minerals
Review
Recycling of Coal Fly Ash in Building Materials: A Review
Xuhang Lu 1 , Bo Liu 1,2, * , Qian Zhang 1 , Quan Wen 1 , Shuying Wang 1 , Kui Xiao 1 and Shengen Zhang 1, *
Citation: Lu, X.; Liu, B.; Zhang, Q.;
Wen, Q.; Wang, S.; Xiao, K.; Zhang, S.
Recycling of Coal Fly Ash in Building
Materials: A Review. Minerals 2023,
13, 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/
min13010025
Academic Editors:
Eugeniusz Mokrzycki and
Alicja Uliasz-Bocheńczyk
Received: 14 November 2022
Revised: 15 December 2022
Accepted: 20 December 2022
Published: 23 December 2022
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Minerals 2023, 13, 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13010025
1 Institute for Advanced Materials and Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing,
Beijing 100083, China
2 Xinjiang Research Institute for Nonferrous Metals, Urumqi 830009, China
* Correspondence: liubo@ustb.edu.cn (B.L.); zhangshengen@mater.ustb.edu.cn (S.Z.);
Tel.: +86-010-82376835 (B.L.); +86-010-62333375 (S.Z.)
Abstract: Coal fly ash (CFA) is a type of solid waste produced in the process of coal combustion,
which is rich in silicon oxide, aluminum oxide and a small number of heavy metals and radioactive
elements. Therefore, CFA is considered a secondary resource with high recovery value. Currently,
CFA is mainly reused in the fields of building materials, mine backfilling, soil conditioners and
fertilizers, among which the production of building materials is one of the most important ways to
realize large-scale utilization of CFA. This paper introduces the physical and chemical properties,
classification and environmental impact of CFA and summarizes the utilization status of CFA in
building materials such as cement, concrete, ceramics and geopolymers, as well as the management
policy of CFA. In addition, the existing problems in the utilization of CFA as a building material are
analyzed, and their development prospects are discussed.
Keywords: coal fly ash; resource utilization; building materials; prospects
1. Introduction
Coal fly ash (CFA) is the dust collected from flue gas after coal combustion, which is one
of the main solid wastes generated in the coal burning industry. CFA particles are mostly
spherical with a smooth surface [1]. CFA is primarily composed of SiO2 , Al2 O3 , CaO, Na2 O,
Fe2 O3 , MgO, K2 O and other metal oxides. CFA also contains trace elements such as Cd, Cr,
Pb and Hg [2] and small amounts of radioactive elements such as 226 Ra, 232 Th and 40 K [3]. In
terms of phase composition, in addition to a large amount of the amorphous glass phase, CFA
also contains mullite, quartz, calcite, magnetite and hematite. The world generates more than
800 million tons of CFA every year [4]. However, a large amount of CFA is discharged, which
causes serious damage to the environment and threatens human health [5].
The recycling of CFA is a good alternative disposal method, which can obtain significant
economic and environmental benefits [6]. Therefore, the resource utilization of CFA has
become a hotspot. According to the core collection database of the Web of Science (Figure 1),
the number of published papers related to CFA utilization has increased significantly in
the past decade. The fields involved in these studies mainly included chemical fertilizers,
soil conditioners, mine backfilling and building materials. Phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and other elements in CFA can help improve soil texture, water-holding capacity,
pH and nutrient content [7–9]. In addition, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and other
elements in CFA are the nutrient elements needed by plants. Therefore, the use of CFA as a
soil conditioner and fertilizer can help increase crop yields [10,11]. Due to the low content
of beneficial elements such as phosphorus and calcium in CFA, more CFA needs to be used
in actual production. The use of more CFA will increase the content of toxic elements in
CFA and increase the leaching risk of these toxic elements. Therefore, the heavy use of CFA
may pollute soil and groundwater [12]. Taking advantage of the pozzolanic activity of CFA,
some studies have focused on the development of low-cost mine backfill materials [13,14].
Limited by the uneven regional distribution of CFA, its consumption in the field of mine
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals
Minerals 2022, 12, x 2 of 18

Therefore, the heavy use of CFA may pollute soil and groundwater [12]. Taking advantage
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 2 of 16
of the pozzolanic activity of CFA, some studies have focused on the development of low‐
cost mine backfill materials [13,14]. Limited by the uneven regional distribution of CFA,
its consumption in the field of mine backfilling is low. Compared with other utilization
backfilling
methods, theis low. Compared
use of with other
CFA to produce utilization
building methods,
materials the useadvantages
has obvious of CFA to produce
in terms
building materials has obvious advantages in terms of CFA consumption
of CFA consumption and the added value of products. Therefore, more than and the
70%added
of re‐
value
ports of products.
focus on theTherefore, more
preparation of than 70% materials,
building of reports focus oncement,
mainly the preparation
concrete,ofceramics,
building
materials, mainly cement,
and geopolymers (Figureconcrete, ceramics,the
1). For example, andstudies
geopolymers
[15–17](Figure 1). the
focus on For utilization
example, the of
studies [15–17] focus on the utilization of
CFA in the production of building materials. CFA in the production of building materials.

Figure 1. Statistics
Figure 1. Statistics of
of relevant
relevant literatures
literatures on
on the
the CFA
CFA utilization
utilization from
from 2012
2012 to
to 2021
2021 (Data
(Data come
come from
from
the
the core
core collection
collection ofof Web
Webofofscience).
science).

