. One-

dimensional constructs are those that are expected to have a single underlying dimension.

Multidimensional constructs consist of two or more underlying dimensions. Some authors

conceptualized it as a unitary global trait, whereas others view it as a multidimensional trait with

independent subcomponents like performance self-esteem, social self-esteem, physical self-

esteem (Heatherton and Wyland, 2003). Self-esteem can refer to the overall self or to specific

aspects of the self, such as how people feel about their social standing, racial or ethnic group,

physical features, athletic skills, and job or school performance.

According to Barden (1969), self-esteem consists of two main components -

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A. To consider oneself effective, to trust in one’s ability to think, learn, choose and make

correct decisions, and to overcome challenges and produce changes, and

B. To respect oneself, the confidence in one’s right to be happy, and the confidence that

people are worthy of the respect, love and self-fulfillment appearing in their lives.

A different view is proposed by Reasoner (2005). He defined self-esteem as “the

experience of being capable of meeting life challenges and being worthy of happiness”.

According to him, self-esteem has two different dimensions - 1. Competence and 2. Worth.

A lot of research has tried to understand different correlates of the construct of self-

esteem. Self-esteem is influenced by various factors and can be correlated with many aspects of

an individual's life and well-being.

Self-esteem has been found to be correlated to performance in school and performance at

jobs. The correlation although does not imply causation. It is not necessary that high self-esteem

might lead to good job and school performance but high self-esteem could also be a result of

good job or school performance. Academic and occupational success might boost an individual’s

self-esteem.

Self-esteem has a strong relation to happiness. Although the research has not clearly

established causation, it is proposed that high self-esteem does lead to greater happiness. Low

self-esteem is more likely than high to lead to depression under some circumstances. (Baumeister

et al., 2003). Self-esteem has a positive effect on happiness (Dogan et al., 2013).

Self-esteem is also found to be correlated with body image. Body image and self-esteem

directly influence one another. When one has a healthy body image, they feel comfortable about
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their body and know how to care for it. If one has low self-esteem, it can drastically affect their

body image, making them dislike their bodies (O'Dea, 2012).

A study was undertaken to investigate the Self-esteem and academic achievement of

urban and rural adolescents and examine the gender differences in self-esteem and academic

achievement. The sample of this study consisted of 400 adolescents (200 urban 200 rural) from

Varanasi District. Boys and girls (aged 12 to 14) were equally distributed among the urban and

rural sample. The findings indicated that there were no significant differences with regard to self-

esteem of rural and urban adolescents. There were significant differences with regard to

academic achievement of rural and urban adolescents. Urban adolescents scored higher in

academic achievement than rural adolescents. Boys scored significantly higher on self-esteem as

compared to girls. Significant gender differences were found in academic achievement. Girls

were significantly higher on academic achievement as compared to boys. (Joshi & Srivastava,

2009). A study by Manhas, 2013 evaluated the self-esteem and quality of life of people living

with HIV/AIDS in the Indian population using a correlational design. Results indicated a

significant positive correlation between self-esteem and the different dimensions of quality of

life. Interventions designed for people with HIV/AIDS could well include self-esteem as a

moderator of quality of life.

A study was conducted among the young adults of age group 20-25 years residing I

between self-esteem and the different dimensions of quality of life. Interventions designed for

people with HIV/AIDS could well include self-esteem as a moderator of quality of life.

A study was conducted among the young adults of age group 20-25 years residing in

Raipur, Uttar Pradesh, India to understand the association between gender and self-esteem
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among the young adults a total of 203 respondents were selected out of which 110 were male

respondents and 93 were female respondents. A semi-structured questionnaire was prepared to

assess self-esteem and applied along with the Rosenberg self-esteem scale.

