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Article history: Heat waves are prolonged periods of excessive ambient temperature that may last up to several weeks. In
Received 27 June 2015 addition to posing health threats to the society, these events may easily push the power grid towards its
Received in revised form 6 September 2015 operational limits. The maximum capacity of many energy resources gets negatively affected by excess
Accepted 9 September 2015
temperatures. This can be in addition to the expected loss of life due to operation under harsh conditions.
Available online 29 September 2015
Overhead lines, on the other hand, experience excessive conductor surface temperatures that can dras-
tically reduce their power transmission capacity. To make matters worse, the reduction in generation
Keywords:
and/or transmission capacity will coincide with a rise in electric demand, often attributed to the overuti-
Distributed energy resources
Energy management
lization of air-conditioning systems. This can jeopardize the ability of the power grid to maintain system
Extreme weather event stability. A key to ensuring that the grid continues operating safely and securely is to incorporate the effect
Heat wave of temperature into its operation schedule. In this paper, we propose an optimal generation dispatch strat-
Natural disaster egy for a distribution grid exposed to a heat wave event, while taking into account the dependence of
operational constraints of various components on ambient temperature. We study a power grid equipped
with renewable and non-renewable distributed generation, battery energy storage, and demand respon-
sive loads. We evaluate the effectiveness of our proposed approach on a test system with data acquired
from the heat wave event of July 2006 in Sacramento, CA.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2015.09.010
0378-7796/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Choobineh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 130 (2016) 230–240 231
Nomenclature
Ptsub,max maximum allowable power passing through the
A. Indices transformer at the distribution substation at time
b index used for branches (lines) period t (kW)
i index used for distributed generation (DG) units; W
Pi,t output power of wind turbine i during time period
may be used for a solar panel, a wind turbine, or t (kW)
a traditional dispatchable DG unit SHGC solar heat gain coefficient
j index used for demand responsive (DR) loads SOCkB,max maximum limit of battery k state-of-charge (SOC);
k index used for battery energy storage systems battery is not allowed to be charged to higher than
m index used for the buses (nodes) in the network. this level
Node m may indicate node i with DG, node k with SOCkB,min minimum limit of battery k SOC; battery is not
battery, node j with DR load, or node q with non-DR allowed to be discharged to lower than this level
load. Hence, indices i, j, k and q may all be viewed as Tta ambient temperature during time period t (◦ C);
sub-indices for this index assumed to be the same for all components in the
q index used for non-controllable loads (i.e. non- power grid
demand responsive) TR PV reference temperature (◦ C)
t index used for time tTD time period during which battery works at temper-
ature T (months); assumed to be the same for all
B. Parameters battery systems
Ai area swept by the rotor of wind turbine i (m2 ) vi,t wind speed at wind turbine i during time period t
Bm mth row of the network susceptance matrix (m/s)
CP Albert Betz constant ˇjDR , jDR cost function coefficients for DR load j ($/kW and
ckB price of using battery k over its lifetime; this
$/kW2 )
value can be determined based on the total cost
␦k self-discharge rate for battery k
of purchasing and maintaining the battery and the B,max
Pk,T maximum power correction factor for battery k due
maximum amount of ampere hours (A h) it can
provide over its lifetime ($) to ambient temperature Tta (%)
DG,max
ctsub price of power purchased from the grid at time Pi,T maximum power correction factor for DG i due to
period t ($/kW) ambient temperature Tta (%)
fuel Line,max
ci price of fuel for generation unit i ($/m3 , $/l, $/kg) Pb,T maximum capacity correction factor for line b due
fuel
Hi net thermal value of the fuel (kW h/m3 , kW h/l, to ambient temperature Ta t (%)
kW h/kg) ˚i,t incident solar irradiance at PV panel i during time
kPV PV temperature coefficient of power (◦ C−1 ) period t (W/m2 )
KT temperature correction factor for the lifetime of a ˚STC solar irradiance at STC (W/m2 )
battery at temperature Tta B,c
k
charging efficiency of battery k (%)
LFk nominal battery lifetime for battery k (months) B,d
k
discharging efficiency of battery k (%)
NB number of batteries DG generation efficiency for DG unit i (%)
i
NDG number of DG units
W wind turbine efficiency (%)
NDR number of DR loads
a air density (kg/m3 )
NL number of loads
NT number of operation time steps
C. Variables
PkB,Total total capacity that battery k can deliver over its life- B
Ck,t operation cost of battery k during time period t ($)
time (kW h) DG
PkB,max maximum allowable power level for battery k (kW) Ci,.t operation cost of DG unit i during time period t ($)
DR