The
The resource
resource utilization
utilization ratio
ratio and
and mode
mode of of CFA
CFA vary
vary greatly
greatly in
in different
different countries,
countries, asas
shown in Figure 2 [18]. Obviously, the utilization ratio of CFA has approached
shown in Figure 2 [18]. Obviously, the utilization ratio of CFA has approached or even or even reached
100% in some
reached 100%countries, while it iswhile
in some countries, still low
it isinstill
many lowother countries.
in many Specifically,
other countries. in EU and
Specifically,
Japan, CFA is almost completely utilized; in China, America and India,
in EU and Japan, CFA is almost completely utilized; in China, America and India, the utilization ratios
the
of CFA are 70.1%, 60.1% and 67%, respectively; in Australia, the utilization ratio of CFA is
utilization ratios of CFA are 70.1%, 60.1% and 67%, respectively; in Australia, the utiliza‐
only 43.9%. Besides, CFA is mainly used as the raw material of building materials in major
tion ratio of CFA is only 43.9%. Besides, CFA is mainly used as the raw material of build‐
countries in the world, while CFA is more widely used to produce cement products (cement
ing materials in major countries in the world, while CFA is more widely used to produce
and concrete). For example, in the EU and China, most CFA is used to produce cement and
cement products (cement and concrete). For example, in the EU and China, most CFA is
concrete; in the United States and Australia, CFA is mainly used for mine backfilling, soil
Minerals 2022, 12, x used to produce cement and concrete; in the United States and Australia, CFA is mainly 3 of is
18
improvement and production of building materials, among others; in Japan and India, CFA
used for mine backfilling, soil improvement and production of building materials, among
mainly used to produce building materials and soil improvers.
others; in Japan and India, CFA is mainly used to produce building materials and soil
improvers.
With the increase of CFA production and the increasingly severe environmental sit‐
uation, the resource utilization of CFA has attracted extensive attention. In view of the
remarkable advantages of CFAʹs building materials utilization that other utilization meth‐
ods can not compare, that is, it is more helpful to solve the problem of CFAʹs massive
stockpiling. Therefore, in this study, we focus on the latest research progress of CFA in
building materials such as cement, concrete, ceramics and geopolymers. In addition, we
also analyzed the impact of CFA management policies on the use of CFA in the construc‐
tion industry and the impact on solving the problem of CFA accumulation.

Figure2.2.Utilization
Figure Utilization ratio
ratio and and utilization
utilization mode
mode of CFA of CFA in
in major major in
countries countries
the worldin[18].
the world
[18].

2. Properties, Classification and Hazard Assessment of CFA

2.1. Properties of CFA

CFA may contain mullite, quartz, calcite, magnetite, hematite and other crystalline
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 3 of 16

With the increase of CFA production and the increasingly severe environmental sit-
uation, the resource utilization of CFA has attracted extensive attention. In view of the
remarkable advantages of CFA’s building materials utilization that other utilization meth-
ods can not compare, that is, it is more helpful to solve the problem of CFA’s massive
stockpiling. Therefore, in this study, we focus on the latest research progress of CFA in
building materials such as cement, concrete, ceramics and geopolymers. In addition, we
also analyzed the impact of CFA management policies on the use of CFA in the construction
industry and the impact on solving the problem of CFA accumulation.

2. Properties, Classification and Hazard Assessment of CFA

2.1. Properties of CFA
CFA may contain mullite, quartz, calcite, magnetite, hematite and other crystalline phases,
as well as an amorphous glass phase. The CFA particles are mostly spherical with a smooth
surface and few micropores. In addition, CFA particles have an average diameter of less than
10 µm, a bulk density of 1–1.8 g·cm−3 and a specific surface area of 2500–4000 cm2 ·g−1 [19].
CFA has pozzolanic activity and can generate hydration products dominated by N-A-
S-H gel via pozzolanic reactions [20,21]. The hydration process of CFA is mainly divided
into three parts [22]. First, H+ in the solution exchanges with Ca2+ and Na+ on the surface
of the CFA particles. Second, OH− ions attack the Si-O-T (T=Si or Al) bond to break it.
Subsequently, Al3+ and Si4+ are released with the destruction of the CFA glassy network
structure. Finally, a gel was formed by polymerization. In addition, compared to CFA with
a low Ca/Si ratio, CFA with a high Ca/Si ratio was found to have higher activity [23,24].

2.2. Classification of CFA

The classification standards for CFA are different in different countries. According
to the difference in composition, the American ASTM C618–19 standard [25] classifies
CFA into classes N, F and C, as shown in Table 1. It can be seen from Table 1 that the
classification standards based on ASTM C618–19 mainly refer to the content of some
chemical components in CFA. For example, CFA with a total SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 content
not less than 70% and not more than 4% SO3 content was defined as class N. For CFA
with total content of SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 not less than 50%, when CaO content was not
more than 18%, it was defined as Class F (with pozzolanic properties), whereas when CaO
content was more than 18%, it was defined as Class C (with pozzolanic properties and
gelling properties). In addition, the chemical composition of CFA varies with the type of
coal burned. CFA produced by burning lignite and sub bituminous coal has higher CaO
content and lower ignition loss, while CFA produced by burning bituminous coal and
anthracite has lower CaO content and higher ignition loss [26].

Table 1. Classification of CFA based on chemical composition.

Class (America) Class (China)

Chemical Compound (%)
N F C F C
SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 , min 70 50 50 - -
CaO Negligible (report only) 18 (maximum) >18 <10 ≥10
SO3 , max 4 5 5 - -
Moisture, max 3 3 3 - -
LOI, max 10 6A 6 - -
A: The use of Class F pozzolan containing up to 12.0 % loss on ignition may be approved by the user if either
acceptable performance records or laboratory test results are made available. LOI: Loss of index.

In China, CFA is classified into Class C and Class F according to the type of coal (or
CaO content). The former is produced by calcining lignite or sub bituminous coal and its
CaO content is not less than 10%. The latter is produced by calcining bituminous coal and
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 4 of 16

anthracite and its CaO content is lower than 10%. In addition, CFA in China is divided into
CFA for mortar and concrete mixing, and CFA for cement active mixing materials (specified
in GB/T 1596–2017 [27]).

2.3. Hazard Assessment of CFA

CFA contains heavy metals, such as Cd, Cr, Pb and Hg [2], which may pollute the
environment. Leaching results of heavy metals from CFA in some literatures are shown
in Table 2. Zhang et al. [28] conducted a TCLP test on two types of CFA in the United
States and found that the leaching concentration of Ba in all CFA samples was lower than
0.03 mg/L, whereas Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg and As heavy metals were not detected. Zhao et al. [29]
conducted a TCLP test on CFA from five regions in China. The results showed that the
leaching concentration of heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Ba, Hg and As in all CFA was
lower than 0.1 mg/L, which was below the threshold specified by TLCP. Gupta et al. [30]
conducted a TCLP test on CFA from two different regions in India, and also found that the
leaching concentrations of heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Pb and As in all CFA were lower
than 0.1 mg/L and lower than the threshold value. Longos et al. [31] conducted TCLP tests
on CFA from the Philippines. The results showed that the leaching concentrations of heavy
metals such as Cd, Cr, Pb, Ba, Hg and As in CFA were below the threshold value. Therefore,
the leaching concentrations of heavy metals in CFA are within a safe range.
CFA contains 226 Ra, 232 Th, 40 K and other radioactive elements [3], which may cause
radiation hazards to buildings and human bodies. Lu et al. [32] evaluated the radioactivity
of CFA in two different regions of China and found that the annual effective dose of
radioactive elements in CFA was 0.078–0.216, which is lower than the threshold value
(1 mSv y−1 ) specified by the International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) [33].
Singh et al. [34] evaluated the radioactivity of CFA in eight different regions of India.
The results showed that the annual effective dose of the sample was within the range of
0.2761–0.4667 mSv y−1 , which was below the threshold. Mahura et al. [35] evaluated the
radioactivity of CFA from two different thermal power plants in India and found that
the annual effective dose of radioactive elements in the sample was 0.061–0.166 mSv·y−1 .
Therefore, the content of radioactive elements in CFA is within the safe range.

