IGCSE Chemistry Revision

Reversible re ctions nd equilibrium

By Thitheeksh
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Syllabus for exams in 2023,2024 & 2025
 Reversible Reactions
Reversible re ction: chemic l re ction th t c n go either forw rds or b ckw rds
depending on the conditions

• In these reactions, the products can interact to reverse the reaction.

• One industrially important example of this is the reaction between nitrogen and
hydrogen to produce ammonia:
• N2(g)+3H2(g)⇌NH3(g)

• The double arrow (⇌) indicates that the reaction is reversible; in the forward
reaction, nitrogen and hydrogen combine to form ammonia. In the reverse
reaction, ammonia decomposes back into nitrogen and hydrogen.
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 Reversible hydration of salts
• Hydrated salts are salts that contain water of crystallisation which affects their molecular shape and colour
• Water of crystallisation is the water that is stoichiometrically included in the structure of some salts during the
crystallisation process
• A common example is copper(II) sulfate which crystallises forming the salt copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate,
• CuSO4.5H2O
• Water of crystallization is indicated with a dot written in between the salt molecule and the surrounding water
molecules
• Anhydrous salts are those that have lost their water of crystallisation, usually by heating, in which the salt becomes
dehydrated

Dehydration of hydrated cobalt(II) chloride:

hydrated cobalt(II) chloride ⇌ anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride + water
 Reversible hydration of salts
Hydration of cobalt(II) chloride
• When anhydrous blue cobalt(II) chloride crystals are added to water they turn pink and the reaction
is reversible
• When the cobalt(II) chloride crystals are heated in a test tube, the pink crystals turn back to the blue
colour again as the water of crystallisation is lost
• The form of cobalt(II) chloride in the crystals that are pink is known as hydrated cobalt(II) chloride
because it contains water of crystallisation
• When hydrated cobalt(II) chloride is heated, it loses its water of crystallisation and turns into
anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride:

CoCl2.6H2O (s) ⇌ CoCl2 (s) + 6H2O (l)

The hydr tion of CoCl2 ( nd CuSO4) re chemic l tests which re commonly

used to detect the presence of w ter. You should remember the equ tions nd
color ch nges:
• CoCl2 + 6H2O ⇌ CoCl2.6H2O Blue to pink
• CuSO4 + 5H2O ⇌ CuSO4.5H2O White to blue
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 Equilibrium
Dyn mic(chemic l) equilibrium: two
chemic l re ctions, one the reverse of
the other, t king pl ce t the s me
time, where the concentr tions of the
re ct nts nd products rem in
const nt bec use the r te t which
the forw rd re ction occurs is the
s me s th t of the reverse re ction.

*Picture is just for the aesthetics

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 Equilibrium
An equilibrium re ction h s four p rticul r fe tures under const nt conditions:

• it is dynamic: reactants are continuously being changed to

products and products are continuously being changed back
to reactants

• the forward and reverse (backward) reactions occur at the

same rate

• the concentrations of reactants and products (the position of

equilibrium) remain constant

• it requires a closed system. ( a closed system is a system where none of the

reactants or products can escape the reaction mixture or the container where the reaction is
taking place)
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 Equilibrium
The position nd chievement of n equilibrium is ffected by v rious ch nges in the conditions,
such s temper ture, pressure, concentr tion nd the ddition of c t lyst, nd these f ctors
en ble you to predict nd expl in wh t is h ppening.

Condition E ect on equilibrium position

-Increasing the temperature makes the reaction move in the direction

that takes in heat (the endothermic direction).
Temperature -Decreasing the temperature makes the reaction move in the direction
that gives out heat (the exothermic direction)

-This only affects reactions involving gases.

-Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium in the direction that produces
Pressure fewer gas molecules.
-Decreasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium in the direction that produces
more gas molecules.

-Increasing the concentration of one substance in the mixture makes the

equilibrium move in the direction that produces less of that substance.
Concentration -Decreasing the concentration of one substance in the mixture makes the
equilibrium move in the direction that produces more of that substance.

-Using a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium, but the
Catalyst reaction reaches equilibrium faster.
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 Haber Process
Ammoni is m nuf ctured using The H ber process which occurs in ive st ges:

• Stage 1: H2 and N2 are obtained from natural gas and the air respectively and are pumped into the
compressor through pipe
• Stage 2: The gases are compressed to about 200 atmospheres inside the compressor
• Stage 3: The pressurized gases are pumped into a tank containing layers of catalytic iron beds at a
temperature of 450 °C. Some of the hydrogen and nitrogen react to form ammonia:

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)

• Stage 4: Unreacted H2 and N2 and the product ammonia pass into a cooling tank. The ammonia is
lique ied and removed to pressurised storage vessels
• Stage 5: The unreacted H2 and N2 gases are recycled back into the system and start over again
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 Haber Process
The essenti l conditions used in H ber process re:

• N2 & H2 are mixed in a ratio of 1:3

• An optimum (or compromise) temperature of 450 degrees Celsius
• A pressure of 20,000kPa (200 atmospheres)
• A catalyst of inely divided iron.
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 Contact Process
• Sulfuric acid is synthesized by the Contact process
• Concentrated sulfuric acid is used in car batteries, making fertilizers, soaps
and detergents
• The first stage is the production of sulfur dioxide, either by burning sulfur to
oxidise the sulfur (equation shown below), or roasting sulfide ores
S + O2 → SO2
• The main stage in the Contact process is the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to
sulfur trioxide using a vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5, catalyst:
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
• The oxygen used in this stage is obtained from air
• The conditions for this main stage of production are:
◦ A temperature of 450 ºC
◦ A pressure of 2 atm (200 kPa)
• Once sulfur trioxide is formed, it undergoes more processes to produce
sulfuric acid
 Contact Process
The equ tion for the m in st ge of cont ct process is:

2SO + O 2SO
2 2 3

Essenti l conditions used in the Cont ct process re:

• A compromise(optimum) temperature of about 45o degrees Celsius
• A catalyst of vanadium(V)oxide (V2O5)
• An operating pressure of 200kPa
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