AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE www.zedmaterials.

com
O’ LEVEL

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The book coverage of the o level syllabus used by teachers. In addition the book has been found to provide good coverage of the syllabuses
of Certificate Examination and Testing Board, the Cambridge ‘GCE’ school Certificate taken in Zambia.

VISION: “100% PASS RATE”

 Prepared And Published www.zedmaterials.com
By
CHANDA MANO MULENGA
manomulenga50@gmail.com
+260975598994 or +260963952090
CAREERS OF UNLIMITED POTENTIAL CAREERS
Agricultural Careers May Be Divided Into Various Categories
Agribusiness Management, Agricultural and Natural Resources Communications, Building Construction Management,, Agri-science, Resource
Development and Management, Parks, Recreations, and Management,, and Tourism Resources, Packaging, Horticulture, Forestry, Food
Science, and Fisheries/Wildlife.
For information on how you could benefit from the wide range of career services visit
No. 26A Lagos Road, Rhodes Park Lusaka

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+260 975540106
mycareermate@gmail.com, yesebill@yahoo.com

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Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

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transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise
without prior written permission of the copyright owner. ia
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VISION
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Quality, lifelong education for all which is accessible, inclusive and relevant to individual, national and
global needs and value systems.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Acknowledgements
Introduction.
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Methodology
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General Outcomes
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MANIPLATIVE Skills
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GRADE 8 - 12
Agriculture in Zambia
Soil Science
Crop Production
Forestry
Conservation Farming .
Livestock Production
Farm Structures
Farm Machinery
Farm Management
 CAREER MATE www.zedmaterials.com
Many children go to school without knowing what they are supposed to do, and leave school without any idea of what type of
jobs or careers they should follow. In addition, they have little understanding of themselves and their socioeconomic and political
environment.
Many school leavers today end up on the streets, and quite a sizeable number keep on moving from job to job trying to explore,
within the world of work, which job meets their interests and capabilities. A majority of these school leavers are not aware of
their potential.
Career mate is determined to help young people and children to know themselves, i.e., their abilities, interests, personalities,
values and beliefs, and potential.
Career mate offers young people self-service career guidance designed to assist you acquire the skills you need in order to cope
with the different circumstances you may encounter later on in life.
PREFACE
The ability to think scientifically and understand scientific processes is becoming a condition for survival in Zambia. It is
therefore, imperative that we emphasize the need for learners to develop skills that they can apply in various ways in the
environment.
This syllabus emphasizes that the approach to be used in the teaching of Agricultural Science should be learner centered.
Therefore, the teaching of Agricultural Science at this level of education should develop processes of scientific thinking in
learners and includes a vocational orientation of the subject.

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It is necessary, therefore, in Agricultural Science for learners to be enabled to apply their own ideas, use their own hands, and
conduct their own investigations, however simple. This necessitates balancing the content of what learners learn with the
processes by which they learn. This also implies an enhanced role for guided discovery

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This syllabus suggests that the development of scientific thought processes in learners can be approached from a number of
starting points. The criteria should be the relevance of the material to the environment and to the possible later sphere of the

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employment of the learner.
It is my sincere hope that this syllabus will greatly improve the quality of education provided at Grade 8,9,10, 11,and 12 as
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defined and recommended in various policy documents including Educating Our Future`1996 and the `Zambia Education
Curriculum Framework `2013.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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All of my gratefulness to almighty God who enabled me to accomplish my program. I really thank God almighty for the
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wisdom and strength he gave me. I shall praise thee forever and ever.
I would like to express my heartiest respect and profound appreciation to my brothers, sisters, relatives, and well-wishers for
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the inspiration help, and encouragements through the study and writing this book.
To my other half, my beloved wife Misumbi Ng’onga, this journey has been accomplished with you support nourishment and
motivation. You are a pillar of my strength. I am proud of you my love!
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INTRODUCTION
Agricultural science includes cross-cutting issues such as Environment, Reproductive Health, HIV and AIDS, Hygiene, Nutrition,
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Substance Abuse, Water and Sanitation.

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METHODOLOGY
The success of Agricultural Science can be achieved by maximum participation by learners. This subject that enhances
creativity, analysis, problemsolving and an investigative approach, can be taught effectively using a variety of methods
(techniques) both in the classroom and outside. It is advisable that these are integrated where ever possible. Learners are
expected to conduct experiments, study tours, field work and project work.

GENERAL OUTCOMES
There are many general outcomes in this syllabus: * Demonstrate an understanding of agriculture in Zambia * Recognize the
importance of soil management for sustainable crop production; * Demonstrate knowledge of crops and their sustainable
production; * Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the importance of plants and the need for their sustainable
utilization; * Develop knowledge and understanding of conservation farming * Develop knowledge of livestock and their
production; * Acquire knowledge of farm structures and maintenance * Acquire knowledge of farm machinery and maintenance;
* Acquire knowledge and understanding of farm management and * Develop investigative skills.
Through this syllabus the learners are required to acquire knowledge, values and develop positive attitudes and skills
 MANIPULATIVE SKILLS
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These enable learners to: Ÿ
Use and handle Agricultural Science apparatus and materials correctly; ŸHandle specimens correctly and carefully; ŸDraw
specimens, apparatus and substances accurately; ŸClean apparatus correctly; ŸStores apparatus, tools and substances
correctly and safely
They also need to develop attitudes and values.
Attitudes and values These include:
 ŸHaving an interest and curiosity towards the environment; Ÿ
 Being honest and accurate in recording and validating data; Ÿ
 Being diligent and persevering; ŸBeing responsible about the safety of oneself, others and the environment; Ÿ
 Realizing that Agricultural Science is a means to understanding nature; Ÿ
 Appreciating and practicing clean and healthy living; Ÿ
 Appreciating the balance of nature; Ÿ
 Appreciating the contribution of Agricultural Science and technology ŸHaving critical and analytical thinking; Ÿ
 Being flexible and open minded ŸBeing kind hearted and caring ŸBeing objective; Ÿ

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 Being systematic ŸBeing cooperative ŸBeing fair and just; ŸDaring to try ŸThinking rationally ŸBeing confident and
independent
This syllabus therefore:

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1. Promotes an appreciation of Agricultural Science as an applied science.

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2. Demonstrates the value of agriculture to the family and the Community, so as to show that improved Agriculture can
contribute to the World-wide Campaign for freedom from hunger; ia
3. Encourages the teaching, in a practical manner, of basic principles and skills in Agriculture and efficient farm business
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management;
4. Stimulates an interest in an create an awareness of, existing problems and opportunities in farming;
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5. Develops initiative problem-solving abilities, scientific methods and self-education so as to encourage resourcefulness
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and self-reliance
6. Provides a basis, together with the basic sciences and mathematics, for more advanced studies in Agriculture or for
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becoming a self-supporting worker.

7. Stimulating positive attitudes by showing that efficient farming can be both a profitable and rewarding occupation
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and;
8. Develops positive attitudes towards Zambia's natural resource so as to conserve and use them sustainably.
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Great Examination Tips

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Set aside one special place to revise. It should be where you feel 'at home' comfortable
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and have few disturbances. Try to do study always in the same place - and take out time
to picture in your mind what's in the room around you.

Improve Your Memory Improve Your Memory

Most of us complain at some point of poor memory – especially when we forget things that Most of us
complain at some point of poor memory – especially when we forget things that are very important. But its
not memory that lets us down. Our brains remember everything are very important. But its not memory
that lets us down. Our brains remember everything that we have ever experienced. What is at fault is our
ability to recall.
 GRADE 8 www.zedmaterials.com

TOPIC 1
Agriculture practice and industry
Agriculture
means cultivation of the field for the purpose of producing crops. It involves management of livestock, e.g. cattle, sheep, and poultry. It also
involves the storage, processing and marketing of agricultural products.
Importance of agriculture
i. Provides food: Agriculture provides virtually all the food required to feed the population. These foods maybe plants,e.g.maize,wheat or
animal,e.g.meat,milk and eggs.
ii. Provide employment:Agriculture creates employments directly for example, workers in Ranches,coffee,tea,and sisal estate and
smallholder farms.
iii. Provide foreign exchange :Agriculture earns the government of its revenue from taxes imposed on the sale and export of agricultural
produce.
iv. Provide raw materials for industries: Most of agricultural products require some processing before they eventually reach utilized.
v. Source of income: Agriculture is the main source of income for most developing countries. Farmers earn incomes and become self

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sufficient. Animal products are source of income for many small scale farmers in developed countries, for purchasing food as well as
seed, fertilizers and pesticides.
vi. It provide economic development: Since agriculture employs people it contributes to the economic development. As a result, the

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national income level as well as people standard of living is improved.
vii. Food security: A stable agriculture sector ensures a nation of food security. It prevents malnourishment that has traditionally believed to

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be one of the major problem faced by the developing countries.
viii. Provide livestock feeds:Morden feeds are produced by carefully selecting and blending ingredients to provide highly nutritional diets that

ix.
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both maintain the health of the animals and increase the quality of such products as meat, milk and eggs.
Source of saving: Development in agriculture may be also increase savings. The rich farmers we see today started saving particularly after
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green revolution. This surplus quality maybe invested further in the agriculture sector to develop the sector.
x. Animals provide drought power and source of manure (source of energy): Bovines,equines,camelids and elephants are used as source of
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drought power for variety of purposes, such as puling agricultural implements, pumping irrigation water and skidding in forest. The
manure produced can be recycled directly as fertilizer.
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Problem facing agriculture

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1. Poor crop and animal husbandly: Due to low level of education and sometimes conservation, farmers do not participate recommended
husbandly practices. This they will often plant late, fail to control pests, plant poor seeds and as a result the yields obtained are very low
compared with yields in the developed countries.
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2. Poor marketing facilities: Sometimes the transport system is insufficient or unavailable thereby leading to spoilage of produce due to the
delay in delivering it to the market. Sometimes the middlemen involved in the marketing of produce take too large a profit with a result
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that the farmers receives too low price for his produce. Hence he has a incentive to produce more.
3. Lack of capital: Every farmer requires capital to invest in the development of his farm, e.g. he needs capital to install piped water on his
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farm for his family and livestock, or capital for buying fencing materials or fertilizers.
4. Poor tools: In most rural areas the farmers still use the traditional hand tools, e.g. the hoe, panga,fork,etc. Which are rather inefficient.
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5. Poor storage: This is a major amongst the small scale farmers face. Due to poor storage and handling of agriculture produce, e.g. grain and
fruits, much spoilage though pests damage occurs, resulting in considerable waste.
6. Fluctuation of commodity prices: Due to change in supply and demand, price of most agriculture products to change from time to time
with very unselling effects on farming. As the price of production inputs does not follow the same trend, the farmers profit may fluctuate
so much that he may be discouraged from producing the commodities in question.
Importance of sufficient food production in Zambia
 Food provision
 Food security
 Employment
 Provision of raw materials
 Income and foreign exchange
Role of agriculture in the economy of Zambia
 Raise income
 Food security
 Job creation.
 AGRICULTURE ACTIVITIES www.zedmaterials.com
IN ZAMBIA
Animal husbandry
Is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat,fibre,milk eggs, or other food
products.
Crop husbandry
Is the scientific and technology that deals with the various aspect of crops from seed sowing,on field and
off-field operations,harvesting,threshing,storage and marketing of products.
Horticulture
Is the agriculture of plants, mainly for food,materials,comfort and beauty for decoration.
Irrigation
Is the system of applying controlled amount of water to plant at needed intervals. It helps to grow
agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and vegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during and periods of

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less than average rainfall.
Fish farming
Is the raising of fish for personal use or profit. It is sometimes called fish culture.

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Bee keeping

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Is the human activity of maintaining honey bees. It is the maintenance of bee colonies,comonly in man
made hives, by humans. ia
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Dairy farming
Is a type of agriculture that focused on producing milk.
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Ranching
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Is the practice of raising herds of animals on large tracts of land. It commonly raise grazing such as cattle
and sheep.
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Forest
Is a large dominated (covered) with tree under growth. It is the practice of managing forest lands for
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various, including commercia,agricultual.

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Areas that are not suitable for daily and ranching

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 The Luangwa valley

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 Some parts of western province

 Luapula province
 Southern central province
 AGRO-ECONOMICAL REGIONS (ZONES) OF ZAMBIA
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Zambia has divided into three regions:

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Region 1
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Consist of south part of Zambia which covers valley:
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 Luangwa
 Zambezi
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 Gwembe
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 Lunsanfwa
 Berotse lands
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Average rainfall
• 600 – 800 mm per annum
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• Have recurrent droughts and foods

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• Shortest growing season

• 20 to 40 dry days in the rain season
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Temperature
• In summer can be more than 38oC
• High temperature
• Longest sunshine hours
• Frosts occurrence due to deference between low and high temperature
Soil
• Very poor except in areas near rivers
• Poor drained
• Reddish course sandy
• Shallow and with a lot of gravel
Crops
• Drought tolerant
• Early maturity
 Region 2 www.zedmaterials.com
Consists of the central and eastern plateau of the country. It also consists of provinces such as Lusaka
province and western province.
Rainfall
Receives 800 – 100 mm of rainfall
Temperature
• In summer can be between 20 and 33 OC
• Some areas experience critical frost
Rainfall
• Good distributed rainfall
• 150 to 160 growing season
• Rainfall can be more than 800 mm annually
• Rainfall increases towards region 3 and reduces towards region 1

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Soil
• Contain the most fertile soil in Zambia
•

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It has sandy and alluvial soils (leached soils)
• They are deep

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• Generally good soils
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Aluminum toxicity and high acidity not issues ia
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Well drained
crops
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• Wide range of crops grown in this region

• The region is regarded as the most productive due to fertile soils and favorable climatic condition
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• Medium variety
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Region 3
Covers the northern province, copperbelt province, north western province, Luapula province, and Muchinga province .
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Rainfall
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• Receives more than 1,200mm of rainfall

•
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Highest rainfall
• Starts early and ends late
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• Growing season is largest with 160 to 180 days

• Best distribution
• Few dry days
Temperature
• In summer can be 18 -30 OC
Soil
• Have acid –leached soils of relatively low fertility
Crops
• Late maturing is cultivar (varieties) are preferred (required) such as:
Maize
Groundnuts
Millet
Rice
Cotton
Tobacco
 AREAS THAT ARE NOT VERY SUITABLE FO R GROWING MAIZE IN ZAMBIA
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 Areas with northern plateau soils
 Areas with western windblown soils
 Stony soils of valley sides
 Areas with swampy soils and areas with flood plain soils
Factors that influence agriculture development
i. Climate: different types of crops grow well under different temperature and rainfall ranges.
ii. Transport: is needed to move inputs and produce to and where they are needed.
iii. Research: very important in agriculture methods of communication new findings to the farmers have
been improved and expanded.
The need for farmers to diversify the production of crops and livestock
 Diversification: means growing of various of crops and probably even rearing animals.
 Diversification saves farmers when one enterprise is attacked by a disease.

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 Diversification helps farmers to earn a higher income.
Agencies and organization that assist farmers

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Marketing boards

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To advise farmers on demand for requisites, inputs, and supply of produce. In the public the food reserve
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agency and organization such as private companies buy produce from farmers.
Extension Department
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This involves officers from the ministry visiting the farmers to demonstrate and instruct them on method
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of increasing the production of crop animals.

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Food Reserve Agency (F.R.A)

This buy agricultural produce from farmers and store the produce for future use.
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Fisp
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These help farmers to acquire farming inputs.