Table 2. Leaching results of heavy metals from CFA in some literatures (mg/L).

No. Cd Cr Pb Ba Hg As Ref.
1 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.01 n.d. n.d.
[28]
2 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.03 n.d. n.d.
3 <0.01 <0.01 n.d. 3.8–4.7 <0.00001 <0.01
4 <0.01 <0.001 n.d. 0.5–0.9 <0.000001 <0.1
5 <0.01 <0.001 n.d. 0.7–0.9 <0.1 <0.00001 [29]
6 <0.01 <0.01 n.d. 0.2–0.3 <0.1 <0.00001
7 <0.01 <0.01 n.d. 3.3–3.9 <0.00001 <0.01
8 <0.0001 <0.1 <0.01 - n.d. <0.1
[30]
9 <0.0001 <0.1 <0.01 1.5–1.6 n.d. <0.1
10 0.00042 0.035 0.027 2.544 0.00085 0.069 [31]
TCLP limit 1 5 5 100 0.2 5 [36]
n.d.: not detected; TCLP limit: U.S. EPA Regulatory levels for classifying a waste as hazardous based on TCLP
results; -: no regulatory limit.

3. Application of CFA in Building Materials

3.1. CFA Cement
Cement produces a great deal of greenhouse gas emissions of approximately 0.85–0.92 tons
of CO2 for every ton of cement [37,38]. Accordingly, the global cement industry’s CO2
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 5 of 16

emissions will exceed 3.4 billion tons by 2020 [39]. Reducing the proportion of clinker in
cement products is key to achieving CO2 emission reduction in the cement industry. Therefore,
research on CFA as cement admixtures has become a hot topic in recent years.
In addition to being directly used as building materials, CFA cement is often used
to improve subgrade materials and encapsulate heavy metals. Li et al. [40] prepared
CFA-based cementitious material with cement, CFA and other solid wastes, and studied
the feasibility of this CFA-based cementitious material as road foundation material. The
results show that the 7-d compressive strength of CFA-based cementitious materials meets
the Chinese highway standards, and the durability can also meet the relevant standards.
Besides, ettringite and C-A-S-H gel in the CFA-based cementitious material can solidify
heavy metals, which leads to the leaching concentration of heavy metals such as Hg and Cu
in the sample being lower than the threshold value specified in the Chinese drinking water
standard. In addition, the research of Chethan et al. [41] shows that the volume stability
and durability of black cotton soil stabilized with CFA cement can be improved.
However, the application of CFA in cement is still facing challenges due to the contin-
uous improvement of cement strength requirements of building materials. For example,
adding an appropriate amount of CFA can improve the long-term strength of cement but
reduce its early strength [42]. The early strength of CFA cement can be improved by increas-
ing its curing temperature [43,44]. This is because the increase of temperature is conducive
to stimulating the hydration potential of CFA cement, thus accelerating the formation of
hydration products such as C-S-H gel and ettringite, ultimately improving its strength.
However, traditional curing methods, such as steam curing and oven curing, can easily
cause sample cracking. To solve these problems, the microwave curing of CFA cement
has been developed. According to Kong et al. [45], the 1-day compressive strength of CFA
cement after 45 minutes of microwave curing is equivalent to 4 times normal curing at 20 ◦ C
and 1.3 times steam curing at 80 ◦ C. Wang et al. [46] found 1-day compressive strength of
CFA cement after 5.29 h microwave curing can reach 4.7 times of the samples cured at room
temperature and 1.15 times of the samples cured at 60 ◦ C. The improvement of mechanical
properties of CFA cement by microwave curing is better than that by traditional hot curing,
which can be explained as that microwave curing has higher energy transfer efficiency than
traditional hot curing, thus forming a denser structure.
In addition, the strength of high-volume CFA cement also needs to be improved. From
Wang et al. [47], adding 3% NS can increase the 28-d compressive strength of CFA cement
by 20%. Huang et al. [48] also found that adding 2.5% NS could increase the compressive
strength of CFA cement mortar by more than 50%. The improvement of cement strength is
due to the reaction of NS and calcium hydroxide, which provides a nucleation site for the
formation of C-S-H gel, while the remaining calcium hydroxide provides a highly alkaline
environment for the hydration of CFA. Furthermore, the addition of other cementitious
materials was found to be helpful to improve the mechanical properties of CFA cement.
Compared with the cement containing 60% CFA without metakaolin (MK), the compressive
strength of cement can be increased by 216% and the initial setting time can be shortened
by 11% when MK (5wt.%) when a particle size of 5.6 µm is added [49]. The improvement of
mechanical properties of CFA cement is considered that the addition of MK refines the pore
structure of cement matrix. In short, the modification method and related mechanism of
CFA cement can be shown in Figure 3. No matter which method is used, it can ultimately
be attributed to the densification of the matrix. However, when selecting additives that
can improve the performance of CFA cement, we suggest selecting solid wastes rich in
aluminum silicate, such as MK, because the cost of such additives is lower than that of
nanoparticles, and it is conducive to the collaborative disposal and utilization of CFA and
other solid wastes.
 of MK refines the pore structure of cement matrix. In short, the modification method and
related mechanism of CFA cement can be shown in Figure 3. No matter which method is
used, it can ultimately be attributed to the densification of the matrix. However, when
selecting additives that can improve the performance of CFA cement, we suggest selecting
solid wastes rich in aluminum silicate, such as MK, because the cost of such additives is
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 6 of 16
lower than that of nanoparticles, and it is conducive to the collaborative disposal and uti‐
lization of CFA and other solid wastes.

Figure3.3.Modification
Figure Modification methods
methods andand related
related mechanisms
mechanisms of CFAof CFA cement.
cement.