Cj,t cost of DR load j at time t ($); DR is modeled as
PkB,min minimum allowable power level for battery k (kW)
negative demand
PiDG,max maximum allowable power generation level for DG
CLFk,T corrected lifetime for battery k due to ambient tem-
unit i (kW)
perature Tta (months)
PiDG,min minimum allowable power generation level for DG
Pm,t injected active power to the network at node m dur-
unit i (kW); it is assumed not to be cost effective for
ing time period t (kW)
the DG to generate power below this level B,c
Pk,t amount of charging power provided to battery k
PjDR,max maximum allowable power reduction level for DR
during time period t (kW)
load j (kW) B,d
Pk,t amount of power discharge provided by battery k
PjDR,min minimum allowable power reduction level for DR
during time period t (kW)
load j (kW); it is assumed not to be cost effective for DG
Pi,t active power provided by DG unit i during time
the DR load to provide demand reduction below this
period t (kW); DG may be a wind resource (denoted
level
L as W) or a solar resource (denoted as PV)
Pm,t active demand for the load connected to bus m dur- DR
Pj,t active power of DR load j during time period t (kW)
ing time period t (kW)
Line
PbLine,max maximum allowable power flow through line b Pb,t active power flowing thorough line b at time t (kW)
(kW); also known as line rating or line ampacity Ptsub power injected to the grid from the distribution sub-
PV
Pi,t power output of PV panel i during time period t (kW) station at time period t (kW)
B
PiPV,STC power provided by PV panel i under standard test SOCk,t state of charge of battery k during time period
condition (STC) (kW) t (%)
232 M. Choobineh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 130 (2016) 230–240
Fig. 1. Typical behavior of a synchronous generator, a battery system, a PV panel and an overhead conductor as the temperature rises. Components from various manufacturers
may show slight differences in numeric values but the patterns of behavior generally remain the same. The discrete data for the overhead line, the generator and the battery
have been taken from [10,13,19], respectively. Curve fitting has been carried out using the curve fitting toolbox in MATLAB.
2.2. Non-dispatchable DG units has been derived here by curve fitting using the data provided in
[19] for a vented lead-acid battery with 1.215 specific gravity cells.
Two types of non-dispatchable DG units have been considered Again, it should be noted that this particular battery is chosen for
in this paper: wind power and solar power. The output power of proof-of-concept only, and the choice of battery does not alter the
wind energy conversion system can be determined as a function nature of the proposed methodology.
of the wind speed and the swept area of the turbine rotor, among
B,max
2
other things [26]: Pk,T = −0.016 · Tta + 1.97 · Tta + 60.75 (6)
W
Pi,t = 0.5W C P a Ai v3i,t (3) When it comes to modeling the operational cost of a BESS, sev-
eral approaches have been proposed in the literature. Because the
The output power of a PV generator i at time t can be modeled
lifetime of a battery depends on the total ampere hour (A h) it pro-
based on the generation level under standard test condition (STC)
vides, its cost function is modeled here based on its working A h
[27]. The effect of ambient temperature is included in the relation:
[29,30]. This way, we assume a cost associated with the battery
˚i,t if it is being discharged. This cost is normalized based on the total
PV
Pi,t = PiPV,STC 1 + kPV · Tta − T R (4)
˚STC energy that the battery can deliver over its entire lifetime. However,
this total energy must be corrected based on ambient temperature
2.3. Battery energy storage system (BESS) [19]:
B,d
The capacity of battery k at time t can be determined based Pk,t
on its capacity at the previous time step, and the consideration of
B
Ck,t = ckB
B,Total
(7)
Pk CLFk,T /LFk
whether or not it has been charged or discharged during the current
time period. Therefore, the battery state of charge (SOC) is modeled where CLF is defined as follows:
according to the following equation [25,29]:
LFk
B,c
Pk,t B,c
k B,d
Pk,t CLFk,T = (8)
B
SOCk,t = 1 − ık B
· SOCk,t−1 + uB,c
k,t
· − uB,d
k,t
· (5) Tk,t
tTD /KT
PkB,max B,d
k
PkB,max
The battery capacity under various ambient temperatures can be KT is the temperature correction factor for battery lifetime which
expressed based on its nominal capacity (i.e., 100% capacity avail- has been described in IEEE 450 [19]. The extrapolated function indi-
able at 25 ◦ C). The ratio of the available capacity of the battery in (6) cates that this factor follows an exponential behavior that can be
234 M. Choobineh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 130 (2016) 230–240
(12)
The first term in (12) indicates the cost of power purchased from
the electric utility. The second and third terms denote the opera-
Fig. 2. Temperature correction factor for battery lifetime. tional costs of dispatching the DG units and the BESS, while the
fourth term indicates the costs associated with utilizing DR loads.
The objective function in (12) would be solved subject to the fol-
expressed as in (9) (see Fig. 2). This is expected, since KT is based
lowing constraints:
on the Arrhenius equation.