Results indicated that Self-esteem of the men was significantly higher than that of

women. Education of respondents, education of respondent's mother, family income, caste and

number of siblings were associated with self-esteem. Researchers concluded that jittitudes of

family members towards girl child should be changed to enhance gender neutrality atmosphere at

home and in the society as whole. Policy efforts must address sex specific needs to elaborate

further on the areas of gender inequalities. (Nupur & Mahapatro, 2016)

The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ), has been derived from the Oxford

Happiness Inventory, (OHI) developed by Argyle, Martin & Crossland in1989. They

conceptualize happiness as comprising three main psychological components which they define

as follows: the frequency and degree of positive affect or joy, the average level of satisfaction

over a period, and the absence of negative feelings, such as anxiety and depression. The OHI

comprises 29 items, each involving the selection of one of four options that are different for each

item. Although the Oxford Happiness Inventory had demonstrated good psychometric properties,

there remains one significant disadvantage with this instrument. Since each of the items has been

designed with four fixed-response options, the instrument requires quite a lengthy questionnaire.

In order to address this problem, Hills and Argyle (2002) proposed the development of the

Oxford Happiness Questionnaire, an instrument which retained the same 29 basic issues of the

parent instrument but re-expressed each issue in terms of the conventional Likert-type response

format. In their original formulation of the OHQ, Hills and Argyle proposed a six-point scale
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defined as strongly disagree, moderately disagree, slightly disagree, slightly agree, moderately

agree, and strongly agree. 12 of the 29 items are reverse coded employing the two instruments

side by side in the same study, Hills and Argyle reported a correlation of .80 between scores

recorded on the OHI and scores recorded on the OHQ.

The occurrence of the term happiness has been increasing in the psychological literature,

especially following the emergence of positive psychology (Seligman et al. 2005). Happiness is a

pluralistic term, because it is defined in different ways depending on the context in which it is

used and the type of professional group that introduces it into their terminology (e.g.,

psychologists, educators, or sociologists).

In general, happiness can be thought of as an emotional state that reflects a high level of

mental and/or emotional well-being. Current scientific perspectives typically frame happiness as

a complex binary construct that encompasses subjective elements of both affect and cognition

that contribute to wellbeing.

Psychological theories of happiness fall under three broad categories: need and goal

satisfaction theories, process and activity theories, and genetic and personality predisposition

theories.

1. in need and goal satisfaction theories, the reduction of tensions, removal of pain, and the

satisfaction of biological or psychological needs are directly related to an organism's

happiness.
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2. Whereas need satisfaction theoreticians believe that satisfaction of basic and higher-order

needs will lead to happiness, activity and process theorists posit that engaging in activities

under optimal conditions leads to a state of happiness or fulfillment.

Research has established that individual differences of various components of happiness

result mostly from: (a) genetic influences that sustain a level of well-being characteristic for a

specific person (i.e., the happiness set-point), (b) intentional activity (e.g., how an individual

regulates their positive emotions), and, to a lesser extent, (c) life events (e.g., marriage) and

circumstances (e.g., income (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). Life events can cause positive and

negative temporal (childbirth or widowhood, respectively) or lasting changes in well-being

(marriage or disability) (Anusic et al. 2014). Personality is the main determinant of well-being

due to its constant interaction with several.

Reliability refers to consistency in measurement. A reliability coefficient is an index of

reliability, a proportion that indicates the ratio between the true score variance on a test and the

total variance.

Cronbach's alpha, developed by Lee Cronbach in 1951, often denoted as α, is a statistical

measure used to assess the internal consistency or reliability of a scale or questionnaire. It

quantifies how closely related the items within the scale are to each other, providing a single

numerical value that indicates the extent to which the items consistently measure the same

underlying construct. Cronbach’s alpha takes into account the mean of all possible split-half

correlations, corrected by the Spearman–Brown formula. It is more appropriate to be used with

non-dichotomous items like likert scale items as opposed to the KR (20) which is the preferred

tool of statistics for dichotomous items. Unlike other estimates of reliability like the test-retest
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reliability, parallel forms reliability that require two test administrations, cronbach’s alpha

requires only one administration of the test. The coefficient alpha ranges from 0 to 1. A higher

Cronbach's alpha indicates greater reliability, suggesting that the items in the scale are more

consistently measuring the intended concept.

Validity is the estimate of how well a test measures what it purports to measure in a

particular context.