3.2.
3.2. CFA
CFA Concrete
Concrete
In 1935, CFA was used as a substitute for Portland cement in concrete [50]. The proper
In 1935, CFA was used as a substitute for Portland cement in concrete [50]. The
addition of CFA can improve the workability [51] and durability [52,53] of concrete, reduce
proper addition of CFA can improve the workability [51] and durability [52,53] of con‐
the hydration heat [54], and enhance the strength of concrete [55,56]. The preparation
crete, reduce the hydration heat [54], and enhance the strength of concrete [55,56]. The
process and performance of CFA concrete in some studies are summarized in Table 3.
preparation process and performance of CFA concrete in some studies are summarized in
According to Kumar et al. [55], the concrete with 25% CFA has the best 28-d compressive
Table 3. According to Kumar et al. [55], the concrete with 25% CFA has the best 28d com‐
strength of 48.69 MPa. Similar to this result, Nagrockienė et al. [56] found that the concrete
pressive strength of 48.69 MPa. Similar to this result, Nagrockienė et al. [56] found that
with 35% CFA has the best compressive strength of 57.5 MPa. The addition of CFA was
the concrete with 35% CFA has the best compressive strength of 57.5 MPa. The addition
found to promote the formation of Friedel salt (C3 A·CaCl2 ·10H2 O) from chloride ions in
of CFA was found to promote the formation of Friedel salt (C3A∙CaCl2∙10H2O) from chlo‐
concrete [57,58]. Therefore, CFA is often used as an additive to improve the durability of
ride ions in concrete [57,58]. Therefore, CFA is often used as an additive to improve the
concrete. Previous studies have shown that adding 30%–50% CFA can increase the chloride
durability of concrete. Previous studies have shown that adding 30%–50% CFA can in‐
ion penetration-resistant ability of concrete by 31%–55% [58,59], while 20%–50% CFA can
reduce the
crease the chloride ion penetration‐resistant
water absorption ability of [59,60].
of concrete by 20.9%–33% concrete by 31–55% [58,59], while
20%–50% CFA can reduce
The pozzolanic therate
reaction water absorption
of CFA of concrete
is low [61]. by 20.9%–33%
Excess CFA [59,60].
deteriorates the combina-
tion between the gel matrix and aggregate, widening the cracks in the interface transition
zone (ITZ) (Figure 4) [62] and leading to a decline in the concrete performance, particularly
the early performance. In this way, the performance of concrete, especially its early strength,
is significantly reduced. According to Kumar et al. [63], adding 40% CFA will reduce the
14-d compressive strength of concrete by approximately 26% and the 180d strength by 10%.
Herath et al. [62] found that the 7-d compressive strength of concrete with 80% fly ash was
only 22.4 MPa.
To improve the strength of concrete with a high CFA content, additives were intro-
duced into the concrete. Shaikh et al. [64] found that adding 2% NS could increase the 3-d
compressive strength of concrete with 60% CFA by approximately 75%. The performance
improvement was attributed to the reaction of NS with calcium hydroxide generated by
cement hydration to generate additional C-S-H gel, which optimizes the microstructure
by filling the concrete matrix. Besides, Zhang et al. [65] found that adding 2% NS can
increase the 28-d compressive strength of CFA concrete by 11%. In addition, the amount of
NS added is not the more the better. When the amount of NS added exceeds 3%, it may
adversely affect the durability of concrete. They think that the performance improvement is
due to the filling effect of NS. In addition, some cementitious materials can also be used as
additives to improve the performance of CFA concrete. According to Nie et al. [66], adding
20% MK can increase the 7-d and 90-d compressive strength of concrete with 60% CFA by
63% and 50%, respectively. The improvement in performance is believed to be caused by
the addition of MK to optimize the ITZ of concrete.
 nation between the gel matrix and aggregate, widening the cracks in the interface transi‐
tion zone (ITZ) (Figure 4) [62] and leading to a decline in the concrete performance, par‐
ticularly the early performance. In this way, the performance of concrete, especially its
early strength, is significantly reduced. According to Kumar et al. [63], adding 40% CFA
will reduce the 14d compressive strength of concrete by approximately 26% and the 180d
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 7 of 16
strength by 10%. Herath et al. [62] found that the 7d compressive strength of concrete with
80% fly ash was only 22.4 MPa.

Figure4.4.SEM
Figure SEMof of interface
interface transition
transition zonezone crack:
cracks, (a) arrows
the red concrete
arewith 65%
the size ofCFA;
them:(b)
(a) concrete
concrete
with 80% CFA [62].
with 65% CFA; (b) concrete with 80% CFA [62].