∀m, ∀t : Pm,t = Bm ım,t (13)
KT = 762.26 · exp −0.082 · Tta (9)
∀i, ∀t : Pi,t = Pi,t
DG L
− Pi,t (14)
2.4. Conductor ampacity
∀k, ∀t : Pk,t = uB,d P B,d − uB,c
k,t k,t
P B,c − Pk,t
k,t k,t
L
(15)
For safe operation, the surface temperature of an overhead
conductor must always be below a specific manufacturer- ∀j, ∀t : Pj,t = vDR P DR − Pj,t
j,t j,t
L
(16)
recommended threshold. Exceeding this threshold could lead to
thermal stresses on the conductor, and potential loss of tensile ∀q, ∀t : Pq,t = −Pq,t
L
(17)
strength and annealing. Since the current flow through a con-
∀t : Ptsub ≤ Ptsub,max (18)
ductor increases its surface temperature (due to Joule’s effect),
the available capacity of the conductor is determined by the con- ∀i, ∀t : PiDG,min ≤ DG
Pi,t ≤ PiDG,max DG,max
· Pi,T (19)
ductor’s maximum allowable surface temperature [10]. This calls
for calculating the dynamic thermal rating (DTR) of a conductor ∀j, ∀t : PjDR,min vDR
j,t
DR
≤ Pj,t ≤ PjDR,max vDR
j,t
(20)
under temperature or loading variations. IEEE 738-1993 proposed
a first order differential equation for calculating the DTR of a bare- ∀k, ∀t : SOCB,min
k
≤ SOCBk,t ≤ SOCB,max
k
(21)
conductor overhead line [32]. This equation balances the heat
produced by the Joule’s effect in conductor’s resistance as well ∀k, ∀t : PkB,min uB,d
k,t
B,d
≤ Pk,t ≤ PkB,max uB,d
k,t
B,max
· Pk,T (22)
as the heat gained from solar irradiance with the heat dissipated
through convection and radiation. Based on this model, the follow- ∀k, ∀t : uB,c
k,t
+ uB,d
k,t
≤1 (23)
ing extrapolated function can be approximated for an aluminum
conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) overhead line with the specifi- ∀b, ∀t : |Pb,t
Line
| ≤ PbLine,max · Pi,T
Line,max
(24)
cations provided in [10]:
Constraint (13) indicates the requirement that generation and
Line,max
Pb,T = −0.768 · Tta + 119.45 (10) demand have to be balanced at all times. This is critical for ensuring
frequency stability in the system. Constraints (14)–(17) represent
2.5. Demand responsive (DR) loads active power balance equations at each node, i.e. the total power
injected into each node equals the total power consumed at that
When the balance between available generation and total node. Substation node is not included here because it is assumed
demand is jeopardized, DR loads may be requested by the utility that no load is directly connected to the distribution substation.
to curtail their consumption level by a certain amount. In return, Demand response has been modeled as virtual generation on the
the customers who comply with this request will receive financial right hand side of (16). Eq. (18) shows the upper limit for the power
incentives [33]. This resource can therefore be modeled as a virtual imported through the substation transformer. Eqs. (19) and (20)
generation resource with a quadratic cost function [34] as shown represent the lower and upper limits for capacity available through
in the following equation: DG and DR, respectively. It can be seen that the maximum power
DR
2 available from DG may be corrected due to temperature variations.
Cj,t = ˇjDR Pj,t
DR
+ jDR Pj,t
DR
(11) Eqs. (21)–(23) demonstrate the operational constraints of the bat-
tery. Eq. (23) indicates that during each time step, a BESS can be
2.6. Problem formulation either in charging mode or discharging mode, but not both. Finally,
Eq. (24) indicates that the power flowing through each line should
The objective here is to minimize the total operational cost of the be limited by its thermal rating.
network, while ensuring the balance between demand and avail- It should be pointed out that this model considers a DC power
able generation is maintained. It should be emphasized that our flow model where active power is taken into account and reactive
M. Choobineh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 130 (2016) 230–240 235
Table 1
Difference between new and existing homes.
New Existing
Table 2
Difference between detached, attached and apartment homes.
Fig. 4. Cooling electric consumption for new and existing detached home, townhouse and apartments alongside the outdoor air temperature for week of July 19–27, 2006.