Criterion-related validity is a judgment of how adequately a test score can be used to

infer an individual’s most probable standing on some measure of interest—the measure of

interest being the criterion. Two types of validity evidence are subsumed under the heading

criterion- related validity - Concurrent Validity and Predictive Validity. Concurrent validity is an

index of the degree to which a test score is related to some criterion measure obtained at the

same time (concurrently). Predictive validity is an index of the degree to which a test score

predicts some criterion measure. While calculating criterion-related validity of a test, scores on

to-be-validated test are correlated with scores on a criterion. The criterion must have three

characteristics:

1. It must be valid

2. It must be relevant

3. It must be uncontaminated

If test scores are obtained at about the same time as the criterion measures are obtained,

measures of the relationship between the test scores and the criterion provide evidence of
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concurrent validity. Statements of concurrent validity indicate the extent to which test scores

may be used to estimate an individual’s present standing on a criterion of interest.

Problem:

1. To administer Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and calculate Cronbach’s Alpha

Reliability Coefficient

2. To administer Oxford Happiness Questionnaire and calculate concurrent validity of

Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale by correlating scores on Self-esteem Scale with those on Happiness

Questionnaire

Method:

• Sample: Individual Data:

Name of the Age Gender Class Emotional State

Test-taker

Agralekha 19 Female B.com Good

Kharat

Group data: Degree College Students (N= 30)

Materials:

1. Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and its manual

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2. Oxford Happiness Questionnaire and its manual

3. Stationery

4. Screen

Procedure:

All the required material was arranged and a test-taker was called in the laboratory. She is

asked to sit comfortably facing the screen and rapport was established. Both Rosenberg Self-

esteem Scale and Oxford Happiness Questionnaire measure personality traits. To know

accurately about oneself it is important on the part of the test taker to give honest answers. So

while building rapport, the importance of responding honestly was emphasized. This is done by

stating the following:

The test administrator says, “We all differ in the way we think, feel and act. All of us like

to know more about ourselves. Today, in this practical, you will come to know something about

yourself. For this purpose, I will administer two tests on you. Although I used the word ‘test’,

please understand that there are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers here because, as I mentioned

earlier, people differ in terms of how they think and feel and no way of thinking and feeling is

‘right’ or ‘wrong’. So, please respond to these tests honestly in terms of what IS TRUE in YOUR

case and not in terms of WHAT SHOULD BE TRUE. How accurately you come to know about

yourself depends on how honestly you respond to these tests. So, it is important to respond

truthfully. Please be assured that your responses will be kept confidential and only total scores

will be used for the purpose of further calculations”.

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Then the test administrator gives a copy of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and asks the

test-taker to fill in the demographic details on the Scale by saying, “Please take this Scale. Please

enter the details of your name, age, class and gender on it”. Test-administrator gives the test-

taker a pencil and ensures that she fills in the required details before giving further instructions.

The test-administrator then says, “This is a Scale which assesses how you feel about yourself. I

will be reading the instructions given on this paper. Listen carefully and you too read them in

your mind with me”. Test- administrator then reads the instructions given on the Rosenberg Self-

esteem Scale. He/she then asks, “Have you understood? Do you have any doubts? Please note

that there is no time limit for the test but I request you not to think too much about any one

statement. Also do not omit any item. Please begin”. Test-taker is, then, given time to finish

responding to the Self-esteem Scale. When she finishes responding the test-administrator makes

sure that she has responded to all the items, then the Scale is taken back and instructions for the

Oxford Happiness Questionnaire are given.

The test-administrator gives a copy of the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire to the test-

taker and says, “This is another test which assesses how you feel about yourself, others and life,

in general. Please fill in the details like your name, age, class and gender on this questionnaire

too before we begin. Test-administrator ensures that the test-taker fills in the required details

before giving further instructions. The test-administrator, then, says, “I will read the instructions

mentioned on this paper. Listen carefully and read them in your mind as I read”. The test-

administrator reads the instructions on the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire and then asks the

test-taker, “Have you understood? Do you have any questions? Like in the earlier test, please

respond honestly and do not omit any item. Please begin”. The test-taker is then given time to

respond to the Questionnaire. When she finishes, the test-administrator ensures that she has
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responded to all the items and the Questionnaire is taken back. The test-taker is then asked the

following PTQs:

Post-Task Questions:

1. How was your overall experience of taking these tests? It was fun.

2. What were your thoughts when you responded to the first test? It was good. I got you

think about myself.