However,
To improve ordinary concrete
the strength containswith
of concrete a lota of
highcement, which leads
CFA content, to high
additives were energy
intro‐
consumption and does not conform to the low-carbon theme pursued by
duced into the concrete. Shaikh et al. [64] found that adding 2% NS could increase the 3d the construction
industry.
compressiveAlkali-activated CFA concrete
strength of concrete with 60%(AAFC)
CFAisbyconsidered to be a75%.
approximately lowThecarbon building
performance
material that can
improvement wasreplace ordinary
attributed to thePortland
reaction cement
of NS with(OPC) concrete
calcium becausegenerated
hydroxide it does not by
contain
cement cement.
hydration According
to generateto Ghafoor
additional et al. [67], gel,
C‐S‐H the 28-d
which compressive
optimizes the strength of AAFC
microstructure
can reach 21.5
by filling the MPa under
concrete environmental
matrix. curing et
Besides, Zhang conditions. Huseien
al. [65] found thatetadding
al. [68] 2%
foundNSthat
can
the addition of granular blast furnace slag (GBFS) can improve the strength
increase the 28d compressive strength of CFA concrete by 11%. In addition, the amount of AAFC, but
will
of NSincrease
added the carbon
is not footprint
the more of AAFC.
the better. WhenWhen CFA: GBFS=7:3,
the amount of NS added theexceeds
7-d compressive
3%, it may
strength of AAFC exceeds 30 MPa, while the 28-d compressive
adversely affect the durability of concrete. They think that the performance strength is close to 50 MPa.
improvement
In
is addition,
due to theeach cubic
filling meter
effect of NS. of In
AAFC produced
addition, someonly emits 25 kg
cementitious CO2 . Although
materials can also beAAFC
used
can meet the strength requirements of most structural engineering.
as additives to improve the performance of CFA concrete. According to Nie et al. [66], However, with the
continuous improvement of social requirements for the strength of
adding 20% MK can increase the 7d and 90d compressive strength of concrete with 60% building materials, it is
necessary to further improve the strength of AAFC.
CFA by 63% and 50%, respectively. The improvement in performance is believed to be
caused by the addition of MK to optimize the ITZ of concrete.
Table 3. CFA-based materials studies reported in the literature: raw materials; activators; L/S, curing
However, ordinary concrete contains a lot of cement, which leads to high energy con‐
conditions and sample properties.
sumption and does not conform to the low‐carbon theme pursued by the construction
industry. Alkali‐activated CFACuringconcrete (AAFC) is considered to be a low carbon building
Compressive Strength [MPa]
Class of Samples a
material
Raw Materials that can replace ordinary
and Activators Portland cement
L/S (OPC) concrete because it doesRef.not
T[◦ C] RH[%] 7-d 14-d 28-d
contain cement. According to Ghafoor et al. [67], the 28d compressive strength of AAFC
CFA, PC, Slag Str. 0.5 ~28 n.r. ~45 [47]
Cement can reach 21.5 MPa under environmental curing conditions. Huseien et al. [68] found that
the addition of granular blast furnace slag (GBFS) can improve the strength of AAFC,[48]
CFA, OPC Str. n.r. n.r. n.r. ~45
but
CFA,will
OPC,increase
Fine and the carbon footprint of AAFC. When CFA: GBFS=7:3, the 7d compressive
n.r. 0.4 30.23 n.r. 48.69 [55]
coarse aggregate,
strength of AAFC exceeds 30 MPa, while the 28d compressive strength is close to 50 MPa.
CFA, PC, Sand
In addition, each cubic meter ofStr. AAFC produced0.47 only emits54.2 n.r.
25kg CO 57.5
2. Although AAFC
[56]
Concrete CFA, OPC, Sandthe strength requirements
Room. n.r. structural
0.4 ~21 n.r.However, ~33 with[64]
can meet of most engineering. the
CFA, PC, Sand, Coarse aggregate Room. n.r. n.r. n.r. n.r.
continuous improvement of social requirements for the strength of building materials, it 52.3 [65]
is OPC,
CFA, necessary
Sand, to further improve the strength of AAFC.
Str. 0.32 ~31 n.r. ~49 [66]
Coarse aggregate
CFA, CCR 801 ; 602 n.r. 0.4 9 ~10.3 18 [69]
CFA, NaOH, Na2 SiO3 Room. n.r. n.r. ~11.7 n.r. ~13.7 [70]

Geopolymers CFA, Clay, NaOH, Na2 SiO3 2001 ; Room.2 n.r. 0.25 34 n.r. n.r. [71]
CFA, GBFS, NaOH, Na2 SiO3 Room.1 ; 652 ; Room.3 95 0.4 ~31 n.r. ~32.5 [72]
CFA, MK, Sand, NaOH, Na2 SiO3 20 ± 2 95 0.65 n.r. n.r. ~65 [73]
CFA: coal fly ash, PC: Portland cement; OPC: ordinary Portland cement; CCR: Calcium Carbide Residue; GBFS:
Granulated blast furnace slag. Str.: strand curing. n.r.: not reported. Room.: room temperature. 801 ; 602 : step 1:
80 ◦ C; step 2: 60 ◦ C. 2001 ; Room2 : step 1: 200 ◦ C; step 2: room temperature. Room1 ; 652 ; Room3 : step 1: room
temperature; step 2: 65 ◦ C; step 3: room temperature.
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 8 of 16

3.3. Ceramics from CFA

CFA is rich in the silica and alumina components required for the preparation of
ceramics. In addition, the glass phase in the CFA promotes the liquid-phase sintering of
ceramics. Thus, CFA is considered to be a low-cost raw material for ceramics preparation.
The principal crystalline phases of ceramics from CFA include mullite, anorthite, cordierite
and forsterite. The process parameters and performance of the ceramics from the CFA are
summarized in Table 4. At present, CFA-based ceramics are mainly used as building mate-
rials (such as floor materials, refractory/thermal insulation materials), ceramic membranes,
ceramic membrane supports and so on.

Table 4. CFA-based ceramics studies reported in the literature: raw materials, sintering condition
and sample properties.

Sintering Condition Sample Properties

Raw Materials Main Phase Ref.
T[◦ C] Time[h] [MPa] 1 [%] 2 [g·cm−3 ] 3 [%] 4
anorthite,
CFA 1175 2 77.6 ± 2.31 ~18 n.r. 0.42 ± 0.09 [74]
albite
>CFA, Feldspar,
>1100 1 mullite 32.58 11.25 2.26 0.89 [75]
High plastic clay
CFA, ladle
1188 - anorthite - - 2.49 - [76]
furnace slag
CFA, CCM,
Forsterite,
Olivine, Talc, 1550 2 15.5–17.3 5.9–11.3 2.365–2.510 16.3–24.2 [77]
Spinel
Kaolin
CFA, dextrin,
mullite,
carboxymethy 1200 2 29.05 - 1.42 44.76 [78]
anorthite
cellulose
CFA, Quartz,
1300 2 cordierite 23.92 - 1.61 33.16 [79]
Magnesite
CFA, Al(OH)3 1300 2 mullite 40.8 ± 1.9 ~1.6 ~1.4 55.71 ± 0.42 [80]
CFA, Al2 O3 1200 2 mullite 59.1 n.r. 1.31 28.05 [81]
CFA, Bauxite 1300 2 mullite 69.6 ~6.5 n.r. ~29 [82]
1: Flexural strength; 2: Shrinkage; 3: Bulk density; 4: Porosity. CCM: Calcined caustic magnesite.