Types of farming
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Small scale farmer

Grow enough food for the family on a small piece of land. They use traditional implements and methods.
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Commercial farmers
Grows enough food (crops) on a large piece of land only for sale. They practice mechanized agriculture and
use modern methods.
Main commercial farming areas in Zambia
Commercial farming areas are found in areas along the line of rail.
 Types of farming
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Shifting cultivation
Is a method of raising crops by pioneer farmers in large, scarcely populated areas.
Advantages
 The farmers does not incur costs of maintaining land fertility
 Cropping is always done on fertile ground and land deterioration is rare
 Farmers has no permanent settlement
Disadvantages
 Product is on small scale and the method is on practicable where the population is very low.
 It is a farming method which is quickly disappearing
Pastoralism farming
Is raising livestock
Nomadism farming

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Is the leading of an unsettled way of life.
Nomadic pastoralism
Is a term used to describe livestock raring communities who move from place to place looking for

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pastures and water for their cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and donkeys. They substance farmers that
although they may have large herds of livestock, the level of production is very low. This is due to poor

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pastures, draught, poor breeding methods, poor parasite control and land deterioration due to
overstocking.
Arable farming
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Is the growing of crops. It may be practice mono cropping (monoculture) in which they specialize in the
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Production of only one crop or mixed cropping where more than one crop is produced.
Plantation
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This have processing factories for the crops on the same farm, tea estate, fruits, or orchards etc.
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Mixed farming
Is another type of diversification. In this type of farming; both crops and livestock are raised on the same
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farm.
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TOPIC 2
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Soil Science
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Soil
Is the upper layer of the earth consisting of weathered rock particles, organic matter, air and water in
which plants grow.
Soil Formation
Is the process by which soil is formed as a result of interactions over time between parent material
(Rocks), climate, topography, and organisms.
Importance of soil
o Anchorage the plants
o It provides soil with nutrients
o It has medium of micro-bio activities
o It stores water
 www.zedmaterials.com
Factors that are involved in the soil formation
Soil come from rocks. Formed by the process of weathering. Weathering is the process by which the
parent materials change to soil. It makes physical (living organisms, temperature, wind, trees and animals)
and chemical changes to parent rock, caused by factors responsible for breaking up of rocks and these
include water, wind, animals and change in temperature.
Composition of Soil
 Organic matter (humus)
 Mineral matter
 Water
 Air
 Living organism
Humus

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Is the dark organic material in soils, produced by the decomposition of vegetable or animal matter and
essential to the fertility of the earth.
Mineral matter

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Is the non-combustible portion of materials present in coals and forms ash after combustion, which is for

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proper development of the parents.
Water ia
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Is an organic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colourless. Chemical substance, which is the
main constituent of earth’s hydrosphere and the fluids of most living organisms. It’s vital for all known
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forms of life, even though it provides no colouries , or organic nutrients. When it is in the soil is not
adequate, plants show symptoms of wilting, yellowing of leaves and stunted growth.
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Air
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Is the earth’s atmosphere. Air around us is a mixture of many gasses and dust particles. It is clean gas in
which living organisms. The atmosphere of earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that
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surrounds the planet earth and is retained by earth’s gravity.

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Living Organisms
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Is any individual entity that embodies the properties of life. It is a synonym for life form. They make holes
as they pass through the soil, thereby aerating. They also cause the decomposition of organic matter into
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humus.

Soil profile
Is the vertical arrangement of soil layers from the surface of the earth to the beneath the ground.
Different layers of a soil profile
 Top soil
 Sub soil
 Parent rock
 Different in soil horizon www.zedmaterials.com

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Horizon contains leaves and stem litters, also referred to us the organic horizon.
A

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Horizon contains partly decayed plant materials and humus that make soil dark.

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B
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Horizon that contains either sand or clay. Colour of horizon varies in profile of different places.
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Horizon is the parent rock, most of the soil in the A and B horizons was formed from the parent rock
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through a process called weathering.

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Horizon which consists of solid rock thus the rock that has not undergone weathering process.
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Importance of top soil

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 For cultivation operations

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 Better aerated and has more active soil organisms

 Has more active soil microorganisms which decompose vegetable matter into organic matter and
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humus
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Importance of sub soil

 Usually are compact and less aerated than the top soil
Choice of crop and depth of soil layers
 Crops have different types of roots. Thus others have shallow root system while others have deep
root system such as maize and rice can grow well under shallow profiles.
 Crops with top root systems such as oranges, guavas and citrus fruits grow better .
Importance of the layers of soil to agricultural value of soil
 A farmer can know how suitable a soil is for agricultural purposes. The thicker the top soil, the more
nutrients the soil has for crop production.
 Farmers can tell how seriously eroded his/her soil is and measure to correct and prevent further
erosion.
 SOIL Texture www.zedmaterials.com
Is the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil sample or coarseness or fineness of
individual soil particles.

Types of Soil
 Clay
 Sands
 Silt
 Loam
 Gravel
 Sandy loams
 Silt loams
 Clay loams

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Clay minerals

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Are formed as a result of weathering. They are very fine. Single clay particles (crystals) are too small to

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see with naked eyes. Even under the most powerful microscope they are difficult to see. They are held
closely together and therefore clay soils contain less air and are poorly drained.
Sands ia
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Are course textured, well drained and relatively low in plant nutrients. Sandy soils are usually acidic in
reaction. They are derived directly from the original rocks.
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Silt
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This are derived directly from the primary or original rocks.

Loams
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Are moderated fine textured, moderately well drained, moderately fertile and moderately to slightly acid
soils.
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Gravel
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Are rock particles including pebble and stones. They are hard and heavy and because of their size there
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are huge and pore spaces between the particles.

Sandy loams
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Are moderately coarse textured, well drained, moderately fertile and moderately to slightly acid. They
have high water holding capacity. It contains of 50 -80% sand, 20-50% silt clay and 0.1 -3% organic
matter.
Silt loams
Are fine textured, fairly well drained, fertile and slightly acid soils. They holds enough water and plant
nutrients, e.g. nitrate. They contains 20 -30% sand, 70-80% silt and clay and 0.1-4% organic matter
Clay loams
Are very fine textured, poorly drained and from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline. They 20-50% of
sand, 20-60% of silt and clay and 0.1-6% of organic matter.
 Soil particle sizes which determine www.zedmaterials.com
soil profile
 Stones: particles of large soil
 Gravel: particles greater than 2 mm in diameter
 Coarse sand: particles less than 2 and greater than 0.2 mm in diameter
 Fine sand: particles between 0.2 mm and 0.02 mm in diameter
 Silt: particles between 0.02 mm and 0.oo2 in diameter
 Clay: particles less than 0.002 mm in diameter
Experiment to understand soil profile
Procedure
 Take a little soil and break the clumps to powder it (don’t use crasher, do it by your hand)

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 Add a handful of this powdered soil in a transparent grass tumbler
 Stir the suspension with a stick so that the soil get dissolved
 Let the suspension stand undisturbed for some time

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Observation
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We layers of particles of different sizes in the grass tumbler. There is a topmost layer of some dead leaves
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or animal remains floating on water. This rotting dead matter in the soil is called humus. Below layer of
humus, there is a clear water level which contains dissolved part from the soil. Below water layer, there are
layers of clay, sand, gravel and stones.
To observe the below layers we must dig a ditch. Soil profile can also seen while digging a well or during
laying the foundation of a building. It can also be seen at a steep river bank.
 Organic manures www.zedmaterials.com
Are obtained from died plant and animal matter. They have varying quantities of nutrients.
Chemical Fertilizers
Are manufactured in industries and have nutrients in fixed proportions, e.g. N.10:P.20:K.10.
Straight fertilizers
Is one which contains one major element, e.g. (urea, ammonium nitrate, phosphorus).
Compound fertilizers
Contains two ore more major elements, e.g. (D-compound, ×- compound).
Period of applying fertilizers
 Basal dressing fertilizers: during sowing or planting.
 Top dressing fertilizers: are applied when crop reaches 30-45cm or flowering period in certain crops.

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Composition of fertilizers on their containers
NPK meaning fertilizers has N-nitrogen 20%, P- phosphorous 10% and K-potassium 5%.

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Quantities of fertilizers required by a crop

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Can be calculated using formula,
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𝐍𝐮𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐱 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐳𝐞𝐫
𝟏𝟎𝟎
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e.g.
Nitrogen 20%
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Weight of fertilizer
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𝟐𝟎𝐱 𝟓𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
10 =
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Merits of manure
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o Improve the structure of manure

o Reduces surface runoff
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o Support soil organisms

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o Increases ability of soil to absorb and retain more water

Demerits of manure
o It is difficult to estimate how much to apply
o Runoff water may carry manure applied to a field water such as a river causing pollution
Merits of chemical fertilizer
 Release nutrients in the soil quickly
 Small amount is required and is in high concentration
Demerits of chemical fertilizer
 Lead to acidification
 Continuous use destabilizers the soil causing pan formation.
 Topic 3 www.zedmaterials.com

Crop production
Is a branch of agriculture that deals with growing crops for use as food and fiber. It includes grains,
cotton, tobacco, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and plants.
Vegetables
Are parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. They can be eaten as fresh or
cooked.
Vegetables gardening
Is the propagation of vegetables for home consumption and market
Importance of vegetables
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Fruits and vegetables are great source of vitamins and minerals
 They protect against cancer and other diseases
 They help you maintain good health

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 Most vegetables are naturally low in fat and calories

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 Are source of many nutrients such as potassium, dietary, fiber, foliate (folic acid),vitamin A, and
vitamin C.
Groups of vegetables
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Root vegetables
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legume vegetables
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Cucurbit vegetables
 Solanaceous vegetables
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• leafy – rape, cabbage and chomolier

• Miscellaneous – leaks and onions
• Pod vegetables− green beans

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• Corn flower vegetables−salad, cabbage, tomato
Winter crops

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 Cabbage , peas. Cool 12 − 13 OC

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Summer crops
 Tomato, okra. Hot 18−30 OC ia
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Photo periodic (sm)
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These are short day crops which requires short days periods, e.g. sweet potatoes
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Long day crops

Are crops that require long day period about 12−13 days for them to flower.
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Natural crops
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Are crops that require either long or short days to flower.

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Explanation of Site suitable for growing vegetables

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 The land should be leveled it should be slope

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 They should be near water for watering

 They should be away from big trees to avoid shade
 The site should be allocated near planting area
 The soil should be deep. It is the farmers choice to choose deep soil where to do sunken nursery or
raised bed.
Important factors that make a site suitable for vegetable growing
 Near home
 Near source of water
 On deep fertile soil
 Fenced
 Where are no trees
 On flat land
 Garden www.zedmaterials.com

Is a space, usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, or enjoyment of plants and other forms
of nature. It is where herbs, fruits, flower, or vegetables are cultivated.
Types of Garden
 Backyard garden/kitchen: is found at home. It is fenced to prevent hazards.
 Market garden: is the type of garden that produce vegetables for sale at the local market, e.g. kitwe
Chisokone.
 Truck garden: is the type of garden where vegetables are produced in large quantities for distance
market.
 Process: is the type of garden that produce vegetables for sale only direct to industries..
 Vegetable fencing garden: is the type of garden where vegetables are grown out off the normal grown
seasons.

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 Institution garden: is the garden where vegetables are grown mostly in colleges, universities for
training purposes.
 Demonstration garden: these are field garden.

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Simple plan for vegetable growing

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A plan for vegetable growing

1st year green beans(legume) 2nd carrot (root crop)

3rdyear tomato (solanaceous crop) l4th year cabbage (leafy crop

 Crop Rotation www.zedmaterials.com
Is a planned sequence of different crops grown on a same piece of land but different time.
Importance of crop rotation
 For minimizing pests and diseases
 For improving soil fertility
 Protection soil erosion
 Helps to control weeds
Importance of a legume in vegetable rotation
Legume plants has nodules on its roots in which bacteria are found that fix nitrogen in the nodules.
Therefore nitrogen are released into the soil.

Preparation of Seedbed
A seedbed is a plot of garden set aside to grow vegetable seeds, which can be transplanted. Seedbed preparation

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operations include activities such as ploughing or digging (if hard tools are used), harrowing to break large soil clods
into smaller ones, and sometimes rolling of the ground to firm the soil.

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Reasons for preparing a seedbed


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To kill the weeds either by burning them or by desiccation through exposures to themselves.
 To bury crop residues from the previous season’s crop so as to make it easy to plant. Burring the trash,
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decomposition of animal and vegetable matter is speeded up resulting in the addition of organic
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matter into the soil as well as releasing of nutrients for use by the plant.
 Seedbed preparation loosen up the soil thereby facilitating rainfall infiltration into the soil as well as
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improving soil activation. A well aerated soil promoting rapid root growth as well as increasing final
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yield.
 Seedbed preparation maybe aimed at breaking hard soil surface that may sometimes form with the
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result that rainfall acceptance of the soil is impeded.

Operations involved in seed preparation
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1) Primary operation
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2) Secondary operation
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Primary operations
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This includes activities such as initial clearing of the land by cutting down of the bush, or uprooting trees
and tree stumps and initial ploughing are heavier jobs and therefore employing heavier implement as well
as being more time consuming and costly.
Secondary operations
This follows primary operation which includes mainly harrowing. These operations are less onerous and
rate of work is comparatively faster than for primary operations.
Types of methods of preparing seedbed
Hand methods
This involves the use of a wide range of tools such as pangas, and jembes. The pangas are used for the
bush or for weeding the crops. Jembes are used for digging and later on for harrowing after the newly dug
land has weathered down. These method is slow process such that only a few hectors are capable of being
managed.
 Mechanical method
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It involves mainly the use of tractor-mounted or trailed implements such as various types of ploughs,
harrows and cultivators. This method is mainly used by large scale farmers. These machinery is costly.
Advantages of mechanical method
 Quick rate of work
 Better burring of the weeds
 Machinery can efficiently cope with difficult soil condition
 Less laborious. Human labour is spared to do necessary planning of the farm operations
 Land preparation is done on time therefore planting is done at the correct time leading to high yield
Disadvantages of mechanical method
 Maintenance of the machine is costly.
 Skill is needed to operate machinery efficiently.
 Machinery is costly: tractors, ploughs, and harrows are very costly and their purchase must be

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justified by expected returns from the farm.
Ox−cultivation method

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This is another method which involves the use of farm animals. Thus oxen (bulls, bullocks and cows) can
be trained to pull ploughs, harrows and cultivators during seedbed preparation or weeding. These method

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is faster and more efficient than hand cultivation.
Field practical
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To demonstrate how to make a nursery, sowing seeds and how to transplant seedlings
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Nursery (seedbed) preparation

Clear all the weeds and grass. Measure one meter wide of any convenience length and dig well. Fertilize
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each three meter square with one wheelbarrow of compost and sand to make thick layer then water the
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bed.
Planting (sowing) seeds
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Plant seeds in rows. The land should face where the sun rises from. Make straight line, 2 cm deep at a
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spacing of 7 cm apart. Mulch the bed with dry grass, then water it using a water can. Water the bed
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whenever it is necessary and avoid over watering it.

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Germination
The seeds will start germinating after 5-7 days. Remove the grass and then put a shade 1 meter high
and ensure sunlight go through.
Transplanting
When seedlings are ready for transplanting remove the shade a day before transplanting as this gives
the seedlings chance to get used to the strong sun-shine (addening of seedlings). Transplant early in the
morning, or late in the evening (from 6-10 am or 4-6 pm). Husbandly should also practiced.
Requirement when making a nursery
 Hoe, spade, rake, fork, cane, watering cane, string, stick or peggies, and measuring tape
 Weeds www.zedmaterials.com
A weed is any plant growing where it is not wanted, a plant out of place. E.g. if potato or bean plants growing in a
stand of wheat can be considered as weeds.
Infects of weeds
 Compete against crop plants: just like the other plants, weeds need water, light, nutrients, and space to grow.
They secure these from the surrounding environment by competing against crop plants.
 Low quality of products: as is well known weeds are prolific seed producer. These seeds lower quality of
produce when it becomes contaminated. E.g. if wheat is contaminated by certain noxious weed seeds buyers
will not accept the crop.
 Lower quality of pasture: weeds reduces the caring capacity of some pastures.
 Some weeds are poisonous: some weeds are health hazard both to man and his animals. E.g. Datura is common
but very poisonous weed.
 Increase costs of production: a farmer has to incur heavy expenses in controlling and eradicating weeds, either
by tillage or by chemical spraying.
 Harbour pests: weeds may harbour pests so that they become a source of infestation.
 Block irrigation and navigation: some water, e.g. salvinia in the kariba dam in Zambia, from thick mats which
impede water flow and even navigation.

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Types of weeds
Various weeds are classified as either annuals, biennials, or perennials depending on their productive cycle.

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Annual weeds
Are weeds usually complete their life cycle in one year.