3. What were your thoughts when you responded to the second test? It was good. I thought

a lot about it.

4. Was there any particular event/incident that had happened today or in the recent past

which influenced your responses to these test items today? If yes, what was the

prominent feeling you experienced as a result of that incident? No

Since the test-administrator had to score both the tests, find Z scores on both of them to

correctly interpret the test-taker's scores, he/she could not debrief the test-taker immediately. So,

she said, “Like you, these tests will be administered on some more female Degree College

students. I will have to pull scores of other test-takers to interpret your score meaningfully. So,

when all the scores are available and I am ready with interpretation, I will call you to tell you

what exactly the tests measured and what your scores indicate. Do you want to ask or share

anything more with regard to these tests or test-taking experience?” Test-taker did not have any

comments or doubts. So she was thanked for participation and was escorted out of the room.

The test-administrator then found out the test-taker's total scores on both the tests by

following instructions for scoring. She then filled in the data in relevant tables. When data of 30
 117

test-takers is available, the test-administrator finds out Z scores of one’s own test-taker on both

the tests. She also found out the reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) and validity (concurrent validity)

of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and the report about the same was written. When the scores and

their interpretation on Self Esteem Scale and Happiness Questionnaires was ready, test-taker was

called in a classroom and was given interpretation of their scores as follows:

Debriefing:

Test-administrator says, “Do you remember, on 27th Sep 2023 (date) I administered two

tests on you and I had mentioned that by taking them you will come to know something more

about yourself? Today I am going to tell you what those tests measured, what your score was and

what those scores mean”.

“Both the tests measured important aspects of your personality. Personality is an

individual’s typical way of thinking, feeling and acting. The first test that I gave you was the

Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. (The test-administrator shows the test-taker her answered scale).

Self-esteem is defined as an individual's global positive or negative attitude about oneself. In

simple words, it is how worthy an individual considers oneself. People with high self-esteem

have higher feelings of self-respect and self-confidence. They experience higher emotional well-

being and are highly motivated. Self-esteem plays an important role in one’s mental health.

Higher self-esteem helps people cope with life’s challenges. On the contrary, people with low

self-esteem are more prone to feeling low, sad and anxious, less confident.

“Your score on the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale was 36. This test was administered to

some more Degree College students. When data from 30 individuals were collected and
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analyzed, we found that the average score on this Self-esteem Scale was 109. Thus, your score

was higher than /lower than/close to average score. We calculated a standard score called Z score

to meaningfully compare your score with that of a group. It was found that the Z score for your

score on the Self-esteem Scale was 0.05. This Z score implies that it is similar to the average to

the age group (interpret the Z score with reference to Z score table and communicate the

interpretation)”. Developing and maintaining close, supportive interpersonal relationships,

setting goals and making attempts to achieve them, developing competencies, developing

rational beliefs about self, others, and life are some of the ways to raise self-esteem.

Analysis of Data:

Table 1: Total Scores on Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and Oxford Happiness Questionnaire

of 30 test-takers

Test Taker No. Total Score on Rosenberg Self- Total Score on Oxford Happiness

esteem Scale Questionnaire

1 20 96

2 34 138

3 36 109

4 35 122
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5 33 117

6 27 101

7 25 125

8 25 124

9 25 107

10 29 116

11 27 126

12 35 106

13 27 89

14 32 127

15 34 147

16 37 143

17 34 138
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18 25 115

19 28 99

20 27 130

21 29 119

22 24 102

23 36 112

24 31 85

25 29 110

26 29 160

27 31 149

28 28 120

29 26 98

30 34 117
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Total 892 3547

Mean 29.73333333 118.2333333

Variance 18.89195402 329.8402299

Standard 4.34648755 18.16150406

Deviation

Table 2: Calculation of Z score on Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and Oxford Happiness

Questionnaire.