Jiang et al. [74] synthesized ceramics that can be used as industrial structural materials
and building flooring materials from CFA. They found that pretreatment of CFA with NaOH
solution was beneficial to the desilication reaction of CFA, which could further promote the
formation of anorthite phase during sintering. Thus, the bending strength and apparent
porosity of CFA ceramics are 77.6 ± 2.31 MPa and 0.42 ± 0.09, respectively. Luo et al. [75]
used mechanochemical methods (grinding the mixture of CFA and NaOH solution with a
ball mill) to pre-activate CFA to prepare architectural ceramics with better performance.
The results show that the flexural strength of the ceramics prepared by mechanochemically
treated CFA is 23.5% higher than that of the ceramics prepared by untreated CFA at the
sintering temperature of 1100 ◦ C, and the porosity is 30.3% lower. The improvement of the
sample performance is attributed to the mechanochemical activation, which can convert
part of Al (VI) into Al (IV), and Al (IV) can replace Si4+ in the tetrahedron, leading to the
more unstable silicate structure of activated CFA than untreated CFA. Similarly, Jagadeep
et al. [83] used CFA to prepare ceramic tiles, and the results show that the prepared CFA-
based ceramic tiles have good ceramic matrix and glaze.
In addition, ceramics often have good fire resistance/heat insulation performance,
but its high cost makes it difficult to be widely used. For this reason, some researchers
use low-cost solid wastes such as CFA as raw materials to prepare refractory ceramics [76].
For example, Nguyen et al. [77] prepared refractory ceramics with forsterite and spinel
phases using CFA and caustic calcined magnesite as the main raw materials. The results
showed that the shrinkage of the ceramics was less than 11.3% and the refractoriness
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 9 of 16

was higher than 1655 ◦ C. Krasnyi et al. [84] prepared light refractory ceramics with a
density of 0.5 g·cm−3 using CFA as raw material, and its thermal conductivity is only
0.23–0.48 W/(m·K). In addition, the research of Wan et al. [85] shows that the use of CFA
is conducive to improving the strength of ceramic samples and reducing their thermal
conductivity. The results show that CFA-based ceramics with low thermal conductivity and
high strength can be prepared by using 65.04 CFA. At 1600 ◦ C, the thermal conductivity of
the ceramic is 0.732 w/(m·k), and the bending strength is 47.0 ± 4.1MPa.
Traditional ceramic membrane is difficult to be widely used because of its high price.
Therefore, the use of low-cost CFA and other solid wastes to synthesize ceramic membranes
has attracted extensive attention. Huang et al. [78] prepared ceramic membranes with high
porosity from CFA and other raw materials. They found that when the sintering temperature
exceeded 1200 ◦ C, part of mullite phase changed into anorthite phase. Under the above
conditions, the porosity of CFA-based ceramic membrane can reach 44.76%, and the bending
strength is close to 30 MPa. Similarly, Wang et al. [79] also synthesized low-cost porous
ceramics from CFA. In order to improve the porosity of CFA-based ceramics. Fu et al. [80]
introduced MoO3 into the preparation of ceramics, they found that the addition of 10% MoO3
significantly increased the porosity of the ceramic membrane by 34% and reduced the flexural
strength by only 9%. The addition of MoO3 is believed to promote the formation of a fine-
rod mullite phase and increase the interlocking degree of the mullite phase. In addition, Li
et al. [81] found that the addition of AlF3 can not only improve the porosity of CFA-based
ceramics, but also help to improve their strength. Adding 6% AlF3 was found to increase the
flexural strength of ceramics from CFA by approximately 146% and the porosity by 37%. In
this study, AlF3 is believed to contribute to the formation of the secondary mullite phase and
promote the transformation of the mullite phase from rods to whiskers.
Since the mullite phase can provide high strength for ceramics, the preparation of
CFA-based ceramic supports with mullite as the main crystal phase has aroused the interest
of researchers. For example, Fan et al. [82] found that when CFA and bauxite are used
to prepare refractory ceramics, the flexural strength and other properties of ceramics are
closely related to CFA content and sintering temperature. This is because CFA particles melt
at 1170 ◦ C, which in turn promotes the connection between CFA particles and increases
the bending strength between particles. When the sintering temperature is 1300 ◦ C and
the ratio of CFA to bauxite is 3:2, the flexural strength and porosity of the ceramics are
69.6 MPa and 27% respectively. In addition, Li et al. [81] prepared the ceramic membrane
support with CFA and alumina as raw materials, and found that its strength was as high as
59.1 MPa. Using solid wastes such as CFA as raw materials to prepare ceramics can save
non-renewable clay and other minerals, but the high sintering temperature in the ceramic
preparation process still leads to the high cost of ceramics, which hinders its application
to a certain extent. In addition, the color of CFA-based ceramics is mostly black or gray,
which also hinders its application to some extent.

3.4. Geopolymers from CFA

Geopolymer is a new type of inorganic cementitious material formed by the reaction of
aluminum rich silicate materials in alkaline environment. CFA is often used as a precursor
of geopolymerization due to its high content of silica and alumina. Compared with OPC,
CFA-based geopolymers have obvious advantages in high-temperature resistance and
heavy metal solidification [86–88]. According to the results of Payakanitiab et al. [86],
calcium silicate hydrate in cement dehydrate at 95–105 ◦ C and peel off at 800–1000 ◦ C,
while the 7-d compressive strength of CFA-based geopolymer is still more than 30 MPa after
insulation at 1000 ◦ C for 1 h. Liu et al. [87] compared the mechanical properties and lead
solidification effects of CFA-based geopolymer containing 2% Pb2+ with Portland cement
containing 2% Pb2+ . It was found that the 7-d compressive strength of CFA geopolymer
was 87% higher than that of cement, and the leaching concentration of Pb2+ in geopolymer
was more than 60% lower than that in cement. Therefore, the research of CFA-based
geopolymers has attracted extensive attention.
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 10 of 16

The reaction mechanism of CFA-based geopolymers is still controversial, but the

Minerals 2022, 12, x process is often considered to include three steps: first, [SiO4 ] and [AlO4 ] in the CFA 11 of
are18
−
dissolved, and [Si(OH)4 ] and [Al(OH)4 ] monomers are formed through depolymerization;
next, oligomer gel is formed by polymerization between monomers; finally, the oligomer
gel
gelisisfurther
furtherpolymerized
polymerized to form an aluminosilicate
to form geopolymer
an aluminosilicate with with
geopolymer a three-dimensional
a three‐dimen‐
network structure. Geopolymerization starts from the surface
sional network structure. Geopolymerization starts from the surface of of the CFA
the and
CFAgradually
and grad‐
extends to the interior
ually extends (Figure(Figure
to the interior 5 [89]).5 [89]).