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Biennial weeds
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Are weeds that complete their life cycle in two years or seasons.
Perennial weeds
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Are weeds that take more than two or more years to reproduce themselves before death
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Examples of common weeds

Weeds are commonly (broadly) grouped into two categories
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 Narrow leaved
 Broad leaved
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Narrow leaved weeds

This have very prominent, almost parallel veins or ribs which can run the length of the leaf, sometimes the blade
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being strong folded lengthwise along each rib.

Grasses
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These maybe perennials, or annual.e.g. couch grass (digitaria scalarum), star grass (cynodon dactylon), and speac
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grass (imperata cylindrica). Annual include elusin Africana, digitaria spp, and setaria spp.
Sedges (cyperus rotundus)
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This herb is known as nut grass. It has a three sided stem, with leaves arising in a basal tuft. They are narrow and
grass-like.
Broad leaved weeds
Are unwanted tough plants that might grow in lawns, gardens, or yards. They are emerged annually, biennially, or
perennially.
Oxalis spp (corniculata)
This is a small straight herb. It has three lobed leaves , further lobed at the free margins. Leaves may be
green, or sometimes purplish. At night, or when picked, the leaves droop and fold up. Flowers are small and
yellow.
Biden pilosa (black jack)
These are common weed is usually called black jack. It is a branching herb with a four-angled stem. It
may grow as high as 1m, leaves are compound and leaflets may reach 8. 5 cm.
 weed control www.zedmaterials.com
This include many techniques used to limit weed infestations and minimize competition.
Importance of weed control
 Helps to reduce competition for sunlight, water, space and nutrients
 Helps control of pests and diseases
 Makes farming operations to be much easier and faster
 Eliminate poisonous weeds

Methods of weed control

1. Chemical weed control
In this method the chemicals used in the control of weeds are called herbicides. They can be applied on

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the weeds or soil either in the form of spray or solid depending on the nature of the chemical.
Herbicide selectively
By selectively is meant that the certain herbicides kill only certain kind of plants but have very little

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effect on other plants.

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Pre−emergence and post−emergence
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Herbicides maybe applied either soon after sowing to kill any weeds around so that the crop seedlings
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germinate in a weed free environment, or after the crop plants have emerged from the soil. The former
application is called pre−emergence
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In this method the sown seeds are protected from herbicide by the soil. Sometimes heavy rains after
pre−emergence application of the herbicide might leach the chemical to the zone where the seed is sown. If
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this happens germination may either be retarded or the seed killed. The main advantage of this method is
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that the weeds are more efficiently controlled as they are very young.
The later method of application is called post−emergence. This method is used to kill weeds after they
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have germinated. These specialized herbicides should be used as the plant is actively growing and not
simply green.
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Effects of herbicides on the environment

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 They cause a build up in the soil of herbicides

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 Instead of killing weeds, soil organism and used insects such as bees maybe destroyed. Some
chemicals remain in the soil and washed into water courses and these are poisonous to fish.
Conditions for maximum effectiveness of herbicides
 Must apply the rate recommended
 Must be apply at correct stage of growth of the crop
 Do not spray if it looks like it is going to rain soon after spraying
 Must apply at the correct stage of weed growth. Young actively growing weeds are more easily
affected by herbicides at the normal rate than older weeds which tend to become resistant. Less
chemical is used when weeds are sprayed young.
 Avoid spraying during windy weather to prevent drift getting onto susceptible crops which maybe in
the neighbouring field.
 Some herbicides have adverse effects on the produce. Therefore, ensure that the herbicide you are
contemplating using does not impair the quality of the product.
 Advantage of chemical control method

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Can be used in good time before any competition from the weeds sets in. this leads to increase yields.
 Can be used more effectively than tillage operations in controlling weeds with the row.
 Chemical weed control reduces the amount of tillage which may confer beneficial effects on soil
structure.
 There is no root change nor is soil disturbed thereby bringing more weed seeds to the surface for
germination.
 Weeds with similar morphological characters like crop are escaped from mechanical method. But now
herbicides are available which can kill such weeds without damaging the crop.
Disadvantages of chemical control method
 They are expensive
 Technical knowledge in the use of the herbicide is required. e.g. knowledge on the rate, time of
application, formulation, etc.
 They are danger risk. Some chemicals are danger risk to man and other animals and therefore, care is
needed when handling the chemicals.

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2. Mechanical weed control method
Is any technique that involve the use of farm equipment to control weeds. It includes weed pulling,

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mowing, mulching, tillage, soil solarization, fire and flooding.

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Weed pulling
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Is the uprooting and removing of the weed from the soil. It can be used to control some shrubs, tree
samplings, and herbaceous plants.
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Mowing
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Is to cut or shreds the above ground of the weed and can prevent and reduce seed populations as well
as restrict the growth of weeds.
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Mulching
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Is a layer of material that is spread on the ground. It is simple and inexpensive.

Tillage
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Is also known as cultivation, is the turning over the soil. This method is often used in agriculture crops.
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Soil solarization
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Is a simple method of weed control that is accomplished by covering the soil with a layer of clear or black
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plastic. The plastic that is covering the ground tramps heat from the sun and raise the temperature of the
soil.
Fire
Is the burning and flaming that can be economical and practical methods of weed control if used
carefully. It is commonly used to control weeds in the forests, ditches, and roadsides. It can be used to
remove accounted vegetation by destroying the dry, matured plant matter as well as killing the green new
growth.
Flooding
Is a method of weed control that requires the area being treated to saturated of 15 to 30 cm for a
period of 3 to 8 weeks. The saturation of the soil reduces the availability of oxygen the plant root thereby
killing the weeds.
3. Cultural weed control method www.zedmaterials.com
By cultural weed control means natural. It involves crop rotation, mulching, controlled grazing, good
husbandry practices and burning.
Crop rotation
Different weeds follow different crops. Hence by arranging the cropping program in proper sequence,
certain weeds can be controlled.
Mulching
Is the use of vegetable matter and in some instances synthetics., e.g. polythene sheets to cover the soil
surface. Mulching controls weeds by cutting out right from the surface of the soil which prevents
germination of the weed seeds due to lack of light.
Controlled grazing
Over grazing should be avoided as it encourages the weeds to out complete the describe grass and

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legume pieces.
Good husbandry practices

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This includes early or timely planting, use of clean seed for planting, application of fertilizer. Timely
planting and the use of fertilizers gives the crops an early and healthy start which enables them to out

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complete the weeds.
Burning ia
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Burning kill weed seeds as well as the weed plants themselves.
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4. Biological weed control

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This method relies on the use of a biological agent (insects) to control the weeds of which the agents is
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a natural predator. The control agent either kills the weed or suppresses its growth or seeding through
various ways, such as feeding on the weed plant.
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Safety rules when applying chemicals in the garden

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o Use protective clothing

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o Wash after spraying

o Do not eat or smock while spraying
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o Store sprayer in original container

Field practical
To demonstration effective weed control methods for a studied vegetable.
 Plant pests www.zedmaterials.com

A pest is an organism that causes damage to crop plants by feeding on them.

Types of pests
 American boll worm: tomato
 Aphid: mostly leafy crops
 Caterpillar: cabbage, rape and tomato
 Eelworm: tomato, carrots and Irish potato
Ways in which pests cause harm to crops
Feed on leaves, stem and flowers
Methods of controlling pests in crops grown


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By use of chemical control (pesticides): this method involves dusting, spraying or fumigation of a crop
with a substance specifically harmful to the particular pest or target organism.
 Crop rotation: these controls pests by breaking their life cycle and reducing the population by resting

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the land under a complete type of crop which is fed on by the pest.

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 Avoidance: some foliar spays and temik use at planting may reduce the build up of beneficial insects
and lead to more severe later seasons caterpillar infestation. Early season insects pests rarely require
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insecticides and if used, may produce more negative consequence by removing predators and
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parasites then benefits from insect control.
 Biological: this involves the use of a living agents (insect) for the control of the pests. The agents can
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be insects, virus or bacterium. In other words the natural pest control methods are known as
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biological control method which is the use of natural organisms (enemy, e.g. ladybird, beetles feeding
on aphids) to attack pests.
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Safety rules when storing pesticides

 Keep pesticides in lockable stores
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 Keep pesticide containers clearly labeled

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 Do not keep pesticides in food containers or bottles

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Effects of prolonged use and excess pesticide on the environment

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 Pollution of land: is also known as soil pollution where the upper layer of the soil is damaged. This is
caused by the over use of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion caused by running water and other pest
control measures; this leads to loss of fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, fodder particles for
grazing.
 Pollution of air: this is the mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Some causes of air pollution
are gases, dust, chemicals from factories pollen and mold pores may also suspended as particles.
 Pollution of water bodies: is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities.
Water bodies includes lakes, rivers, oceans, acquitters and groundwater, seas.
 Persistence in soil and living organisms: persistence in the soil is one of the evaluation aspect of plant
protection products. Soil living organisms includes bacteria, fungi, algae, mites, nematodes
earthworms, ants, insects, etc. This soil organisms break up the complex substances in decaying
plants and animals so that they can be used again by living plants.
 Disease control www.zedmaterials.com

Is the practice of minimizing disease in crops to control to increase quality and quantity of harvest
yield.
Symptoms of diseases on crops
 Dark brown leaves
 Infected leaves roll upwards towards the midrib
 Yellow colour on leaves
Crops attacked by diseases
 Beans : mosaic virus
 Tomato: early and late blight


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Pumpkin: powdery mildew, etc.
Methods of preventing disease attacked on the crop

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• Application of fungicides: this can be done by spraying fungicides to inhibiting or kill the fungus
causing diseases

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• Early planting: this gives the crop an early start, before disease or other pests build up their
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populations. Early planted crops will usually grow more vigorously than late planted ones and
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therefore, be able to resist pests better.
• Crop rotation: controls this pests by breaking their life cycle and also reducing the population by
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resting the land under complete by different types of crops which is not fed on by the pest.
•
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Crop resistance varieties: the production of resistant varieties involves long term breeding programs,
especially if the resistance to the pest and diseases is to combined with high yields of good quality.
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Field practical
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To demonstrate how to mix and apply pesticide and fungicides correctly.

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E.g
 Make a solution of water with rogor (dimmthoate) to spray vegetables.
 Use 20 liters of water. The rate of rogor is 4 to 6 m/5 liter of water.
 Harvesting and marketing www.zedmaterials.com
Harvesting
Is the process of gathering a ripe crop from the field
Signs of readiness for harvesting the crops
 Yellowing and drying of the whole plant like in maize
 Dark makings on the inside of the seedpod in grounds
 Drying of the whole plant after maturity in certain crops. e.g. sorghum
How to harvest and prepare vegetables for marketing
 Some crops are harvested fresh while fresh like green beans
 Other harvestings while they are dry
 May types of vegetables have different harvesting methods

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Tools used for harvesting
 Axe

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 Gandasa
 Small sickle

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 Big sickle (darat)
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The sickle is used for harvest crops like wheat, maize, barley, pulses and grass. Big sickle is used to
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harvest fodder from trees.
Methods of harvesting
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 Manual harvesting: is done by one’s own hand. It is done in many ways, such as cutting by using
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knives, harvesting by means of digging tools, ladder/bag picking method and poles/clippers method.

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Mechanical harvesting: it involves the use of mechanical devices for harvesting the produce on
commercial scale.
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Storage of vegetables
• Green vegetables can be stored in a cool and well ventilated area with humidity to reduce
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evaporating of water.
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• Lifted carrots should be stored in cool, dry and well ventilated facilities out of direct sun
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NOTE: green vegetables are perishable such that they don’t store well.
Tools to keep vegetables fresh
 Fridge
 Container
 Plastic bag
Pricing vegetables for marketing
Pricing of vegetables goes with the grand's, large, small, medium and how clean the vegetables are.
 Profit www.zedmaterials.com
Is also called net income. Is the positive gain remaining for a business after all costs and expenses have
been deducted from total scale.
Formula
Total sales−Total expenses =profit
Loss
Is when you are spending money more than is coming into the business.
Formula
Cost price (c.p)−Selling price (s.p)
Selling price
Is the price at which product or service is sold to the buyer
Cost price

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Is the price at which the goods are or have been purchased (bought) by a merchant or retailer.
How to calculate profit/loss

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Profit

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Chanda mulenga purchased a car at k450 and sold it at k500. find his profit/percentage
Data ia
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Selling price =k500
Cost price = k450
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Solution
S.P−C.P
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500−450
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Profit= k50
50/450× 100
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percentage=11%
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Loss
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A man bought the pens at the rate of k450 and sold them at k120. find his loss/percentage.
Data
Cost price= k450
Selling price=k120
Solution
C.P−S.P
450 −120
Loss= k330
330/120×100
Loss percent=k275%
 Agricultural marketing www.zedmaterials.com
Market
Comes from the Latin word merchandise or trade or a place where business is conducted. A market is a place or a
building where commodities (goods) are bought and sold, e.g. supermarket.
Marketing
Involves the movement of agricultural products from the farm to the consumers
Market structure
Is the size and design of the market. It also include the manner of the operation of the market. It involves
organizational characteristics of a market which influence the nature of competition and pricing and affect the
conduct of business firms. It also involves characteristics of the market which affect trader’s behavior and their
performance.
Marketing functions
Is any single activity performed in carrying a product from the point of it’s production to the ultimate consumers.
Classification of marketing function
Marketing functions are classified here under nine headings:

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Processing
Is the changing of a product from its raw form to a more acceptable or easily utilizable form. e.g. wheat into flour
and then manufactured into bread, milk is pasteurized separate, converted into butter, cheese, ghee and ice cream as

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well as condensed or powdered.
Storage

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Products have to be stored from the harvesting season so that they are made available to consumers as and when
they are needed.
Buying and assembling
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Involves purchasing in small lots from producers, or other small suppliers and building up the commodity .e.g.
Africa purchase small quantities of milk, maize, coffee, cotton etc. and assemble the products into large quantities
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ready for the next operations.

Selling
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This includes all the activities that help in the presentation of a product or a commodity in a attributive manner to
the consumer. It involves bargaining for an advantages price, arranging the goods in a suitable manner for display as
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well as advertising.
Transportation
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Involves the physical movement of goods from supply center to eventual consumption centers. e.g. Maize has to
be moved from the farming areas to the main urban centers where it is consumed.
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Grading
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Is the sorting of goods according to the size, colour, quality and other characteristics which are fixed standards. It
enables the produce or products of the same class or grade to be sold in uniform parcels.
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Standardization
Is the establishment and application of measurements thus this can be quality or quantity.
Financing
Capital is required to finance all the activities from original buying of the raw product to the final sale of the
finished goods.
Bearing risk
Owing to the time lag between the original procurement of the raw product to the final sale of the
finished good, thereby is uncertainty regarding the final outcome of the marketing process. The product
may suffer physical damage such as destruction by fire, theft or merely deterioration in quality. Risk could
be transferred to an insurance company.
Collection and analysis of market information
Efficient marketing depends on the availability of market information to all concerned with the
marketing process. Knowledge of supply and demand condition of a commodity helps both sellers and
buyers to determine the appropriate price.
 Agricultural agencies, institutions and organizations
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Are bodies, weather individuals or groups which are involved in one, or more marketing function.
Types of agencies
Itinerant traders
Is the class of middlemen who move from place to place buying agricultural produce of various type from farmers. They are to
be found buying cattle, sheep and goats, various types of fruits and vegetables as well as pulses and grains, where the latter are
not restricted by law, they do not sell to consumers direct but rather to other agencies, such as traders who have stalls in urban
markets and grocers.
Processors
Most processing of agricultural products is undertaken by companies which may be private or public, e.g. British America
tobacco company for tobacco. They transform the raw product into the more usable finished commodity, such as conned fruits
and vegetables, baking flour, sugar and butter.
Wholesalers
They usually buy commodities in bulk from processors, or manufacturers and sell them to small sellers. They may also buy in
small lots (qualities) from farmers or itinerant traders and bulk up for sale to retailers.
Retailers
They usually buy in bulk from wholesalers and sell in small quantities to consumers. Most agencies are involved in retail trade.
Brokers and commission agents

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Is a class middlemen who act on behalf of other businessmen for a fee or a commission. Commission agents receive goods and
sell them on behalf of their principals. Brokers on the other hand usually bring buyers into contact without the brokers handling
the actual goods. This type of agent is done in both export and import so that local producer has no way of meeting the
consumers abroad.