Rosenberg Self- Oxford Happiness

esteem Scale Questionnaire

Test-taker’s total 892 3547

score on the test

Mean score on the test 29.9 118.23

SD of the total scores 4.346 18.161

on the test

Z Score Calculation 0.20 0.50

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Table 3: Scores of 30 test-takers on each item of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and their

variances

Scores on Item Numbers

Test

Taker No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 1 2 4 2 2 1 3 1 1 3

2 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 4

3 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 1 4 4

4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 4 2 4

5 3 2 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 3

6 2 2 1 2 4 4 2 4 4 2

7 2 4 3 3 3 4 1 3 4 3

8 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 2

9 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 1 2 3

10 1 3 3 4 3 2 4 1 4 4
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11 3 2 4 1 2 2 4 3 2 4

12 3 4 4 4 3 5 3 4 2 3

13 3 1 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 2

14 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 4

15 3 2 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 4

16 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 3 4

17 4 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 4 3

18 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 2 3 3

19 2 2 4 4 3 2 3 1 4 3

20 3 2 4 2 1 2 3 3 3 4

21 3 3 4 2 3 2 4 2 3 3

22 4 2 1 3 3 1 1 2 3 4

23 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 4

24 2 3 3 3 2 4 2 4 4 4
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25 3 4 1 3 3 4 3 4 3 1

26 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 1 1 4

27 3 2 4 4 3 3 4 2 3 3

28 4 2 3 4 3 2 3 1 3 3

29 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3

30 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 3 3

Total 88 84 96 90 88 89 92 78 94 98

Mean 2.933 2.8 3.2 3 2.933 2.966 3.066 2.6 3.133 3.266

Variance

on each 0.89195 0.855 0.924 0.551 0.6850 1.0678 0.7540 1.2827 0.8091 0.6160

item

Total of variances on each item ( Σσ2i )

= Σσ21 + Σσ22 + Σσ23 + Σσ24 + Σσ25 + Σσ26 + Σσ27 + Σσ28 + Σσ29 + Σσ210

= 0.89195 + 0.855 + 0.924 + 0.551 + 0.6850 + 1.0678 + 0.7540 + 1.2827 + 0.8091 +

0.6160

= 8.4379
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Therefore, Σσ2i = 8.4379

Cronbach’s Alpha (α) =

𝑘 𝛴𝜎2𝑖
[ ] [1 − ]
𝑘−1 𝜎𝑡2

where,

𝘬 = number of items in Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (10)

Σσi2 = Total of variances of scores on each item of Self-esteem Scale

Σσ𝒕2= Variance of total scores on Self-esteem Scale on 30 Test-takers

Therefore, Cronbach’s Alpha =

10 8.4379
=[ ] [1 − ]
10 − 1 18.891

= 0.62

Therefore, Internal Consistency Reliability of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale is 0.62.

Table 4: Correlation between scores on Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and Oxford Happiness

Questionnaire

Test Taker Total Score on Total Score on X2 Y2 XY

No. Rosenberg Self- Oxford Happiness

esteem Scale (X) Questionnaire (Y)

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1 20 96 400 9216 1920

2 34 138 1156 19044 4692

3 36 109 1296 11881 3924

4 35 122 1225 14884 4270

5 33 117 1089 13689 3861

6 27 101 729 10201 2727

7 25 125 900 15625 3125

8 25 124 576 15376 3100

9 25 107 625 11449 2675

10 29 116 841 13456 3364

11 27 126 729 15876 3402

12 35 106 1225 11236 3710

13 27 89 676 7921 2403

14 32 127 1089 16129 4064

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15 34 147 1156 21609 4998

16 37 143 1369 20449 5291

17 34 138 1156 19044 4692

18 25 115 625 13225 2875

19 28 99 784 9801 2772

20 27 130 729 16900 3510

21 29 119 841 14161 3451

22 24 102 576 10404 2448

23 36 112 1296 12544 4032

24 31 85 961 7225 2635

25 29 110 841 12100 3190

26 29 160 841 25600 4640

27 31 149 961 22201 4619

28 28 120 784 14400 3360

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29 26 98 676 9604 2548

30 34 117 1225 13689 3978

Total 892 3547 27377 428939 106276

Pearson r Calculation:

𝑁 ( 𝛴𝑋𝑌) − (𝛴𝑋)(𝛴𝑌)
𝑟 =
√[𝑁. 𝛴𝑋2 − (𝛴𝑋)2] [ 𝑁. 𝛴𝑌2 − (𝛴𝑌)2 ]

30 (106276) − (892)(3547)
𝑟=
√[30 (27377) − (892)2] [ 30 (428939) − (3547)2 ]

𝑟 = 0.35

r (28) = 0.35, p = 0.04

As seen in Table 4, the Pearson correlation between scores on Rosenberg Self- esteem

scale and Oxford Happiness Questionnaire is found to be 0.35. The calculated Pearson’s

correlation coefficient is greater than the critical value from the table thus, this value is found to

be statistically significant (p< 0.05), indicating a small positive correlation. In other words,

statistical analysis implies that as self-esteem increases, happiness will also increase. As a result,

the concept of concurrent validity was formed.

Analysis of Data (Individual and Group)

Results and Discussion:

Individual Data Discussion:

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Oxford Happiness Questionnaire on 30 participants. Psychological testing was conducted

to administer Rosenberg Self- esteem Scale and With reference to Table 2; Calculations of Z

scores on Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and Oxford Happiness Questionnaire. It was noted that

the score of the test-taker on the Self-esteem scale was 30. The average score for all the 30

participants was calculated to be 36 with the standard deviation being 4.34648755'. As compared

to the mean (28), the test-taker's score (30) was higher than the average.

The Z score of the participant on the Rosenberg Self-esteem scale was '1.39'. Upon

referring to the Z scores table, it was found that the test-takers self-esteem score lies between the

mean and the 1st deviation on a normal distribution curve towards the right side of the curve

showing that her score was lower than the mean. The value obtained upon the interpretation of

the Z score 1.39' by referring to the Z scores table was 0.50. This indicates that 70% of the

population lies below the test taker.

It was implied that the test taker has a lower level of self-esteem than the average of

participants' scores that were calculated. During PTQs, the participant agreed with the results and

that their recent past experiences might have had an influence.

With reference to Table 2; Calculations of Z scores on Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and

Oxford Happiness Questionnaire. It was noted that the score of the test-taker on the Oxford

Happiness Questionnaire was 109'. The average score calculated for 30 participants was found to

be 109 and the standard deviation was found to be 4.381. As compared to the mean (118.23), the

test-taker's score (109) on the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire was lower than the average.
 130

The Z score of the test taker on the Happiness Questionnaire was calculated and found to

be 1.39'. After referring to the table of Z scores, it was found that the test-taker's standardized

score lies between the mean and the 1st deviation on a normal distribution curve towards the left

side of the curve indicating that their score was lower than the mean. The value obtained upon

the interpretation of the Z score 1.16 by referring to the Z scores table was 0.20. This indicated

that 58% of the population lies below the test taker.

The participant described their overall experience of taking these tests as enjoyable.

Reflecting on the first test, the participant thought it was a positive experience, providing them

with valuable insights into self-reflection. In response to the second test, the participant also

found it to be beneficial, dedicating a substantial amount of time to thoughtful contemplation.

The participant indicated that there was no particular event or incident today or in the recent past

that significantly influenced their responses to these test items.

Group Data Discussion:

With reference to Table 1; the Total Scores on the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and

Oxford Happiness Questionnaire of the 30 test-takers. With reference to this table we shall look

upon the total mean, variances and SDs with respect to both the tests. The mean for the 30 test

takers on the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSS) was 28 whereas the mean for the same 30 test

takers on the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) was 118.23. The Variances for the 30 test

takers on the RSS scale was 19.19 and the variance for the same on the OHQ was 329.840.

The SD were as follows for the RSS scale was 4.381 and 18.161 for the OHQ

respectively. Rosenberg (1965) designed the RSE as a one-dimensional measure of global self-
 131

worth with high face validity and the ability to be administered in 2 to 3 minutes. Hence, to find

out internal consistency reliability of the Self-esteem Scale, Cronbach's Alpha index was

calculated.

Hence, the total of variances (RSS) on each item was calculated and found to be 19.19.