Figure5.5.Reaction
Figure Reaction mechanism
mechanism of CFA‐based
of CFA-based geopolymers
geopolymers [89]. (a) [89]
Macro mechanism model of CFA
alkali activation reaction; (b) descriptive model of the alkali activation of CFA according to one or
severalAt present,
particle CFA‐based geopolymers are not only directly used as building materials,
levels.
but also often used for solidification/stabilization of hazardous wastes and soil stabiliza‐
tion.At Lipresent,
et al. [90]CFA-based
found that geopolymers
the geopolymer are not only directly
prepared by CFA usedand as lead
building
zinc materials,
slag has a
but also often used for solidification/stabilization of hazardous wastes
certain strength, and successfully disposed of hazardous waste lead zinc slag. When the and soil stabilization.
Li et al.ratio
mass [90]offound
CFAthatandtheleadgeopolymer
zinc slag isprepared by CFA and strength
9:1, the compressive lead zincofslag has a certain
CFA‐based geo‐
strength,
polymer reaches 28.96 MPa, and the leaching concentration of Ni and Zn (0.184mass
and successfully disposed of hazardous waste lead zinc slag. When the and ratio
93.17
of CFArespectively)
mg/L and lead zinc is slag is 9:1,
lower the the
than compressive
maximum strength of CFA-based
value specified in GB geopolymer
16889–2008, reaches
while
28.96
Pb isMPa, and the leaching
not detected. Murmuconcentration
et al. [91] triedof Nitoand Zn (0.184
stabilize andcotton
black 93.17 mg/L respectively)
soil with CFA‐based is
lower than the maximum value specified in GB 16889–2008, while Pb
geopolymer. Under the condition that the modulus of alkali activator is 5 M, the 7d com‐ is not detected. Murmu
etpressive
al. [91] tried to stabilize
strength of blackblack cotton
cotton soilsoil with CFA-based
stabilized geopolymer.
by CFA‐based Under (CFA
geopolymer the condition
content
that the modulus of alkali activator is 5 M, the 7-d compressive
5–20%) can reach 907–1106 kPa, and meet the relevant standard values. In addition, strength of black cotton soilthe
stabilized
research of byOdeh
CFA-based geopolymer
et al. also shows that (CFA content 5%–20%)
CFA‐based geopolymers can reach
have a907–1106 kPa,inand
good effect sta‐
meet the subgrade
bilizing relevant standard
materials. values. In addition, the research of Odeh et al. also shows that
CFA-based
To solve geopolymers
the problems haveofahigh
goodproduction
effect in stabilizing
cost and subgrade materials. pollution risk
high environmental
To solve the problems of high production cost and high
caused by highly alkaline activators, researchers have developed new activators environmental pollution risk
for CFA‐
caused by highly alkaline activators, researchers have developed
based geopolymers, including carbide slag [69] and wood fly ash [92]. Calcium carbide new activators for CFA-
based geopolymers, including carbide slag [69] and wood fly ash [92]. Calcium carbide slag
slag is a solid waste with high alkalinity that is produced during acetylene production
is a solid waste with high alkalinity that is produced during acetylene production process.
process. Using Calcium Carbide Residue (CCR) as an activator, Wang et al. [69] prepared
Using Calcium Carbide Residue (CCR) as an activator, Wang et al. [69] prepared CFA-based
CFA‐based geopolymer. The results showed that the 28‐d compressive strength of the ge‐
geopolymer. The results showed that the 28-d compressive strength of the geopolymer
opolymer could reach 18 MPa at a mass ratio of CFA to CCR of 1:2. Wood fly ash is a type
could reach 18 MPa at a mass ratio of CFA to CCR of 1:2. Wood fly ash is a type of solid
of solid waste with high potassium content and alkalinity, generated from wood and
waste with high potassium content and alkalinity, generated from wood and wood product
wood product incineration [92]. Lin et al. [92] prepared a CFA‐based geopolymer using
incineration [92]. Lin et al. [92] prepared a CFA-based geopolymer using wood fly ash
wood fly ash and sodium silicate solution as activators. When the wood fly ash content
and sodium silicate solution as activators. When the wood fly ash content was 15%, the
was 15%, the geopolymer sample exhibited the best performance. However, the strength
geopolymer sample exhibited the best performance. However, the strength of geopolymer
of geopolymer prepared with low‐cost activator is low, and it is difficult to meet the use
prepared with low-cost activator is low, and it is difficult to meet the use requirements. In
future research,Innew
requirements. future research,activators
composite new composite(such as activators
a mixture (such as a mixture
of sodium of sodium
hydroxide and
hydroxide and low‐cost activators) can be used to reduce the cost
low-cost activators) can be used to reduce the cost and environmental impact of activators,and environmental im‐
pact of activators, while ensuring that CFA‐based geopolymers
while ensuring that CFA-based geopolymers have considerable mechanical properties. have considerable me‐
chanical
Before properties.
curing, applying a certain pressure to the slurry helps improve the performance
Before
of the geopolymer curing, applying
and reduce the a certain
amount pressure to the
of activator slurry
[93]. helps to
According improve
Ahmadthe perfor‐
et al. [70],
mance of the geopolymer and reduce the amount of activator
compared with a sample without pressure, the 7-d compressive strength of CFA-based [93]. According to Ahmad
et al. [70], compared with a sample without pressure, the 7‐d compressive strength of
CFA‐based geopolymer can be increased by 185% and the porosity can be reduced by
23.6% when a molding pressure of 20 MPa is applied. They also found that when the
molding pressure is increased from 20 MPa to 40 MPa, the 7d compressive strength of
CFA‐based geopolymer can be increased by 47.8% [71]. Similar to the above results,
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 11 of 16

geopolymer can be increased by 185% and the porosity can be reduced by 23.6% when a
molding pressure of 20 MPa is applied. They also found that when the molding pressure is
increased from 20 MPa to 40 MPa, the 7-d compressive strength of CFA-based geopolymer can
be increased by 47.8% [71]. Similar to the above results, Ranjbar et al. [94] found that when the
forming pressure is increased from 13.8 to 41.4 MPa, the compressive strength of CFA-based
geopolymer can be increased by 59.5%. The improvement in geopolymer performance is
attributed to the fact that the applied pressure promotes the dissolution of CFA and the
formation of more bridging oxygen, which is conducive to the formation of longer molecular
chains, and ultimately leads to the formation of more dense aluminosilicate structure.
Researchers have also studied the influence of additives, such as fibers and nanopar-
ticles, on the properties of CFA-based geopolymers. According to the research results of
Cai et al. [72], adding 3% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber can increase the 28-d compressive
strength and flexural strength of CFA-based geopolymers by more than 20% and 40%,
respectively. Using 1.5% NS and 0.6% PVA fibers as additives, Zhang et al. [73] increased
the 28-d compressive strength and flexural strength of CFA-based geopolymer by nearly
40%. The improvement of performance is attributed to the bridge formed by fiber in the
CFA-based geopolymer matrix. When the sample is subjected to external forces, the bridge
consumes this energy through fiber stretching and fracture, thereby inhibiting crack growth,
and ultimately improving the mechanical properties of the sample. In addition, nanoparti-
cles can fill the space between CFA particles, thereby improving the microstructure and
mechanical properties of CFA-based geopolymers. Therefore, some researchers also used
nano CaCO3 and nano calcium oxide (NCO) to improve the mechanical properties of
CFA-based geopolymers [95,96].