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Co-operative societies and unions

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Are among the commonest marketing agencies at the local level and there are co-operative unions at the district level. These
co-operative society usually buy from the primary producers, assemble, undertaken the initial processing and then transport to
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another agent higher up in the line. Co-operative societies are very important in reducing the marketing costs for small scale
farmers. They also help in the procurement of various inputs farmers need for the production of various crops and livestock
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products.
Marketing boards
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They provide a means of government participation in marketing where boards are efficient and sensitive to market conditions
they can enhance marketing efficiency to the benefit of both producers and consumers.
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Problem of marketing agricultural products

Seasonality
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Agricultural production is seasonal in nature. Crops are planted on the onset of the rainy season and harvested in the dry
season. Price is low in the time of harvest and high between harvest.
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Storage
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Arising from the seasonality of production is the need to store agricultural products in order to make them available in
between harvest.
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Perishability
May agricultural products are perishable and deteriorate in quality very rapidly. Fruits and vegetables are, in general very
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perishable.
Bulkiness
Most agricultural products are bulky, they have low value per unit weight.
Changing in market demand
There is usually a relatively lag between the decision to produce and actual availability of the product. Consequently,
production plans based on today’s demand may yield products months or sometimes years from now. By that time, the demand
may have changed yet again.
Low state of knowledge
On average farmers as a class are less educated and less knowledgeable than the rest of the population. They are therefore
likely to be ignorant of conditions regarding marketing of their products which may lead to at least two problems. First they may
not produce in close conformity with market demand. Secondly, they are apt to be exploit by unscrupulous middlemen who, may
buy farmer’s produce at very low prices and sell at rather high profit margins.
Limited elasticity of demand
The bulk of agricultural production is food products. The demand for increases with income only as long as income is the
limiting factor to the food intake. After that, the increase in demand may be limited only to certain food types such as meat,
fruits and other forms of food, such as spices.
Topic 4 www.zedmaterials.com
Forestry
Agro forestry is a working tree farming system that iterates crops or livestock or both or with trees and shrubs.

om
Importance of trees in soil management

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 Control soil erosion by reduction and infiltration of water into the soil


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Reduce the impact of rain drops on soil
 Roots of trees hold soil together. Thereby improving soil health and the nutrient quality of forage.
Roles of trees in soil fertility improvement ia
er
Some trees are legumes and have nodules on their roots and capable of fixing nitrogen in the soil thus enriching
the soils with nutrients.
at

Trees used to make handles and poles

 Monkey bread
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 Eucalyptus grandis
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 Africa ebony
 Sickle bush
.z

Continuation of supply of poles and handle from the trees

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By ensuring more trees are planted and preservation of indigenous wood lands must be done.
Selecting a site for growing trees
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 Level land or flat land

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 An area without heavy frost

 Deep soil
 Well drained soil that is from water logging
 Adequate rainfall of a minimum of 700m of rainfall per annum
Factors that make the area suitable for growing trees
 Choosing site for growing trees need to have adequate water for trees to grow well.
 Soils need to be well drained as water logged soil lead to withering of trees since they would not get adequate
air from soil.
 Area need to be deep soil so that there is good anchorage for the roots.
 Area should be even reduce soil erosion from wind and runoff water.
Topic 5 www.zedmaterials.com

Conservation farming

Is the growing of crops while also ensuring that the environment and especially the soil is not
degraded
Mixed farming
Is the growing of crops and rearing of animals on the same farm
Role of mixed farming in the soil fertility
o Mixed farming enrich the soil with some nutrients
o It adds microbes into the soil and provides them with food

om
Why hoe is suitable for clearing the land for conservation farming
A hoe is used to clear land and in making planting stations.

.c
How to make ridges in conservation farming using a hoe or preparation of soil using a

ls
suitable hoe


ia
A hoe is used in making of ridges in high rainfall areas.
A suitable hoe should be used in making the ridges depending on the type of soil in the area.
er
Soil erosion
at

 You can control soil erosion by planting vetiver grass across the slop to check the speed of runoff.
m

 Plant into furrows along the slide of every 15th f ridges. Planting of this grass should be done between
mid - December and January when there is enough moisture for the grass to grow.
ed

Chemical fertilizer and manure application in conservation farming

.z

 This should be applied in the garden.

Planting
w

 Planting is done by using a hoe by ensuring that the soil is left undisturbed. Soil should only be
w

disturbed by the hoe where the seeds are placed. A hoe is used to dig appropriate holes where the
w

seeds of the crop will be sown, living the rest of the soil undisturbed.
weed control
 Weeds should be controlled appropriately in a crop grow under conservation farming
i. Early and continuous weeding should be carried out during the crop growing season.
ii. Do not allow weeds to grow beyond 5-6 cm high in the field before removing.

Practical
Plant correctly using suitable tools in the school garden
Topic 6 www.zedmaterials.com

Livestock production
Is the domesticated animals for the purpose of providing meat and other products, and by-products to
man.
Importance of livestock in Zambia
 Income generation for both the farm households and the nation at large
 Fight malnutrition
 Source of food
 Soil fertility
 It contributes to the increased GDP


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It brings in foreign exchange (forex)
 source of employment for the farm owners and their relatives as well as other nationals and foreign
nations

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 It provide animal draught power and provision of hides and skins

ls
Parts of digestion system of a bird
ia
er
at
m
ed
.z
w
w
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Function of the parts

 Beak: for picking up food particles
 Crop: stores food for a while and moisten
 Proventriculus: beginning of chemical digestion
 Gizzard: ground food into small pieces by action of muscles in the gizzard
 Intestines: were digestion is completed and end products are absorbed into the body
 Cloaca: digestion of cellulose may occur and water and by products of microbia/digestion are
absorbed
 Parts of digestion system of pig
www.zedmaterials.com

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.c
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• mouth - organ for food ingestion
ia
Functions of the parts of a pig
er
• esophagus – food passage from mouth to stomach
at

• stomach – stores food temporarily and secrets gastric juice onto it

m

• duodenum – mixes chime with bile and pancreatic juice and digestion of
proteins
ed

• large intestine – reabsorbs water from undigested part of the food mixture
• rectum – receives and temporarily stores waste products
.z

• anus – exit point of digested food as dung

w

Compare the digestive system of a bird and that of a pig

w

Chicken Pig
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• Beak mouth
• Oesophagus Oesophagus
• Crop -
• Proventriculus/ gizzard stomach
• Duodenum duodenum
• Pancreas pancreas
• Liver liver
• Small intestine small intestine
• Large intestine large intestine
• Caeca rectum
• Cloaca anus
 Parts of the reproductive system of a www.zedmaterials.com
female bird

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Importance of the reproductive system of a female bird

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It is important that fertilization takes place as the ovum reaches the oviduct
ia
Functions of the parts of the female reproductive parts of a female bird
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 Ovary-produces eggs
at

 Funnel / infundibulum receives eggs from the ovary oviduct

 upper most part next to funnel- produce albumen
m

 middle part - produces membranes

ed

 third region - produces shell

 Virgin - keeps the egg for a few Seconds on its way out
.z

Breeds
w

• Breeds of poultry
• Arbor Acre “ Harco”
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• Sykes “H3”
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• Syke “Brown”
• Warren Standler
Name some of hybrid poultry hatcheries in Zambia
• Hybrid poultry
• F and G Sykes (Zambia ltd)
• Caledonian hatcheries limited
Brooder house
Characteristics of a good poultry house
 Ventilation
 protection from rain
 protection from predators
 Easy to clean etc.
 Floor space to house poultry of different age
www.zedmaterials.com
Bird age floor space in m2/bird
• Chicks 1 -4 days 0.02
4 days brooder surround is extended.
7 – 10 days brooder surround, removed
• Grower 3 weeks 0.2
• Layers From around 19 weeks onwards 0.53
0.16
Equipment that must be in a poultry house.
 Tubular drinkers
 Tubular feeders
 Nests

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 Perches etc.
Simple plan of a poultry house

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ls
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m
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w
w
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 Incubation of eggs and brooding
www.zedmaterials.com
Incubation is the keeping of eggs in a fairy stable thermal, gaseous and humidity conditions for hatching.
Principles of incubation
 Naturally: is the method which most of indigenous chickens are produced under village condition by brooding hen.
 Artificially: is the artificial application of incubation that ensures the physical requirements such as temperature, relative humidity,
sufficient oxygen, carbon dioxide and process of artificial incubation.
Brooding
Is the provision of light temperature, humidity, condition, environment and area to birds or animals.
Light temperature for chickens in a brooder house
Temperature should be250oC

Practical
To demonstrate how to make and brooder day old chicks
PESTS AND DISEASES
Pests of poultry

 Mites
 Lice
 Fleas

om
Ways pests cause harm to poultry
Suck blood on the host and birds attacked by lice are poor health and may eventually weaken and die
Methods of controlling pests in poultry studied.
• Spraying

.c
• Dipping
• Dust bathing

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• Disinfecting poultry pens with suitable disinfectants
Diseases of poultry
•
•
New castle
Fowl pox
ia
er
• Coccidiosis
• Fowl typhoid
at

• Gumboro
• Mareks disease
m

Methods of controlling diseases in poultry studied.

• By regular vaccinations
• Disinfection of pens
ed

RECORDS AND MARKETING

Poultry records
Record keeping enables the farmer to work out the profit and loss of an enterprise. records can be grouped into two classes, recurring
.z

and layers.
Layers records can include
w

• number and value of hens as they start laying

• number of eggs collected per day
w

• daily food consumption

• labour and medicine costs
w

• number of dead and culled hens

How to Collect, store and market eggs correctly
• Collecting – clean eggs should be collected twice a day
• Storing – store eggs in a cool and clean place free from chemicals at 130C
• Marketing – sort and grade eggs according to size and colour and ensure that eggs are clean before taken for sale
Preparing a bird for marketing
chicken has to be slaughtered and hung in cool place, head downwards for 24 hours, then dressing of the chicken is done, head is cut off
close to the body then the inner parts are removed out and the carcass is cleaned, the carcass is packed in a plastics bag ready for sale
Topic 7 www.zedmaterials.com

FARM STRUCTURES
STORAGE OF VEGETABLES
Facility for vegetables
 Different vegetables require different ways of storing them, only enough vegetables
for consumption or marketing should be harvested as green vegetables are
perishable.
 green vegetables be stored in a cool and well-ventilated area with humidity to reduce
evaporation of water
 lifted carrot should be stored in cool, dry and well ventilated facilities out of direct

om
sun

.c
How to prepare vegetables for storage

ls
Most vegetables are perishable – they do not store well

POULTRY HOUSES
ia
er
Houses for day old chicks, grower, finisher, point of lay and layer.
at

• Day old chicks - brooder

m

• Grower – deep litter house

ed

• Finisher – deep litter house

• Point of lay – deep litter house
.z

• And layer – battery cages

w

Planned house for a given group of birds

w
w
Topic 8 www.zedmaterials.com
FARM MACHINERY
Hand tools used at the farm

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ls
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w
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Proper use of hand tools

Tools should be used only for the purpose for which it was made –e.g.
• trowel – loosening soil, digging holes and scooping seedlings from seed beds
• spade –moving soil as well as digging hard stony soil
• garden fork – turning litter and loosening soil
• mattock – digging hard ground and cutting wood
• water can – for carrying water and watering
Proper care for hand tools
 keep all tools clean, oiled and ready for use
 keep all tools under cover to avoid damage from, e g weather and animals
 using each tool for the purpose it was designed
 always keep tools in the tool box after using them
 SPRAYER www.zedmaterials.com

om
.c
ls
ia
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Functions of major parts of a hand sprayer
•
at

tank – for storage

• nozzle – used for releasing a fine spray to the required target
m

• handle –move up and down to operate a piston that forces the pesticides up the barrel and into the
ed

rubber hose
• pump – builds up pressure inside the tank
.z

ANIMAL DRAWN IMPLEMENTS

w
w
w
 Ox-drawn harrow
www.zedmaterials.com

om
.c
ls
• share – cutting furrow slices
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Functions of major parts of animal – drawn mouldboard plough
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• beam – holds other parts of the plough together
• mould board – for turning furrow slices and burying vegetation
at

• wheel – for adjusting ploughing depth and reducing resistance while ploughing
• link – linking the plough to a chain pulled by animals
m

STORAGE FOR FARM MACHINERY

ed

• Prepare hand tools for Storage

• wash and clean after using
•
.z

store in cool dry place

• apply oil
w

Facility for storing hand tools

w

Appropriate facility or storeroom for storing hand tools

w

Facility for storing animal drawn implements

• store in dry cool place
• clean and oil after use for proper storage
• apply oil
How to prepare animal drawn implements for storage
• clean after use and store in a dry place
• apply oil

Practical
Demonstrate the proper care for animal drawn implements
• Teacher to demonstrate to pupils proper care of implements
 Topic 9 www.zedmaterials.com

Farm management
Involves careful forward planning and utilization of resources of land and labour. It calls for a manager to
have knowledge of market. it’s important to bear in mind that regardless of the size of the farm, good
management is important.

Agricultural economics
Is the study of how limited resources (land, capital and lab our) are used to produce crops or animals
on a farm? It’s not possible to produce unlimited supplies of goods on a farm. This is because the
resources on a farm are limited. This makes it imperative to make a choice about the use of the resources
on the farm.
OPPORTUNITY COST AND PRODUCTION DECISION
Opportunity cost

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Refers to limited resources were there is need to make a choice meaning we choose to do one thing
e g if we choose to grow groundnuts on a piece of land that could also be used to produce sorghum ,

.c
then we miss or forgo the chance to grow sorghum
Farmer needs to make important decision as

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• what to produce
• how to produce
ia
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• how much to produce
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• Production decision
• how and when to buy and sell
m

Credit
ed

Types of credit available in Agriculture

• short term – repaid after one or two years can be used to buy inputs such as seeds and fertilizers
.z

• medium term loans – repaid over a period of three to five years this type can be used to buy
w

agricultural machinery
w

• long term loans –repaid over ten years to fifteen years this enable farmer to buy land
w

Interest
Is a charge imposed on borrowed money over a specific period of time
Difference between simple and compound interests
How to Calculate simple and compound interest
ZMK 5,000,000 for 2 years at 5% per annum
ZMK 5,000,000 x 5/100 x 2 = ZMK 500,000
With compound interest – interest attracted by the loan in the previous year is added to the principal
and for the next and subsequent periods thus
ZMK 5,000,000 +500,000 = ZMK 5.500,000
 RECORDS www.zedmaterials.com
Importance of various financial documents such as: Receipts, Invoice, delivery note and purchase
order.
• help in farm planning and budgeting
• on history of the farm
• helps in making insurance claims
• on whether profits or losses are being made
• help the famer to be assessed for current taxation
• help the famer to decide on or be assessed for credit
How to Prepare a production records
CROP YEAR

Spacing seed rate

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Date planted; date harvested;

Yield;

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Remarks;

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Prepare financial records
Refer to farm receipt for sales of eggs and vegetables
Enterprise
ia
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Is a business unit on the farm, example of farm enterprises are cabbage, beans, rape, broilers, layers and so on.
at

Gross output and margin of an enterprise

Gross output (GO)
m

Is the measure of to economic activity in the production of new goods and services in accounting period. It is the
total value of sales by producing enterprises in an accounting period e.g.(a quarter or a year) before subtracting the
ed

value of intermediate goods used up in production.

Gross margin
.z

Is the total income derived from an enterprise less the variable costs incurred in the enterprise. Gross margins
are currently available from a variety of sources for a range of crops. It can be used to analyze actual enterprise
w

performance.
Teacher to explain to pupils how to calculate the gross output and gross margin in details
w

Gross margin= gross income - variable costs

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GRADING AND STANDARDISATION

Grading
Is a process of sorting agricultural produce or products into different classes or grades according to type, colour,
quantity and size? it enables the produce or products of the same class or grade to be sold in uniform parcels
Standardization-
Is the establishment and application of measurements thus this can be quality or quantity
Grading produce
process of sorting agricultural produce or products into different classes or grades according to type, colour,
quality and size.