Thus, Cronbach's Alpha index was calculated and was found to be 0.62.

Since this test was conducted in large numbers, there might have been a chance that the

commotion in the classroom would have hampered the results, due to various issues it creates

disturbances in conduction. The other source of error could be the attention span and

concentration of the participants. Since they were asked to fill a questionnaire which was quite

long, the same might have hampered their attention and resulted in affecting their results. Along

with these points, the emotional state of the participants plays a huge role.

With reference to Table 4; the correlation between scores on Rosenberg Self-esteem

Scale and Oxford Happiness Questionnaire. It was noted that Pearson r correlation is 0.35. This

value was found to be statistically significant as r (28) = 0.04, p < 0.05, which means that the

value is significant. This further means that if this test is conducted 100 times, only 5 times the

results are due the chance factor. Since the Pearson r value is significant, it can be concluded that

the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale has concurrent validity.

The significant correlation suggests that there is an actual relationship between the two

variables, self-esteem and happiness so we can use the happiness questionnaire OHQ Thus we

establish the concurrent validity.

Conclusion:
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Internal consistency reliability estimate (Cronbach’s Alpha index) was found to be 0.62.

It indicates moderate reliability.

Pearson r correlation coefficient between scores on Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and

Oxford Happiness Questionnaire was found to be 0.35. It was found to be positive statistically

significant. This indicates about validity of Rosenberg’s Self- esteem Scale. This establishes the

concurrent validity of the questionnaires.

References:

Argyle, M., Martin, M., & Crossland, J. (1989). Happiness as a function of personality

and social encounters. In J. P. Forgas & J. M. Innes (Eds.), Recent advances in social

psychology: An international perspective (pp. 189–203). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

Baumeister, R.F., Campbell, J.D., Krueger, J.I. & Vohs, K.D. (2003). Does High Self-

esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness or Healthier Lifestyles?

Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1-44

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1529-1006.01431

Branden, N. (1969). The Psychology of Self-Esteem. New York: Bantam.

Dhillon, M., Dhawan, P., Ahuja, K., Kalyani, A., & Papneja, D. (2016). Factors

Influencing Self-esteem of Indian Female Adolescents. Journal of Humanities and Social

Sciences (IOSR-JHSS), 21(7), 56-63

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Dogan, T., Totan, T. & Sapmaz, F. (2013). The Role of Self-esteem, Psychological Well-

being, Emotional Self-efficacy And Affect Balance on Happiness: A Path Model. European

Scientific Journal, 9(20), 31-42

Heatherton, T. F., & Wyland, C. L. (2003). Assessing self-esteem. In S. J. Lopez & C. R.

Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp.

219–233). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10612-014

Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (2002). The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: A compact scale

for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(7),

1071–1082. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869 (01)00213-6

O'Dea, J. A. (2012). Body image and self-esteem. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

body image and human appearance (pp. 141–147). Elsevier Academic Press.

Reasoner, R. (2005). The true meaning of self-esteem. Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving

the self. New York: Basic Books.

Schmitt, D. P., & Allik, J. (2005). Simultaneous Administration of the Rosenberg Self-

Esteem Scale in 53 Nations: Exploring the Universal and Culture-Specific Features of Global

Self-Esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4), 623–642.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.623

Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kelsey, R. M., & Leitten, C. L. (1993). Subjective,

physiological, and behavioral effects of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology, 65(2), 248–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.248

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Appendix A

Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale

(While giving the Scale to the test-taker the name of the Scale should be mentioned

as ‘RSS’ to avoid biased responses)

RSS

Name of the test-taker: _____________________________________________________

Age: ___________________Class:____________ Gender: ______________

Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. Please

read each statement carefully and indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each

statement using the rating scale ranging from 1 to 4, where

1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree

3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree

Please encircle ( ) the number in front of each statement which indicates your extent of

agreement or disagreement with it. Please respond honestly based on WHAT IS TRUE in YOUR

case. Please do not omit any item.