4. Management Policy of CFA

Great differences were observed in the classification and management policies of CFA
among countries. In 2014, the United States Environmental Protection Agency classified
CFA as ordinary solid waste from hazardous solid waste, which led to the utilization
ratio of CFA in the United States exceeding 60% in 2017, increasing annually [97]. On
the contrary, the Indonesian government issued regulations in 2014 to classify CFA as
hazardous waste [98].
In 1994, the Chinese government promulgated the Administrative Measures for the
Comprehensive Utilization of coal fly ash [99], which stated that the main disposal mode
of CFA in China is resource utilization rather than stockpiling and landfilling. Under the
influence of this policy, the comprehensive utilization ratio of CFA in China increased from 35%
in 1994 to 68% in 2011. In 2013, the Chinese government revised the Administrative Measures
for the Comprehensive Utilization of CFA. The policy further determines the direction of
resource utilization of CFA, mainly based on building materials, including cement mixtures,
concrete admixtures, and wall materials. To encourage the building materials utilization of coal
fly ash, the announcement on improving the value added tax policy [100] for comprehensive
utilization of resources issued in 2021 will refund 70% of the tax on some CFA-based building
materials. The main products enjoying tax refund include concrete and ceramic products with
more than 70% CFA, cement products of P.O. 42.5 and above with more than 20% CFA, and
cement clinker products with more than 40% CFA.
As one of the countries with the highest utilization ratio of CFA in the world, Japan
issued the Air Pollution Prevention Law in 1968 and classified CFA [101]. The Basic
Environmental Law promulgated in 1993 established strict detection standards for mercury,
organic phosphorus compounds, lead and other pollutants in CFA [102]. In 1991, the
“Resource Active Utilization Promotion Law” was issued [103], after the revision in 2001,
the CFA extended producer responsibility system was established and the legal constraints
on improving CFA utilization rate were strengthened. To promote the resource utilization
of CFA, the “Tax System for Promoting Fiscal Investment through the Reform of Energy
Supply Structure” provides for tax reduction and rebate for the investment in the equipment
for the resource utilization of CFA. The Development Bank of Japan also offers high
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 12 of 16

financing rate (40%) and low interest rate (1.9%) for financing related to CFA treatment
equipment. Therefore, the management policies of CFA have a great impact on the use of
CFA in the construction industry, as well as on solving the problem of CFA accumulation.

5. Conclusions and Prospects

(1) The CFA contains heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Pb, and As, and radioactive
elements such as 40 K, 226 Ra, and 232 Th. The references available suggest that the leaching
concentration of heavy metals and the annual effective dose of radioactive elements in CFA
are within the safe range.
(2) Adding the proper amount of CFA can improve the performance of cement and
concrete, but excessive CFA will affect their strength, especially the early strength. The
strength of CFA cement and concrete, especially the early strength, can be improved by
optimizing the curing system and adding nano particles or other supplementary cementitious
materials. Alkali-activated CFA concrete is a low-carbon green building material that can
replace ordinary Portland cement concrete. Cement and concrete are still the main building
materials for the resource utilization of CFA. The use of CFA as a single admixture can no
longer meet the requirements of the cement and concrete industries. In the future, composite
mixing technologies with CFA as the main material will be an inevitable demand for the
development of cement and concrete. Modification of CFA should be a focus of attention.
(3) Ceramics with mullite, anorthite, forsterite and spinel crystal phases produced
from CFA have broad prospects for application. At present, the research focus of CFA-based
ceramics is on the preparation and optimization of floor materials, refractory materials,
filter membranes and its supports. However, the high sintering temperature of CFA-based
ceramics leads to high energy consumption and high cost, which makes it mainly used as
high-end products. In addition, the color of CFA-based ceramics is mostly black or gray,
which also hinders its application to some extent. In the future, researchers should actively
explore methods to solve these problems.
(4) CFA can be used as the raw material for geopolymers alone, and can also be used
with metakaolin, granulated blast furnace slag, and other substances to prepare geopoly-
mers. CFA-based geopolymers have shown great potential for replacing ordinary Portland
cement. In future, the development of low-cost and environment-friendly excipients should
become a research priority. The formation mechanism of CFA-based geopolymers remains
controversial, and further research is required. In addition, the life cycle assessment of
CFA-based geopolymers should also be paid sufficient attention to analyze their long-term
economic and environmental impacts.
(5) The management policies of CFA have a great impact on the resource utilization of
CFA, especially the utilization of building materials. To a large extent, the more compre-
hensive and reasonable CFA management policies are, the more widely CFA is applied in
the construction industry, and the more conducive it is to improving the comprehensive
utilization ratio of CFA.

Author Contributions: X.L., writing—original draft preparation; B.L., writing—review and editing;
Q.Z., Q.W., S.W., K.X. and S.Z.—review and offering suggestions. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was sponsored by the National Key R&D Program of China (Grants No.
2019YFC1907101, 2021YFC1910504), Key R&D Program of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (Grants
No. 2021BEG01003), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants No. U2002212),
Xijiang Innovation and Entrepreneurship Team (Grants No. 2017A0109004), Macao Young Scholars
Program (Grants No. AM2022024), Beijing Natural Science Foundation (Grants No. L212020), Guang-
dong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (Grants No. 2021A1515110998, 2020A1515110408),
China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grants No. 2022BG019), the Fundamental Research Funds for
the Central Universities (Grants No. FRF-BD-20–24A, FRF-TP-20–031A1, FRF-IC-19–017Z, 06500141),
Integration of Green Key Process Systems MIIT and Scientific and Technological Innovation Founda-
tion of Foshan (Grants No. BK22BE001, BK21BE002).
Minerals 2023, 13, 25 13 of 16

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.

Acknowledgments: Thanks very much to the academic editors and reviewers for their earnest and
valuable comments, which improved the quality of this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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