End of Grade 8
 GRADE 9 www.zedmaterials.com

Topic 1
AGRICULTURE IN ZAMBIA
Agriculture practice and industry
Importance of functional work practical
• Helps to develop practical skills in the practicing farmers
• Create jobs on the farmers thus reducing on unemployment in the country
• Leads to greater farm production
• Eliminate laziness among farmers who become hardworking as a result of functional practical work
• Helps farmers to be practical -oriented in agricultural production and this makes them more innovative
• Learning through doing and practicing approved methods of farming e.g. conservation farming, crop rotation
and early burning
• Investigate interdependence between agriculture and industry

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• Agriculture provides raw materials to agro -based industries.
Examples
• Timber is taken to paper industries to make paper

.c
• Agriculture provides food to workers in industries
• Workers in industries buy agricultural products from farmers

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• Agricultural exports earn foreign exchange which is based to import industrial machinery
EFFECTS OF HUMAN POPULATION ON AGRICULTURE ia
The effects of rapid population growth arable on ranching and land
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• Results to land fragmentation
•
at

Results in soil erosion

• Results in Low agricultural output
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• Results into subsistence agriculture

• Because of lowered soil productivity
ed

• May force an influx of people to encroach on gazetted forests, wetland, parks and game reserves
Effects of rapid population growth on the marketing of agricultural
.z

produce/products
• Increases demand for agricultural products or produce
w

• May cause increase in the prices of agricultural produce or products due to increased demand
w

• More people are engaged in trading in agricultural produce or products to earn living
FARMING AREAS IN ZAMBIA
w

The general conditions that favour arable farming and ranching.

• Good soil
• Favorable climate
• Development infrastructure
• Marketing
• Extension service
• Financial support
• Security
• Effective pests and disease control
• Growing suitable crop cultivars and raising suitable livestock breeds
Topic 2 www.zedmaterials.com
SOIL SCIENCE
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAY
• Rich in plant nutrients
• Have a high capillarity
• Have a very fine texture when wetted
• Have porosity which makes them poorly drained and poorly aerated
• Composed of very tiny particles which easily stick together
CHARACTERISTICS OF SAND SOILS
• Well aerated and well drained
• Low in plant nutrients due to leaching
• Warm up quickly after a rainy season
• Have very low capillary
• Have coarse texture because the particles are large
CHARACTERISTICS OF LOAM SOILS
• Have a moderate capillarity
• Contain large quantities of humus
• Are moderately textured
• Have a suitable PH range
• Cannot be waterlogged because of high content of humus which improves porosity
Characteristics of humus.

om
• Provides food and shelter to beneficial soil organisms
• Retain soil heat which required for seed germination
• Source of organic acids that help to dissolve parent rock to form soil
• Improves water holding capacity

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• Improves soil aeration and drainage by improving soil porosity
SOIL STRUCTURE

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• Identify soil with good structure.
• Loam soil
•
•
•
Good aeration
Good drainage ia
er
Moderate erodibility
• Good nutrient retention capacity
• Water retention capacity
at

How to maintain good soil structure.

• Application of organic manure/ chemical fertilizers
m

• Fallowing
• Afforestation/ agro forestry
• Mulching
ed

• Cover cropping
• Liming
• Mixed cropping
.z

PLANT NUTRIENTS
Classification of nutrients
w

Major plant nutrients

w

• Nitrogen
•
w

Calcium
• Carbon
• Oxygen
• Hydrogen
• potassium
Minor nutrients.
• Zinc
• Copper
• Boron
• Iron
• Chlorine
Importance of nutrients
Nitrogen - formation of chlorophyll
- encourage vegetative growth
- Formation of fruits and seeds
Calcium - modifies soil PH
- strengthen plant stems
- encourages root development and growth
Hydrogen - for photosynthesis
And minor nutrients
Zinc - help in seed germination
 MANURES AND ASHES
How dead animals and plant materials are broken down to form humus www.zedmaterials.com
Dead animals and plant materials are added to soil, microbial activity starts. Micro-organisms consisting of bacteria and fungi multiply rapidly and the
microbial activity hydrolyses and oxidizes organic compounds to produce ammonium, phosphate nitrates and others thus forming mineralization .the
synthesized microbial cell die and decompose thus mineralizing the immobilized nutrients. therefore, decomposition product lift behind is humus.
Nutrients content of rabbit, chicken, sheep, duck, cow and pig manures
Rabbit
• Nitrogen
• Potassium
• Phosphorus
Chicken
•
• Nitrogen
• phosphorus
Sheep, duck, pig and cow manures
• Answers same as with rabbit and chicken manure
Comparison of the nutrient content of ashes to that of manure
• Ashes and manure have similar nutrients e g sulphur, calcium, potassium, phosphorus and differ in other nutrients like magnesium, iron and zinc
Soil infertility.
Is the inability of the soil to support crop growth due to lack of necessary nutrients
SOIL REACTION
Causes of soil acidity and alkalinity.
• Soil acidity

om
• Rainwater
• Rocks
• Cultivation
• Leaching

.c
• Fertilizer application
And alkalinity

ls
• Addition of basic fertilizers
• Rocks also causes soils to become alkaline
•
ia
Application of irrigation water containing large amounts of which raises the sodium bicarbonates which react with soil compounds to form basic
compounds which raises the soil PH thus causing soil alkalinity
Practical
er
Demonstrate the correction of very high acidity and alkalinity.
Liming the soil
at

• Application of basic fertilizers into soils

• And alkalinity.
m

• By applying sulphur
• Application of organic matter like farm yard manure, compost, green manure and dung
SOIL EROSION
ed

Causes of soil erosion

•
•
.z

Overgrazing
• deforestation
• cultural practices
w

• land use
• Burning of land
w

Effects of soil erosion.

• Takes away of soil nutrients
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• Leads to low yields because soil erosion causes soil infertility

• Pollutes wetlands
• Destroys crops by uprooting and breaking them
• Removes soil layers and may create gullies in fields
Prevention of soil erosion.
• Mulching
• Crop rotation
• Afforestation
• Windbreakers
• Mixed cropping
• Deep cultivation
Topic 3 www.zedmaterials.com
CROP PRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF MAIZE
Nutritional and economical value of the crop.
Nutritional
• Source of dietary fiber
• Potassium
• Phosphorus
• Vitamins C, B, A
And economic value of crops.
• Earn foreign exchange
• Income to farmers
Ways in which the crop is used.
• Uses of maize
• Used to make livestock feed
• Human consumption and others
• Used as litter in poultry houses

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• Used as animal beddings
ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE CROP
• Requires fertile soil

.c
• well drained soil
• loamy soil

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• with PH range value of 6 to 7
• Average temperature of 24 0C
• ia
Performs well with600mm to 900mm of rainfalls during the growing period
er
VARIETIES AND PROPAGATION
• SEEDCO 727
• SC 719
at

• SC 707
• ZMS 528
m

• ZMS 402
ed

Advantages of seed propagation

• Easily mechanized
• Easy to mix with storage chemicals for safe storage
.z

• Seeds can remain viable for long until the time of planting
• Cheaper to store, transport and more convenient to use than vegetative materials
w

Disadvantages of seed propagation

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• Seed may die in the soil

• Seeds maybe eaten by pests
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• Offspring are not identical to parents

Advantages of vegetative /asexual propagation
• Offspring are identical to parents
• It is the only way of propagating seedless crop
• Planting materials are hardy
• Disadvantages of asexual propagation
• It is difficult to plant using machines
• It is difficult to store, transport and mix with chemicals
• Difficult to introduce resistance to diseases and pests
SITE SUITABLE FOR THE CROP
Site suitable for growing the crop (maize).
Performs well on deep, fertile, well drained and well aerated loamy soils, with a PH of 6 to 7. soil should have a good
nutrient content and good water - holding capacity, without caps and pans and free from soil - borne pests and disease
 CROP ROTATION
Reason why it is necessary to rotate a crop www.zedmaterials.com
• Helps to increase crop yields because soil fertility is maintained
• Enable farmers to harvest different crop types from the same piece of land
• Improves soil structure during the fallow period
• Offers proper utilization of soil nutrients
• Controls pests and diseases by breaking the life cycle of pests and disease - causing agents
A plan to fit the crop in a suitable rotation
A 4 year crop rotation
Field Year 1 Year2 Year 3 Year4

1 cotton Bean maize fallow

2 maize Fallow beans cotton
3 fallow Maize cotton beans

4 beans Cotton fallow maize

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LAND PREPARATION
Prepare a piece of land for growing of the crop.

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Field practical activity

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Prepare sowing/planting stations for the crop
planting stations are marked and dug at 90cm by 30
MANURE AND FERTILISER APPLICATION
ia
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Calculate the quantity of fertilizer and manure recommended per unit area
Refer to grade 8 work on manure and fertilizers
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• Apply fertilizer and manures recommended correctly.

m

Field practical activity

Importance of dressing seeds/planting materials with chemicals before sowing/planting
ed

• Increased germination percentage

• Seeds are free from pests and diseases
.z

SOWING AND PLANTING MATERIALS

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Selecting suitable sowing or planting materials

• Should be free from deformities, diseases, and pest
w

• Should be healthy plants

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• Should be genetically, fully developed and free from contaminations

• Materials should be viable
• Should have potential of high yielding
• Should be diseases -resistant
• Planting sowing material should be uniform in size
Field Practical
Demonstrate correct sowing or planting
The depth of planting largely depends on the size of the seed or planting materials. small
seeds such as millet can be broadcast and covered with little soil while large seeds like maize are
planted in holes of 5cmdepth
 PLANT POPULATION
Germination percentage of seeds www.zedmaterials.com
• Get a sample of seeds from the collection of seeds
• count the number of seeds from the sample and record it e g 50 seeds
• plant the seed in a safe place where they will be monitored
• provide the necessary conditions for germination
• keep monitoring until the seeds germinate
• count the seeds which germinated and record e g 40 seeds germinated
• count the ungerminated seeds and records e g 10 seeds did not germinate
• germination percentage can be calculated,
Example
Germinated percentage = The number of germinated seeds x 100
The total number of seeds planted
40/50 x 100 = 80%
Calculate the number of plants per given area.

om
• Total plant population = total number of row x average number of crop plant per area.

.c
WEED CONTROL
Importance of weed control in a field crop.

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• Eliminates competition of weeds for nutrients
• control crop pests and diseases ia
er
• it increases crop yields by eliminating competition of weeds for nutrients
• facilitates harvesting of crops because there will not be weed seeds to mix with crops during
at

harvesting
Methods of weed control
m

• Chemical weed control methods – involves the use of herbicides e g paraquat, 2, 4 –D or

ed

MCPA
• And Mechanical - involves the use of machinery such as tractor drown implements and
animal drown implements such as cultivator and hoes
.z

PESTS
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Ways of controlling the pests

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• Chemical control method

• Mechanical method
w

• Biological control meth

DISEASES
Symptoms or signs of diseases on field crop
• Red or dark brown powdery pustules appear on both sides of leaves
• Narrow, yellow, nearly white bands parallel to the midrib appear on the infected leaves
• Attacked maize plants produce black bodies enveloped in silvery structures on the cob of
maize
• Stunted growth most common
• Wilting of crop plant
 Crop attacked by diseases. www.zedmaterials.com
• Smut disease

• Maize rust

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Methods of preventing and controlling disease attack on the crop.

• Early planting helps to prevent and control maize rust
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• practicing crop rotation prevents and controls the disease

• planting streak – resistant maize varieties controls the disease
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• Seed dressing with appropriate chemicals controls the disease

• Growing smut resistant varieties controls the disease
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HARVESTING
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Length of time it takes from planting or sowing up to maturity.

w

Period of maize from planting to harvesting varies from 4 to 8 months depending on the variety grown and
altitude of the place where the maize is grown
Signs of readiness for harvesting the crop
Colour of the maize plant change from green to yellow then brown and eventually the drying, facing of the cob
downward and the whole plant falling
Harvesting
• If maize is to be harvested green, stalks are cut at ground level using panga and the cobs are removed by
hand
• Done by a combine harvester if on a large scale
Ways of improving yield
• Use of organic manure
• Mulching
• Using hybrid seeds
• Use of chemical fertilizers
• mechanization
 YIELD www.zedmaterials.com
Recommended yield of the crop per hectare
Maize can yield up to 8000 to 9000kg/ha, but normally 3000 to 4500 kg/ha are obtained
Comparison of the achieved yields with the recommended yields
Average 3000 to 4500 kg/ha of maize are achieved where as the recommended yields can reach 8000 to 9000 kg/ha.
Achieved yields are lower than the recommended yields because of differences in crop husbandry, ecological conditions and
the varieties sown

STORAGE
Types of storage facilities
• bags or sacks
• baskets
• granaries
• cribs

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• poles
• racks

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• stores

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• bins and silos
Methods of storing the crop ia
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• Large quantities of maize can be stored in silos
• can be stored in stores
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• stored in granaries
•
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stored in cribs
• stored in bags / sack placed on wooden /store base
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Store the crop correctly

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 Should be dried thoroughly before storage to prevent storage pests, mould growth, motting and seed
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germination in storage
•
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be mixed with appropriate storage chemicals to prevent insect pests and infestation
• storage facility should be thoroughly cleaned and any cracks filled and dusted with storage
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chemicals before storage to ensure safe storage

HANDLING AND MARKETING
Handle and market the crop effectively.
• Shell the dried crop
• Apply actellic super (storage chemicals)
• Market the crop in 50Kg bags
Project how much money can be realized from the sale of the crop
• Income sales of maize depends on how much maize is produced and the price at which is sold
Total product x price = income
Suppose a farmer produces 58 x 50 kg bags of maize and each bags is sold at K 74.50, the income will be
58 x 74.50 =K4321.00
Income = K 4321.00
Topic 4 www.zedmaterials.com
Forestry
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
Role trees play in soil and water conservation
• Leaves and branches of trees falling on the ground act as mulch to check surface runoff by holding the water
and allowing it to infiltrate
• Roots bind soil particles together thus keeping the soil in one place and preventing soil erosion by water or
wind
• Act as wind breakers by absorbing the erosive force of strong blowing wind
IMPORTANCE OF TREES IN SOIL MANAGEMENT
leguminous plants that are used to improve soil fertility
• Tephrosiavogelli
• Sesbaniasesban
• Griricidiasepium
• fedberbiaalbida

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How leguminous trees improve soil fertility
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation done by the rhizobium spp. bacteria in roots nodules on the roots of leguminous
trees. rhizobium bacteria draw atmospheric nitrogen and fix it in the root nodules in form of nitrates that can be

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absorbed by plant roots.

Topic 5

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TILLAGE
CONSERVATION FARMING ia
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Is the cultivation of soil using either hand tools or machines like ploughs to prepare land for growing crops
Types of tillage
at

 Primary
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 Secondary
Conservation tillage
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Is when land is done without cultivating the land at all but only herbicides are applied to prepare land for
plating crops. It is also called NO TILLAGE
• reduces chances of soil erosion
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• herbicides are sprayed on the herbaceous plants covering the soil

w

LAND CLEARING
Importance of leaving the residues on the surface at the end of the dry season
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• Refer to retention of nutrients

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• Reduce weed growth

• Encourages soil microbial activities and moisture
SEEDBED PREPARATION
Preparation of a seedbed using a suitable plough for conservation farming
• Mould board plough which is either animal- drawn or tractor – drawn is used to prepare a seed bed for
planting crops
• Animal – drawn mould board plough is used is used in areas which are relatively flat with light vegetation
cover and light soils
• Tractor – draw mould board is used to prepare land where deep cultivation is not necessary
Problems caused by ploughing when preparing seedbeds.
• Ploughing can destroys soil structure
• Heavy machinery churn the wet soil
• Deep ploughing encourages leaching of soluble nutrients
• Is expensive in terms of buying and maintaining machinery used
 SOWING AND PLANTINGwww.zedmaterials.com
Plant or Sow correctly under
conservation farming
seeds should be sown in rows spaced correctly according to the variety or type of
crop grown so that the crop rows help to control soil erosion
MANURE AND CHEMICAL
• Manure should be applied to the soil when completely decomposed, manure is
broadcast ahead of planting and is then dug into the soil during tillage operation
• chemical fertilizer should be applied at the correct rates and at the right time
using the correct methods of application

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Field practical activity
Apply manure/chemical fertilizer correctly under conservation farming

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Effects of mono-cropping and the use of acidified fertilizers on soil and

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crop yields
•
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If mono cropping is practiced in the same field over a long time, there is build up of pests and diseases of
those crops grown from season to season.
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• The use of acidified fertilizers increases soil acidity and causes the soil pH to be below 5.5

WEEDING
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Importance of early and repeated weeding

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• Early weeding it eliminates competition of plants with weeds for nutrients, moisture, light, space and air.
• Repeated weeding removes hiding and breeding sites for crop pests and diseases agents.
• Helps to maintain the quality of harvested crop.
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• Reduces on the population of weeds in the next cropping seasons.