No Statement Ratings

1 On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 1 2 3 4

2 At times, I think I am no good at all. 1 2 3 4

3 I feel that I have a number of good qualities 1 2 3 4

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4 I am able to do things as well as most other 1 2 3 4

people

5 I feel I do not have much to be proud of 1 2 3 4

6 I certainly feel useless at times 1 2 3 4

7 I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least equal to 1 2 3 4

others

8 I wish I could have more respect for myself 1 2 3 4

9 All in all, I am inclined to feel that I'm a failure 1 2 3 4

10 I take a positive attitude toward myself 1 2 3 4

Scoring:

Items 2, 5, 6, 8 and 9 are reverse coded. (I.e. if the test-taker has chosen the rating of 1, it

is to be scored as 4 and vice-versa and if the test-taker has chosen the rating of 2, it is to be

scored as 3 and vice-versa). For the rest of the items, consider the rating chosen by the test-taker

as her score on that item. Total score is found out by adding the scores on each item. Higher

scores indicate higher level of Self-esteem.

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Appendix B

Oxford Happiness Questionnaire

OHQ

Name of the test-taker: _____________________________________________________

Age: ___________________Class:____________ Gender: ______________

Below are a number of statements about happiness. Please indicate how much you agree

or disagree with each by encircling a number mentioned in front of each statement. Use the

following scale to mark your response

1 = strongly disagree 2 = moderately disagree 3 = slightly

disagree

4 = slightly agree 5 = moderately agree 6 = strongly agree

Please read the statements carefully, some of the questions are phrased positively and

others negatively. Don’t take too long over individual questions; there are no “right” or “wrong”

answers (and no trick questions). The first answer that comes into your head is probably the right

one for you. If you find some of the questions difficult, please give the answer that is true for you

in general or for most of the time.

Sr no Statement Ratings
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1 I don’t feel particularly pleased 1 2 3 4 5 6

with the way I am.

2 I am intensely interested in other 1 2 3 4 5 6

people.

3 I feel that life is very rewarding. 1 2 3 4 5 6

4 I have very warm feelings towards 1 2 3 4 5 6

almost everyone.

5 I rarely wake up feeling rested. 1 2 3 4 5 6

6 I am not particularly optimistic 1 2 3 4 5 6

about the future.

7 I find most things amusing. 1 2 3 4 5 6

8 I am always committed and 1 2 3 4 5 6

involved.

9 Life is good. 1 2 3 4 5 6

10 I do not think that the world is a 1 2 3 4 5 6

good place.

11 I laugh a lot. 1 2 3 4 5 6

12 I am well satisfied about 1 2 3 4 5 6

everything in my life.

13 I don’t think I look attractive. 1 2 3 4 5 6

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14 There is a gap between what I 1 2 3 4 5 6

would like to do and what I have

done.

15 I am very happy. 1 2 3 4 5 6

16 I find beauty in some things. 1 2 3 4 5 6

17 I always have a cheerful effect on 1 2 3 4 5 6

others.

18 I can fit in (find time for) 1 2 3 4 5 6

everything I want to.

19 I feel that I am not especially in 1 2 3 4 5 6

control of my life.

20 I feel able to take anything on. 1 2 3 4 5 6

21 I feel fully mentally alert. 1 2 3 4 5 6

22 I often experience joy and elation. 1 2 3 4 5 6

23 I don’t find it easy to make 1 2 3 4 5 6

decisions.

24 I don’t have a particular sense of 1 2 3 4 5 6

meaning and purpose in my life.

25 I feel I have a great deal of energy. 1 2 3 4 5 6

26 I usually have a good influence on 1 2 3 4 5 6

events.
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27 I don’t have fun with other people. 1 2 3 4 5 6

28 I don’t feel particularly healthy. 1 2 3 4 5 6

29 I don’t have particularly happy 1 2 3 4 5 6

memories of the past.

Scoring:

Items 1,5,6,10,13,14,19,23,24,27,28,29 should be reverse coded (i.e. if the test-taker has

chosen the rating of 1, then it should be scored as 6 and vice-versa; if she has chosen the rating

of 2, then it should be scored as 5 and vice-versa; and if she has chosen the rating of 3 it should

be scored as 4 and vice-versa). Total score is obtained by adding the scores on individual items.

Higher scores indicate higher level of happiness.