4. Simulation results that this approach has been used for proof-of-concept and demon-
stration purposes only and does not affect the generality of the
In order to evaluate the proposed temperature-dependent proposed solution.
dispatch model, two case studies are conducted which solve In our simulations, the actual solar irradiance and wind speed
the problem of active power dispatch (minimize (12) subject data have been used for the time period and geographical loca-
to constraints (13)–(24)) with and without the effect of ambi- tion under study [37,38]. The following parameters have been used
ent temperature. To determine the dispatch without the effect for each PV panel: PPV,STC = 200 W, ˚STC = 1000 W/m2 , kPV = 0.004
of temperature, ambient temperature has been set at 25 ◦ C. (◦ C−1 ), and TR = 25 ◦ C. It is assumed that all PV panels operate in
This value provides the nominal ratings for all components. The the MPPT mode. Wind turbine parameters have also been cho-
problem has been solved using LINDOGLOBAL solver in GAMS sen according to [39] which are as follows: W = 40%, Cp = 0.593,
software. a = 1.225 kg/m3 , A = 353 m2 , and cut-in and cut-out wind speed:
2.7 m/s and 25 m/s. Figs. 6 and 7 illustrate the total PV and wind
power projections with and without temperature consideration
4.1. Case study over a 3-day time period between July 22–24, 2006. Total PV out-
put differs by about 10% when actual outdoor temperatures are
The case study presented here is related to the period of exces- evaluated, while wind power shows no dependency on outdoor air
sive temperatures in July 19–27, 2006 in the city of Sacramento, CA. temperature.
Whenever possible, actual data corresponding to this time period
have been used. In the absence of actual data on the distribution
network of the city of Sacramento, the IEEE 33-bus test distri-
bution system [36] has been used for proof-of-concept purposes
(see Fig. 5). The locations of the nodes are heuristically determined
based on their respective average demand and the population den-
sity map of the city. Then, housing types (buildings, townhouses,
and single family residences) are heuristically assigned based on
proximity to the downtown area or the suburbs, as well as the pop-
ulation density. Finally, data on the median household income is
consulted to heuristically assign ratios of old houses versus new
ones, i.e. it has been assumed that the ratio of new to old houses
increases as the median household income increases. For example,
in [36], bus 24 has the joint second highest demand. Hence, it is
assigned to the location shown in Fig. 5, which is one of the areas
with the highest population density in the city of Sacramento. Since
the area is located between the downtown area and the suburbs
(closer to the former), it is heuristically assumed that it consists of
mostly townhouses (50%), compared to apartments and single fam-
ily houses (20% and 30%, respectively). Also, the bus is associated
with an area in the city with a relatively high median household
income of $80,000; therefore, the ratio of new constructions to the Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the system under study. Background image is extracted
old ones is considered to be around 80%. It should be emphasized from Google maps.
M. Choobineh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 130 (2016) 230–240 237
Fig. 8. Amount of power purchased from the grid with and without temperature
effect consideration.
Fig. 9. Total dispatchable DG power generation with and without temperature effect
Fig. 7. Total wind power generation. consideration.
238 M. Choobineh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 130 (2016) 230–240
4.3. Discussion
Table 3
Cost comparison between the two scenarios.
Fig. 13. Power flows through four lines connected to DG units, with and without temperature effect consideration. Dashed and solid lines indicate with and without
temperature considerations, respectively.
solution away from the more relaxed (no temperature) problem. 5. Concluding remarks
However, during the course of a natural disaster such as a heat
wave, operational cost is usually of secondary importance. Instead, An operation dispatch strategy was proposed in this paper for
care must be taken to ensure the balance between load and gener- energy management of a power distribution system exposed to
ation is maintained. a heat wave event. Whenever applicable, the components were
If an operator chooses to ignore the temperature effects, the grid modeled by considering the effect of excess temperatures on their
may become exposed to severe risks. First and foremost, ignoring operational constraints. It was shown that ignoring the effect of
the “real-time” capacity of generators and running them closer to temperatures can lead to significant overestimation of available
or above this limit could potentially lead to severe loss of life, or resources, both generation and transmission. This can jeopardize
in more serious cases, failure of the component. More importantly, the security and reliability of the system.
ignoring the available capacity of the overhead lines can cause one
or more to become overloaded. This is expected since the system Acknowledgements
may experience heavy loading conditions due to excessive usage of
A/C units. Overloading a line, especially over prolonged periods of Financial support by Colorado School of Mines (CSM) is greatly
time, leads to increased conductor sag which could in turn result appreciated for the completion of this work. CSM was not involved
in flashover and loss of service. in the technical aspects of the work.
Finally, our analysis showed the invaluable role that DR loads
can play under such conditions. Without the need for major capital Appendix A.
investment and with capability to deploy fast, these resources can
help the utilities compensate for their inadequacy of supply. Tables A1–A4
Table A1
Locations and characteristics of DG units.
DG type Bus number PiDG,min (kW) PiDG,max (kW) Hi (kW h/fuel unit) Fuel cost ($/fuel unit) DG
i
Table A2
Locations and characteristics of batteries.
Bus number PkB,min (kW) PkB,max (kW) Min. SOC Max. SOC B,c
k
, B,d
k
␦k ckB ($)