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• Improves soil aeration.

PEST CONTROL
w
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Importance of using organic materials/organisms to Control pests

• using organic materials or organisms to control crop pests is cheap to use because the materials
may be locally available at no cast
• control crop pests does not impose pollution to the environment
• it does not require technical skill to use organic materials or organisms
• control of crop pests have no danger of poisoning plant or animals when they are used
Preparation or organic pesticides from local materials
• Need seed kernel or leaves are pounded and mixed with water to make a pesticides solution. 30gm of neem
seed kernels are pounded into powder and mixed with one liter of water.
• Dry chili peppers are pounded and mixed with long-stored animal urine to make the pesticide
Control pests using organic material /organisms
• Neem seed kernel or leaf solution as a pesticide is sprayed on crops attacked by thrips, caterpillars and white
flies
• A solution of chilli peppers and urine is sprinkled around banana stools to control banana weevils.
• Ashes of cow dung are mixed with dry bean seeds to control bean weevils during storage time.
 CROP ROTATION IN CONSERVATION FARMING
www.zedmaterials.com
Plan a four year crop rotation
PLOT YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3 YEAR 4
1 Maize Groundnuts Sweet potatoes Rest
2 Groundnuts Maize Rest Sweet potatoes
3 Sweet potatoes Groundnuts Maize Rest

Importance of crop rotation in pest control

• Crop rotation controls pests by breaking their cycles when different crops follow one another in the rotation
because pests are associated with particular crop types or families.
Importance of crop rotation on soil fertility
• Crop rotation -Controls soil erosion by growing different types of crops in succession. The soil is protected
more thoroughly during the fallow period when the land is allowed to rest under the vegetation cover
• Soil fertility. Legume crops grown in the rotation fix nitrogen in their root nodules. the nitrates fixed in root

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nodule enrich the soil with nitrogen thus increasing soil fertility.
MANURE

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Importance of manure in conservation farming
• it improves soil structure

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• it improves soil porosity
• it increases soil microbial population ia
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• it conserves soil nutrients and retains soil moisture for plant use
• provides soil humus which stabilizes the soil PH by maintaining the acid – base condition of soil
at

Sources of organic manure

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• farmyard manure
•
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compost manure
• green manure
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Nutrient status of some manure

• cattle manure contains nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and minor elements
w

• pig manure is relatively low in nitrogen and potassium

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• poultry manure has very high concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus plus other nutrients
w

• compost manure contains nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium but lesser percentage than those contained
in farmyard manure
Application of manure
• Should be applied to the soil when it is completely decomposed so that it can release nutrients to the soil.
• Avoid applying fresh manure to fields for it may not only burn the crops but also attract insect
• it is broadcast over the soil and dug into the soil to avoid evaporation of nutrients like nitrogen manure
Topic 6 www.zedmaterials.com

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF LIVESTOCK
Nutritive value of livestock
• provides milk
• Meat
Economic importance of livestock
• Cattle are good foreign exchange earner
• cattle ownership is a way of accumulating wealth
• cattle may act as means of payment
• cattle keeping is way of diversifying agriculture in the country

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• provide raw materials to industries
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN LIVESTOCK

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Diagram of the digestive system of a ruminant

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Difference between Ruminant and non-ruminant

RUMINANTS e g cows, goat NON- RUMINAANTS e g pig, chicken

 Chew the cud  Do not chew the cud

 digest cellulose  they do not digest cellulose
 have small caecum  have large caecum containing bacteria that
 have 4 stomach compartments assists in digestion
 regurgitate food after swallowing  cannot regurgitate food after swallowing
 water absorption occurs in the omasum and  water absorption occurs in the colon
colon 
 RATIONS www.zedmaterials.com

Maintenance and production rations

Maintenance
Is the quantity of food required by an animal to keep alive and healthy
Production rations
Is the amount of feed required by an animal for production purpose e.g. milk.

Make a reasonably well balanced economic diet for

at least one type of
livestock from local food sources

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• A famer can mix the following ingredients to make a ration for cattle from local resources
• Cereals i.e. maize or sorghum as energy source are mixed with legumes e g groundnuts, soya

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beans as protein sources which are supplemented example 80kg of maize are mixed with

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20kg of groundnuts seed plus a mineral lick.
Comparison the growth rates of animals fed on ia
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alternative
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diets and relate these to ration quality

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Comparison is that animals fed with recommended feed did better in terms of body condition
( weight) because the feed contained all the necessary nutrients while those fed alternative feed
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did not perform well

FOOD CONVERSION RATIO – F.C.R.
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Calculate food conversion ratio from the records of farm animals

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Food conversion ratio = weight of food consumed

Livestock weight gain produced
E.g. a rabbit weighing 1kg consumed 100 gm of rabbit concentrates (pellets) per day for 8
weeks and was found to weigh 3kg. Calculate the conversion ratio

Food conversion = weight of food consumed in weeks divided by the live weight gain produced.
Weight of food consumed in the period = 100gm x 7x8
= 5600gm = 5.6kg
Live weight gain produced = 3kg -1kg
= 2 kg
Therefore conversion ratio =5.6kg = 2.8
2kg 1kg
=2.8:1
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS www.zedmaterials.com
Reproductive systems of male and female animals
BULL

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COW
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 FERTILITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON BREEDS
www.zedmaterials.com
Factors that affect the fertility of male and female animals
Nutrition, health, hereditary, cryptorchidism and anorchidism
Animal on heat period.
• Loses appetite
• Becomes restless
• Frequent urination
• it separates from the others
• Rise of body temperature

Best time for breeding animals.

Best time to breed is when the female is on heat. Thus this is the time when the ovary releases

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the ovum (ovulation). proper time to breed is 8 to 15 hours after the cow shows sexual desire to
be mated

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Gestation period of animals studied.

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• cow is 280 days
•
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Doe is 31 days
Sow 115 days
ia
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Date of mating, predict the date of parturition (birth)
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If a cow is mated on a certain date say 1st march 2015, count an average of 280days of gestation to arrive
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at the expected parturition date, which should be 5 thDecember

Characteristics of common breeds of animals s
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Jersey
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• coat colour is red and light drown

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• butter fat content is 5% and above

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• mature cow weights 450 kg

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 Friesian www.zedmaterials.com
• white and black patches
• has a large, well developed udder
• butter fat content is 3.5%
• mature cow weights about 500 to 700kg
• has high high milk yield
Brahman
• they grow very fast
• they live longer
• they are heat tolerant
• have large dew laps
LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT
Steps involved in a programme of livestock improvement.
• individual (mass) performance
• pedigree selection
• family selection
• off spring testing

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MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON YOUNG ANIMALS
• feeding
• housing
• medication

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• pest and diseases control
•

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vaccination
PASTURES

characteristics of natural pastures and improved pastures

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Natural
• have the ability to persist under natural conditions
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• tend to mature very fast and become steamy

•
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consist of wide spectrum of plant species growing naturally in particular areas

• cheap to maintain
•
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usually grazed communally

Improved pastures
• consist of selected and established pasture species
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• selected are suitable to local ecological conditions of area

• consist of improved grasses and legumes
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• used for farming like dairying

• more palatable to livestock than natural pasture
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Maintenance of a productive pasture

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• Periodic weeding should be carried out

• should be fenced to avoid animals from outside
• apply fertilizes
• good and correct grazing management system
• ensure irrigation is done
• include lots of legumes to improve pasture
Maintain a small productive pasture
• pasture should be divided into fenced paddocks
• pasture land should be fenced
• correct stocking rate
• regular removal of weeds
• fertilizer be applied
PARASITES AND DISEASES
Various parasites of farm animals
• Ticks
• Lice
www.zedmaterials.com

• mites
• tsetse flies

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• tapeworms

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• liver flukes
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Methods of prevention or controlling parasites on farm animals.

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External parasites
•
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regular dipping or spraying and dusting

• rotational grazing
• fencing
Internal parasites
• regular sanitation
• draining waterlogged places in pastures
• controlled burning
• practice zero- grazing
• bush clearing and spraying with appropriate chemicals
 Common diseases of farm animals
www.zedmaterials.com
Anthrax
• caused by bacteria
• highly infection and transmitted
• infected animals usually die before or soon after showing signs of the disease
• on death blood oozes from the nose, nose, mouth and anus of the infected animal
Mastitis
• attacks the udder and teats causing them to swell and develop sores on them
• it attack cows, goat, ewes and sows
Other diseases includes
• East coast fever
• Newcastle disease
• Foot and mouth disease

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• Tuberculosis
Methods of prevention and or controlling diseases

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• rotational grazing helps to break cycles of disease agents

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• regular vaccination of animals
• avoiding overcrowding of animals ia
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• fencing the farm
• provision of clean water /feeds
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• regular dipping or spraying to control disease vectors like ticks

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MARKETING
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Preparation of animals for marketing

• Animals to be marketed should be properly fed so that they are fleshy at time of marketing
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• Should be cleared of any dirt band groomed to remove any loose hair
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• Well handled so that they do not sustain any injuries before marketing
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Preparation of animal products for marketing

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• liquid animal products like milk should be filtered to remove any foreign bodies
• should be put in clean, sterilized receptacles to avoid spoilage by bacteria
• milk should be put under cool conditions like refrigerators
• require processing before marketing e g yoghurt
• packed and labeled for marketing
Market animals and animal products
• Animal products to be marketed require means of transport from the point of production to
the marketing institutions and final consumers
• Animal products should be graded
• Animal and animal products for marketing can be advertised through radio and TV
Topic 7 www.zedmaterials.com

FARM STRUCTURES
STORAGE FOR GRAINS
Preparation of grains for storage
Field Practical activity
harvested grain like maize should be dried thoroughly to moisture content of about 13% or below for
safe storage
Storage facility for grains
• baskets
• bags /sacks

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• silos

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• bins
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• stores
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• cribs e.g. the figure below

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• granaries
 Storage facility for grains
• storage should be clean enough www.zedmaterials.com
• be vermin- proof to avoid rodents
• be cool enough not to cause over –ripening
• should be well – ventilated
• should be strong enough to protect the grains from any physical damage
STORAGE FOR FRUITS
Preparation of fruits for storage
• should be harvested and handled carefully to avoid damaging or bruising them which encourages rotting of
the fruits during storage
• be cleaned of any dirt
• stored so that any ripe fruits are put aside
• graded according to their size, colour and freshness
Facility for storing fruits
• fruits should be stored in bins which is tightly closed
• cold storage refrigeration can be used
• wooden boxes provided for storage

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• cool rooms and dry places with air circulation
RABBIT HOUSES
Types of houses for rabbits

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• individual hutches
•

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colony hutches
• morant hutches
Plan house for a given group of rabbits ia
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PIGSTIE
Types of shelter for pig
• boar pen
• farrowing unit
• breeding and gestation
• growing -finishing unit
Shelter for a given group of pigs
• should be sited on a well – drained place
• be properly heightened and ventilated
• it should be warm and dry
• have a strong lockable door
• should protect the pig from extremes of weather, predators and thieves
 Planning house for a group of pigs www.zedmaterials.com

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GOAT HOUSES
Types of goat shelters

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• ordinary goat house

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• raised goat house with a slatted floor
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Preparation of shelter for a given class of goats
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CATTLE HOUSES
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Types of shelters for cattle

• milking parlours
• calf pens
• kraal
 DRAINAGE PEN www.zedmaterials.com
Dimensions of the collecting pen and the drainage pen
• Collecting pen - 2m2
• Drainage pens – 27m long or more
Dip tank
Is a farm structure used for dipping animals it consist of the following, roof, concrete floor, footbath, dip
wish, entrance race, post and rails, exit and the drainage pen
CONCRETE MIXTURES
Concrete mixtures suitable for various building purposes
cement sand Aggregates Building purpose
1 1 2 Fence posts
1 1.5 3 Walls, beam
1 2 3 Feed troughs, milking parlours

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1 2 4 Floor foundation
1 3 3 Floor in dairy

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1 3 4 Piggery, water tank, stores

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1 3 4 Concrete block
Practical activity ia
Demonstrate mixing concrete for various building purposes
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• Choose a level ground and remove all the rubbish
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• Have cement, sand, sand and aggregates in right proportion according to the building purpose
• Spread quantity of sand on the cleared level ground
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• Spread the quantity of cement over sand

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• Mix aggregates with sand and cement until they are thoroughly and uniformly mixed
• Then make a depression in the center of mixture and add water slowly while mixture is being
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turned till it looks uniform

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Types of bricks and blocks.

• mud bricks
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• concrete blocks
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• sand block
• soil cement blocks
• Kimberly blocks
Practical activity
Make bricks and blocks
• made bricks are removed from the moulds
• left to dry on a hard and level ground
• are inspected and turn regularly for drying
• after drying bricks are taken to the kiln for firing
• are fired until they are red -hot
• left to cool down after which they are used
Topic 8 www.zedmaterials.com

FARM MACHINERY
POWER- DRAWN IMPLEMENTS FOR SOIL PREPARATIONS
Tractor drawn implements for preparing soil
Disc plough

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Disc harrow
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POWER DRAWN IMPLEMENTS FOR SOWING/PLANTING

Tractor drawn implements for planting
Planter
 Proper care of tractor drawn implements
www.zedmaterials.com
• cleaning
• oiling
• Painting and storage.
STORAGE FOR FARM MACHINERY
Preparation of power drawn implements for storage
• All implements should be cleaned or washed after use
• carry out timely repair of all damage parts
• smear with oil or grease all implements
• check for broken parts
• check for any loose nuts and bolts
Facility for storing power implements
• Implements used in farming can normally be stored in any multipurpose store , the store needs only

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to be secure for protection of equipment from theft and vandalism and dry so as to avoid
deterioration of the metal, plastic and wooden parts

Topic 9

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FARM MANAGEMENT
Resources the farm requires for production
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• Capital
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• labour
• land
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Idea of the farm as a business

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A farm as a business unit- must be managed very well. Farm management is the art and science of
organizing and operating a farm business efficiently. This has three important things such as:
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• output must be maximized from input

•
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decision on output from input must be accurate to ensure maximization

• Enterprise as a farm must control the efficient use of the factor of production for maximization of
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output.
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ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Is a person who combines the other factors of production – land, labour and capital – to earn a profit
Enterprise
Is a project or a business undertaking
How to find a Market for the farm products
• Bearing risk of handling produce
• buying and assembling produce
• selling produce through presentation and advertising
• financing the distribution of the products to the consumers

THE END OF GRADE 9

 GRADE 10 www.zedmaterials.com

Topic 1
AGRICULTURE IN ZAMBIA
Importance of agriculture
• Food security
• Source of foreign exchange through the export of agricultural products
• Provides employment to the majority of the population
• Provides raw materials for agro-based industries
• Provides food to the family, nation and the world
Classification of agriculture as an applied science or as a technology
As a science

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• It involves conducting experiments for problem solving
• It involves conducting research work to improve on ways of producing crops and
keeping livestock

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• It employs the knowledge of other science subjects such as Biology, Physics,

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Chemistry, Soil Science and Entomology.
As a technology ia
• It necessitates the application of practices/skill like planting, pruning, fertiliser
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application, castration, dehorning and artificial insemination.
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• It employs the use of pesticides for the control of insect pests, herbicides and
improved machinery to increase on agricultural production.
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Why the skills of people trained in agriculture is needed

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• There is increased volume of crops and livestock because farmers are equipped
with knowledge and skills of growing crops and keeping livestock.
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• Agricultural products will be of high quality because farmers are equipped with
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knowledge and skills.

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• For sustainability of the environment

•
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Importance of the farmer

• Food production
• Contributes to economic development as they earn income and become self
sufficient.
• Source of raw material for agro-based industries
• Source of foreign exchange through the provision of agricultural produce for
export.
• They encourage trade within the country through the sale of crops and livestock
products.
• They are care takers of land through proper agricultural practices such as
conservation farming.
 Environmental influence of agriculture
www.zedmaterials.com
The three agro-ecological zones of Zambia
• Zone I: designed as a valley found in the western and southern part of the country
• Zone II: covers the central part of the country extending from east through the west.
• Zone III: covers the northern part of Zambia in this zone a wide spectrum of crops are
grown such as maize, groundnuts, millet, tobacco, rice and cotton.
Map of Zambia:
The three agro-ecological zones

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Annual rainfall for each of the agro-ecological zones Zambia

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• Zone I: less than 700mm/annum

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• Zone II: 800mm to 1000mm/annum

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• Zone III: 1000 to1500mm/annum

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Duration of rainfall in Zambia

• The rain season starts in early October and end in early March i.e. six months.
Mean annual temperatures of the three agro-ecological zones of Zambia
• Cool season; 15°C to 27°C
• Hot season; 27°C to 35°C
Importance of day length to crops
www.zedmaterials.com
• It enables green plants to manufacture their own food by the process of photosynthesis
during the day.
Classification of crops according to day length
Long day crops Day neutral crops Short day crops

Wheat Maize Soya beans

Barley Sorghum Rice

Oats Beans Some tobacco varieties

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Sweet potatoes

Groundnuts

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Cassava
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Rainfall and temperature requirements of crops
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Crops Rainfall( Temper Crops Rainfall Tempera

mm) ature (mm) ture
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Sugarca 1500 20 Tobacco 760 18 – 22

ne
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Maize 650 – 18 – 25 Paw paw 1000 21– 24

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1145
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Tea 21 – 24 Cassava Variable 22 – 25

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Cotton 510 - 25 Finger 900 20 – 24

1115 millet
Pineapp 1000 – >20 Sorghum 750 - 25 – 20
les 1500 1250
Ground 500 - 25 Rice 1500 – 20 – 30
nuts 1000 2000
Sunflowe 750 18 – 25
r
750 or 20. – 25
more
Topic 2 www.zedmaterials.com
SOIL SCIENCE
Rocks and minerals
Types of rocks
• Sedimentary – formed by deposition of rock sediments that are transported by water, wind or sea
waves to valleys thereby solidifying and form layers.
• Igneous – formed when molten lava from the volcano or crack in the earth’s crust pours out over the
land becomes hard and solidify.
• Metamorphic – formed from either sedimentary or igneous rocks that have undergone changes in
formation beneath the earth’s crust due to intense heat and pressure.
Minerals found in rocks
• Potassium
• Phosphorus
• Iron
• Calcium

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• Magnesium
Soil formation from parent rock
Weathering

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Is the process by which rocks breakdown into smaller particles to form soil. It consists of:

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Types of weathering
Chemical weathering
•
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Soluble chemicals in the parent rock are dissolved in rain water which weakens the rocks causing them
to disintegrate.
•
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Some chemicals in the parent rock combine with oxygen and becomes oxidised which weakens the
rock.
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• Decaying organic matter releases chemicals which react in the rock causing them to weaken and
disintegrate.
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• Acid rains react with chemicals in the rock causing them to disintegrate.
Biological weathering
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• Microorganisms form chemicals in the decomposition of organic matter which weaken the rock.
• Through cultivation, mining and road construction as well as grazing of animals and settlements.
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• Plant roots growing and expanding into rocks crack and release chemical substances that decompose
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and break down the rock

• Termite, moles and earth worms and other burrowing animals make tunnels in the soil thereby aiding
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aeration which brings about quick rock decomposition.

Physical/Mechanical weathering
• Change in temperature causes expansion and contraction of the rock resulting into weakening and
disintegration of the rock into smaller particles forming soil.
• Heavy rainfall causes erosion which moves weathered rock pieces to move and knock each other and
break into smaller particles.
• Heavy wind causes sand particles to move with a large force that hit the rocks to break off the
particles.
Effects of weathering
• Causes the formation and release of mineral elements into the soil.
• Help in soil formation.
• Weakens the rocks so that minerals can easily be accessed during mining.
Topic 3 www.zedmaterials.com
CROP PRODUCTION
Crop plants
Types of crop
• Annuals – complete their life cycle from seed to seed in one year. E.g. groundnuts,
maize, millet, cotton and sunflower.
• Biennials – grow in the first year and produce flowers and fruits and die in the second
year, e.g. carrots and turnip.
• Perennials – crops which grow beyond two years and continue to grow for several
years. They produce flowers and fruits every year, e.g. mangoes.
• Describe the external and internal morphology of plants

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i) Roots
Types of roots

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• Taproot system – consists of a single main root which grows straight down in the soil

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with small side roots arising from it. This is common in dicotyledonous plants, e.g.
beans.
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Fibrous root system – has more than one main root arising from the same point with
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side roots branching from them. This is common in monocotyledonous plants, e.g.
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maize and finger millet.

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External structure of the root

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Internal structure of the root

 Functions of the roots
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• Absorbs mineral ions and water from the soil and transport them to the stem.
• Provide anchorage to the plant so that it is firmly held in the soil.
• Used as storage organs in some plants.
• Used as vegetative propagation material
ii) Stem
Internal structure of the stem
Monocot stem Dicot stem

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Functions of the stem
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• Hold the upper part of the plant i.e. leaves flowers and fruits so that they can perform
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their function.
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• Support the leaves for the process of photosynthesis.

• Conduct mineral salts and water from the soil to other parts of the plant.
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• Hold the flower out to facilitate pollination.

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• Used as vegetative propagation e.g. sugarcane.

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• Used as storage organs

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• Allow the process of photosynthesis to take place

Leaves
External structure
 Internal structure of a leaf
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Functions of part of the leaf:

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• Lamina contains chlorophyll to absorb light

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• Veins support lamina and conducts nutrients and water within the lamina and collects
food from lamina ia
• Midrib supports lamina and conducts water and nutrients from the stalk to lamina and
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food from lamina to stalk
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• Stalk conducts food from the leaf to the stalk and mineral salts and water from the stalk
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to the leaf
Function of the leaf
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• Manufacture food during the process of photosynthesis

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• Help in diffusion of carbon dioxide required for photosynthesis

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• Help in the process of transpiration

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flower and pollination

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Structure of the flower

• Stamen = anther and filament
• Carpel = stigma + style + ovary www.zedmaterials.com
Functions of parts of a flower
• Stamens– form the male parts of a flower. It consists of;
• Filament - holds the anther
• Anther - contain the male reproductive cells.
• Carpel - are female parts of a flower made up of;
• Stigma – receives the pollen grain
• Style passage way for the pollen tube
• Ovary contain female reproductive cells
• Ovules become seeds after they have been fertilised
Internal structure of the seed

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Functions of the parts

• Testa: protects the seed
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• Micro Pyle: is a small pore in testa which allows moisture to reach the embryo during
germination process.
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• Radical: is the root of the embryo which will grow and develop into a plant root system after
germination.
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• Plumule: is the embryo shoot which will grow into the plant shoot after germination.
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• Cotyledon: it contains food reserves which are used during the early stage of germination.
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Advantages and disadvantages of using hybrid seed.

• Advantages:
• Increased crop yields
• Plants are physically uniform which facilitates mechanical harvesting.
• Plants often exhibit greater vigour and faster growth.
• Plants are resistant to pests and diseases.
•
• Disadvantages:
• Seeds cannot be procured for planting from previous crops grown from hybrid seeds. The
yield is depressed.
• Hybrid is expensive to buy.
• When conditions are not optimum, hybrid may suffer more than plants grown from
monohybrid.
 Vegetative propagation
Is the formation of a new plant without fusion of the male and female gametes.www.zedmaterials.com
The parent plant grows a new
plant which eventually develops into a new individual.
Methods of vegetative propagation.
Natural vegetative propagation
• Suckers – are new growths which occur at the base of the parent plant. These new growths increase in size
until they have formed a new stem with a new set of roots round the base. Suckers are cut off and planted
elsewhere, e.g. bananas.
• Bulbs – buds develop in the axils of the leaves that make up the bulb. As the buds enlarge they become
separated from the parent plant growing new roots from the base. E.g. onion
• Corms – are thickened underground stems which serve as storage organs. New growth occurs when a bud
develops on the side of the parent plant corm and gradually a new individual develops. Cocoyam is an example.
• Stem tuber – is a swollen underground stem bearing a number of reduced scale leaves. These organs produce
buds and can be propagated by cutting the tuber into sections with each section containing one bud. When
planted a root system and a shoot develop, e.g. Irish potato.
• Root tuber– examples include cassava and sweet potatoes but in their natural state they do not carry out
vegetative propagation.
• Rhizomes – is a horizontal underground stem. New shoots and a root system develop at intervals from buds on
the rhizome, e.g. ginger

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• Runners – is a stem which grows along the ground. Roots and a shoot develop at intervals and the stem
continues growing in different directions, e.g. sweet potatoes and grasses.
Artificial vegetative propagation

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• Budding – is the artificially securing a bud from one plant on to the stem or stock of another. A bud is carefully
removed by cutting it from the stem leaving a good sound of bark including the xylem. Then a T-shaped cut is

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made in the bark of the root stock and the bud is carefully inserted. E.g. in citrus plant
• Grafting – involves the uniting of two cambium layers to get a fusion of growth giving a plant with the good

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qualities of two different parents. e.g. tea plants. ia
Layering – involves pegging the branches of a tree or shrub down to the ground. Contact with the soil in this
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way causes the branch to develop roots a the point and eventually a new plant is established, e.g. coffee
• Cuttings – involves cutting the stem into sets of about 45cm long. The setts are placed horizontally in small
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trenches in the soil and new growth develops from the nodes. E.g. cassava and sugarcane.
Advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation
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Advantages
• The plants are identical to their parents in terms of growth rate and disease resistance, production potential
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height, colour, provided they are given the same conditions as their parent plants.
• It helps produce crops that cannot produce seeds that are no viable e.g. bananas.
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• Plants come into bearing earlier than those planted by seed.

• It helps where seeds of some certain crops exhibit prolonged dormancy.
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• The offspring is strong and hard compared to the seedling obtained from the seed.
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The multiplication of plants is faster.

• Daughter plants obtain food from their plant plants until they are strong enough unlike seeds which have
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limited food reserve.

Disadvantages
• Materials for planting are usually bulky.
• Vegetative material may rot if pilled together.
• It may need specialised skills.
• Vegetative materials are difficult to mechanise their planting.
• It can lead to overcrowding since they grow faster
• A small area can be planted whereas with seeds, one can plant a large area n a given time.
• Due to lack of variation, if one plant is susceptible to a particular disease/pest, the whole crop will be affected
similarly.
 Distribution of crops
Difficulties limiting the growing of certain crops in somewww.zedmaterials.com
parts of Zambia
• Climate:
• Rainfall: low rainfall results in low yields for some crops which require a lot of rainfall for their
growth such as maize, groundnuts, sorghum, and millet.
• Temperature: crops vary in the amount of temperature which they require for growth. Some
crops grow well in high temperatures while others are cool season crops.
• Soils: acid rains make the soil acidic. Acid soils retard crop growth leading to low yields.
• Poor land tenure system in the country, farmers do not easily access the land for growing
crops as community leaders interfere with the free access to land.
• Some land owners opt to using the land for less profitable means such as game area
• Low demand for certain crops in some areas limits their production.
• Infertile soil in some parts of the country limits the growing of crops.
Comparison of the climatic requirements of various crops
(Refer to rainfall, temperature and wind)

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• Beans require high rainfall during the growing period and a dry spell towards the maturing
stage which reduces diseases and pests. It requires warm conditions. Heavy winds can
damage the crop.

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• Cassava is drought resistant crop but high yields are obtained when there is good rainfall.
Heavy winds can damage the crop.

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• Sugarcane requires high rainfall throughout the growing period and warm climate for high

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yields. Wind can destroy the growing stems. ia
Groundnuts; good distribution of rains and a dry spell during ripening.
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• Bananas require high rainfall, warm climate. Winds damage banana stems and bunches.
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• Cotton requires moderate rainfall and dry spell during maturing stage. High rainfall results in
diseases/pests. High wind damages the crop.
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• Finger millet requires moderate rainfall and warm climate. Wind damages the crop.
• Bulrush millet is drought resistant but for good yield moderate rainfall is required and warm
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climate. Heavy winds destroy the crop.

• Maize requires high rainfall, dry spell during maturing stage and warm climate. Heavy winds
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destroy the crop.

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Irish potatoes require moderate rainfall and cool climate.

• Sorghum requires moderate rainfall and warm climate. Heavy winds destroy the crop.
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• Sweet potatoes require average rainfall and warm climate.

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• Tobacco requires well distributed rainfall and warm climate. High rainfall leads to
diseases/pests. Heavy winds damage the crop.
• Tea requires adequate rainfall and warm climate. Heavy winds damage the crop.
• Pineapple requires reliable well distributed rainfall coupled with warm climate.
• Sunflower requires moderate well distributed rainfall and warm climate. Heavy wind damages
the crop.
• Pawpaw requires moderate rainfall and warm climate. Strong winds destroy the pawpaw tree.
• Mangoes require moderate rainfall and warm climate. Strong wind reduces the production of
fruits because this drops the flowers off.
• Arabic coffee requires reliable and well distributed rainfall and cool climate. Heavy winds can
break coffee trees.
 Characteristics of soil suitable for the production of crops
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Physical and chemical characteristics of soils (tilth, mineral content, depth of roots of plants)
• It should be well drained and not water logged.
• It should be well aerated to ensure good supply of soil air required by plant roots and soil
organisms to breathe and to help in the oxidation of soil organic matter and process of
nitrification.
• It should have proper soil pH for good crop growth.
• It should have good water holding capacity.
• It must be free from diseases and pests.
• It should be deep enough to provide proper anchorage to crop roots.
• It should have sufficient minerals and nutrients.
• It should be of good tilth to allow for proper germination.
Factors affecting crop growth
• Factors: Light, water, air, temperature, altitude
• Light is required for photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide in the air and water from the soil with the

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help of chlorophyll to absorb light energy from the sun result in the formation of
carbohydrates in the leaves of green plants. The rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional
to the light intensity. The higher the light intensity the higher the rate of photosynthesis

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• Water is essential for:
• Dissolving the mineral nutrients for easy absorption by the roots.

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• Cooling the plants after transpiration.
• helping in seed germination, ia
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• Enabling processes like transpiration and translocation to take place in plants.
• Providing hydrogen required during photosynthesis.
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• Temperature influence biological and biochemical processes to take place in plant cell. Plants
have minimum and maximum temperatures above and below which growth, development
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and production potential stop. The life process in plants grows when temperatures above the
minimum continue to increase but the increase in temperature above the maximum results in
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death of the plant.

• Air is required by the plants for the following;
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• For respiration by plant roots, soil living organisms and for the process of nitrification.
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• It is necessary for seed germination

• It is required in the oxidation of organic matter which liberates plant nutrients
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• Altitude and temperature go hand in hand. Some crops like wheat grow well at high altitude
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because they require cool temperatures while others like maize perform well at low altitude
because they require high temperatures.
Seed planting
Process of land preparation for crop production
Land preparation involves
• Clearing the piece of land by removing tree stumps and vegetables using various methods
such as hand hoes, ox-drawn implements tractors and ploughs
• Cultivating the piece of land which includes burying weeds, digging deep for easy penetration
of roots and good aeration
• Spreading organic manure on the soil surface.
• Braking big clods of the soil by harrowing to produce a fine tilth suitable for seed planting.
 Conditions which are necessary for germination of seeds
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• Temperature: different crops require different temperature ranges
and each type of seed has its own optimum temperature for
germination. Temperature affects the metabolic rate of seed
germination and it acts in association with other processes.
• Water: is taken by seeds through the micropyle and dissolves food
reserves in the cotyledon making them active by transforming them
into mobile and nutritive substances. This takes place with the help
of enzymes resulting into the swelling of the seed which splits open
allowing the embryo parts to emerge.
• Air (oxygen) – is required to oxidise the seeds so that energy for
germination process is liberated.

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Preparation of seedbeds suitable for germination of seeds
(Practice planting for the crop studied)

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Planting/sowing a cereal and legume

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• Planting maize: maize should be planted at the onset of the rains.
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The seed beds should be prepared well ahead of planting. Manure
can be spread on top of the soil and dug into the soil during land
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preparation to improve on soil fertility. The planting holes should be
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well placed, the rows should be 90cm apart and the planting holes
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45cm to 75cm spacing. The holes should be 10cm to 20cm. Certified

dressed maize seeds should be placed into the holes and covered
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with a layer of soil. Compound R can be applied as basal dressing.

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• Planting ground nuts: Groundnuts should be planted in well

prepared seed beds, free of weeds. Use seeds dressed with
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fernasan D and thiram/BHC to protect the germinating seeds

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against soil borne diseases. Planted at the depth of 5cm and row
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spacing of 45cm to 75cm, 10cm from one plant to another. Single

super phosphate fertiliser at the rate of 125 to 250kg/ha or organic
manure can be applied before planting to improve the yield.
Crop rotation
Is the growing of different types of crop on the same piece of land
in a sequence year
Plot Year 1 after year.Year
Crops
2 are grown
Yearin
3 an orderlyYear
sequence
4
1in different plots in different seasons
Groundnuts Maize but on Rest
the same pieceCassava
of land.
2This is illustrated using different
Cassava crops as shown
Groundnuts Maize in the tableRest
below with
3
a fallow (rest) period for different
Groundnuts Maize
plots. Rest Cassava
4 Maize Groundnuts Rest Cassava
5 Cassava Groundnuts Maize Rest
 Fertiliser Application
Methods of fertiliser application www.zedmaterials.com
• Broadcasting - fertiliser is spread on the surface of the soil before planting.
• Band placement: fertiliser is put in bands on one side or both sides of each row about 5cm
beneath the seed and 4cm away from the seed or plant.
• Ring method: fertilisers are placed around the crops as top dressing but not in direct contact
with the plants.
Calculate the quantity of fertiliser for crops
Quantities of fertilisers for crops
• For maize: A base dressing of compound ‘R’ at a rate of 200kg/ha should be applied in a
maize field before planting. When maize plants are about knee-high (40cm to 60cm)
ammonium nitrate is applied as top dressing at the rate of 200kg/ha, band method is
recommended.
• For groundnuts: groundnuts are leguminous plants that fix nitrogen into the soil, adding
fertiliser is not necessary but base dressing of single super phosphate at the rate of 125 to
250kg/ha can be applied before planting to encourage growth and good yield.

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Types of fertilisers recommended for crops
• Fertilisers containing Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in their right amounts are most
recommended for crops because growing crops utilise more of these three elements than any

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other soil nutrients. %NFertilisers are supplied in %P
bags of which NPK are printed.
%K

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Below are examples of NPK percentages as recommended:
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Compound A 2 18 15
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Compound C 6 18 12
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Compound D 10 20 10
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Compound X 20 10 5
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• Fertilisers containing NPK in the right proportions as recommended the National

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Standards e.g. ZABS

Effects of fertiliser on the environment
• Continuous application of fertiliser in large quantities change the pH of the soil causing
it to be acidic
• Soluble fertiliser after application can be leached easily resulting into pollution of lakes,
rivers streams and underground water. In sand soil leaching increases pollution of the
environment.
• Frequent heavy application of nitrogen fertilisers results in the accumulation of salts
causing an overgrowth of microscopic marine plants. This is known as eutrophication.
• Frequent use of fertilisers on light soils (sandy) destroys crumb structure.
• Soil acidity: fertilisers that contain sulphates make the soil acidic. The acidic soil can
damage the roots of the crops and kill the microorganisms in the soil.
• Leaching of fertiliser can necessitate more application of fertiliser in the same field and
this can lead to making the soil more acidic.
 Minimising effects of fertiliser on the environment
• Recommended rates of fertiliser should be adhered www.zedmaterials.com
• Farmers should regulate the rate at which they apply fertiliser
• Farmers should use organic manure
Weed control
Methods of weed control in the crops
Mechanical control
• Hand weeding involves the pulling of weeds by hand.
• Hoeing is the traditional way of weeding between the rows of a crop using a hoe.
• Cultivation is when weeds are controlled by ploughing, harrowing and hand
cultivation. This method is useful during land preparation before the crop is
planted.
Biological control

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• Weeds are controlled by the introduction of insets into the field so that they feed
on the leaves and stems of the weeds.
• Chemical control

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• Is the use of chemicals called herbicides to control weeds? There are three ways

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in which herbicides can attack weeds.
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• By contact if the leaves and shoots of the weeds are sprayed, the herbicides may
enter the plant by diffusion through the leaves killing off the weeds.
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• By translocation – systemic herbicides get into the weed through the leaves, stem
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or roots and are carried throughout the plant with its food supply and it soon
poisons the weed.
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• Through the soil – herbicides which are sprayed on to the soil may have a lasting
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effect on weeds by preventing their growth for some time.

Ways in which different chemicals control weeds
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• Selective herbicides – kill only certain weed species and leave others.
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• Non- selective herbicides – kill all the weeds including the crop.
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• Types of selective and non-selective herbicides

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Systemic herbicides – are readily absorbed by plant parts, e.g. roots, stems and
leaves.
• Contact herbicides – kill only the parts they come into contact with.
• State the advantages and disadvantages of chemical and mechanical weed
control
• Chemical
• Advantages
• Reduces early weed competition in crops
• Increases crop yield
• Gives a farmer more time to plan for the farm
• Enables a farmer to cultivate large portions and manage it.
• Crop roots are not disturbed as in mechanical weeding
• Minimising effects of fertiliser on the environment
• Recommended rates of fertiliser should be adhered www.zedmaterials.com
• Farmers should regulate the rate at which they apply fertiliser
• Farmers should use organic manure
• Weed control
• Methods of weed control in the crops
• Mechanical control
• Hand weeding involves the pulling of weeds by hand.
• Hoeing is the traditional way of weeding between the rows of a crop using a hoe.
• Cultivation is when weeds are controlled by ploughing, harrowing and hand cultivation. This method is useful during land
preparation before the crop is planted.
• Biological control
• Weeds are controlled by the introduction of insets into the field so that they feed on the leaves and stems of the weeds.
• Chemical control
• Is the use of chemicals called herbicides to control weeds? There are three ways in which herbicides can attack weeds.
• By contact if the leaves and shoots of the weeds are sprayed, the herbicides may enter the plant by diffusion through the
leaves killing off the weeds.
• By translocation – systemic herbicides get into the weed through the leaves, stem or roots and are carried throughout the
plant with its food supply and it soon poisons the weed.
• Through the soil – herbicides which are sprayed on to the soil may have a lasting effect on weeds by preventing their

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growth for some time.
Ways in which different chemicals control weeds
• Selective herbicides – kill only certain weed species and leave others.

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• Non- selective herbicides – kill all the weeds including the crop.
• Types of selective and non-selective herbicides

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• Systemic herbicides – are readily absorbed by plant parts, e.g. roots, stems and leaves.
• Contact herbicides – kill only the parts they come into contact with.
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Advantages and disadvantages of chemical and mechanical
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weed control
Chemical
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Advantages
• Reduces early weed competition in crops
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Increases crop yield

• Gives a farmer more time to plan for the farm
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Enables a farmer to cultivate large portions and manage it.

• Crop roots are not disturbed as in mechanical weeding
Disadvantages
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• Herbicides are expensive

• It requires skill
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• They are not readily available in some areas

• They pollute the environment
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• They are poisonous to humans and livestock

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Mechanical control
Advantages
• It does not require a lot human labour
• Weeds uprooted and buried into the soil increase soil organic matter
• It improves soil aeration
Disadvantages
• Unable to control weeds between the crops
• Implements used can damage the crops
• Frequent mechanical weed control can destroy the soil structure
• Machinery use multiplies the perennial weed as they scatter them
• Previous buried weeds can grow up from the soil.
 Negative effects of herbicides on the environment
• www.zedmaterials.com
They kill beneficial soil micro- organisms like nitrogen fixing bacteria, nitrifying bacteria and other beneficial insects
• They pollute the soil and water thereby killing the organisms there in such as fish and other marine life.
• They can be absorbed by harvestable crops which trace their way into the food chain and become a health hazard
Ways of minimising negative effects of herbicides on the environment
• Use of other methods of weed control other than herbicides
• Using recommended rates of application
Pests and diseases of crops
Characteristics of common pests of crops
• They are able to move from one place to another
• They have mouth parts which are adapted to the mode of feeding.
• They have a short reproductive cycle
• Adults lay many eggs at a time and lay several times in a lifetime thereby increasing the population.
Signs of pest attack on crops
• Holes on the attacked parts of the crop
• Yellowing of leaves
• Defoliation of crop plants
• Shedding of fruits or berries
• Spots on the leaves

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• Breaking of stems
• Wilting of the crop
• Loss of weight in the stored crop

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• Lower germination capacity of the crop,
• Lower quality of the crop produce,

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• Low crop yield
Signs of disease attack on crops
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Total death of plants
Yellowing of leaves
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• Stunted growth
• Development of spots
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• Mottling and curling of leaves

Prevention and control of pests and diseases on crops
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Crop pests and disease control methods

• Practice crop rotation to break the life cycle of insect pests and causative agents
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• Timely or early planting of crops

• Control weeds which harbour pests and diseases
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• Planting pest- free materials or resistant seed varieties.

• Proper drying of harvested crops before storage
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• Removal of pest infested plants

• Uprooting and burning of crop residues after harvesting
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• Legislation on allowing pest-free crop materials in the country.

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Spraying and dusting crops with chemicals in the field or in storage.

• Application of manure so that plants grow vigorously to withstand pest attack
• Seed dressing of planting seed
• Heat treatment on seeds and other planting material
Advantages and disadvantages of biological pest control
Advantages
• It does not pollute the environment
• It a cheap method of controlling pests
• It does not require specialised skill in its use
• It is a safe method of pest control
• Crops are protected effectively from pest damage and are enables to yield well while the natural ecological balance is
maintained
Disadvantages
• It requires careful research and technology
• The biological agent used to control pests can itself become a serious crop pest
• Disturbance of the ecosystem can render the biological agent ineffective
 Harvesting
Crops that are ready for harvest www.zedmaterials.com
Signs of crops ready for harvest
• Some crops lose their leaves
• Changing of the colour of leaves from green to yellow
• Some crops dry up
• Ripening of crop seeds
• Increase in the size of the crop
• Some crops cause cracks on the soil as a sign of maturity
How to harvesting the crop
• Groundnuts – can be harvested by hand pulling if the soil is light and moist. A hoe can be used where the soil is hard. On
large scale ox drawn or tractor drawn implements can be used.
• Maize – is harvested by hands where crops are removed by hands from the stalk when still green or dry. On large scale
maize cobs are removed by using a combined harvester
Methods of crop storage
• When properly dry maize can be stored in a crib which should be well ventilated
• Cobs of maize should be dusted with pesticides
• On large scale maize can be stored in silos
• Groundnuts are stored in granaries when properly dry

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Topic 4
FORESTRY

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Trees
• Tree farming ( nursery, weeding, pruning)

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Forestry is the science, art and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving and repairing forests and associated resources to
meet desired goals, needs and values for human benefits. Forestry is practised in plantations and natural stands.
Role played by trees in the environment
•
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Maintaining balance of nature. Regulate carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere, controlling soil erosion, reservoir
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for water, wind breaker.
• Trees are mostly used as source of food, fuel, shelter, paper production, trees are used as herbal medicines, etc.
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Uses of wood
• Wood can be used for furniture
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• Flooring
• Construction and shipbuilding
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• Art
• Musical instruments
• Making dishes and utensils, tools, sports equipment’s and toys, provide cellulose
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• Making of perfumes and other flavours.

Uses of softwood and hardwood
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Softwood
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• Used in construction and joinery

• Making furniture
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• Making of storage units, curved shelter structures on buildings, children toys, timber, paper, boxes and models
Hardwood
• Is used for fuel, tools, construction, boat building, furniture making, musical instruments, flooring, cooking, manufacturing
of charcoal etc.
 Agro – forestry
www.zedmaterials.com
Agro forestry is the deliberate land management unit whereby, woody
perennials are deliberately grown on the same piece of land along with
agriculture crops and livestock in some form of partial arrangement or temporal
sequence. Interpolating of trees and crops.
Various tree species that will improve soil fertility
• Trees which improve fertility: nitrogen fixing trees like Sesbania Tefrosia,
pigeon pea
• Deciduous trees, drop leaves rich in nutrients, trees that form the
woodlands like mukushi, mutondo, mutobo etc.
• Kalahari woodland trees like muzauli, museshi and kanyimbi
• Munga woodlands tree like acacia trees, Mopani woodland like Mopani and
baobab and exotic forest woodland trees

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Planting of appropriate trees improve soil fertility and reduce soil erosion
• Improving soil fertility and reducing soil erosion by planting trees.

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Advantages and disadvantages of agro forestry.

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Advantages
• Protection of intercrops and animals by the trees which have a wind break
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effect, providing shelter.
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• Recovery of some of the leached or drained nutrients by the deep roots of
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the trees.
• It creates employment.
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• Improves the quality of wood produced.

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• Guaranteed follow-up and tree care due to the arable intercropping activity.
• Improves the quality of natural resources.
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• Better control of cultivated area.

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• Creation of original landscapes that are attractive, open and favour

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recreation activities.
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• Protection of soil and water

Disadvantages of Agro-forestry
• The day to day farming issues are far more complex than in a straight forest
operation or monoculture farm.
• Agro-forestry often sees reduced yields as the small crops compete with the
trees for light, water and nutrients from the soil.
Topic 5 www.zedmaterials.com
CONSERVATION FARMING
Organic farming and Soil Fertility
Organic farming
Is farming without using industrially made fertilisers. Organic manure is used to maintain soil
fertility and improve soil productivity. Manure like farmyard manure, compost, green or mulches
are applied to fertilise the soil for higher yielding. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that
relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure and biological pest control.
Role of organic farming in soil fertility
• Increases soil organisms’ activities to break organic materials to release nutrients
• Soil organisms promote soil structure by releasing chemicals that bind soil particles together
into aggregates.
• It increases soil organic matter
• When microbial activity increases, soil tilth improves

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• Addition of manure natural fertilisers resulting into a build-up of available phosphorus in
organic farm fields overtime.
• A crop rotation programme is required to maintain/improve soil organic matter,

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• Provide for pest management and control soil erosion.

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• Organic fertilisers mineralise and release nutrients at a very slow rate
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Crop sequences, cover crop and surface crop residues reduce runoff and leaching losses of
soluble nutrients.
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• Nutrients from green manure and cover crops add nutrients to the soil.
Organic and Conventional methods of farming
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• Organic matter - Organic matter is decaying plants and animal materials consisting of fallen
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leaves, remains of plants and animals including animal waste matter like dung and urine.
Importance of maintaining or increasing organic matter for crops
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• Maintaining humus in the soil.

• An important source of plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur after
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decomposition.
• It helps the soil retain water and mineral salts.
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• It binds soil particles together thus improve soil structure.

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• It helps absorb gases like nitrogen into the soil.

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Conventional farming methods

Is the farming method where vegetation is cleared and then allowed to decompose a bit and
then incorporated into the soil to increase soil organic matter. Deep cultivation is done to remove
roots of weeds. Planting of seed is then done. In this method ridging and moulding follows
ploughing and harrowing which helps to conserve the soil and water.
Importance of organic methods of farming
• They do not pollute the environment.
• They increase soil fertility since the organic materials decompose and release nutrients.
• They increases oil microbial activities and population of soil micro-organisms.
• They improve soil structure.
• It improves soil water retention and infiltration.
• They control soil pH by maintaining acid-base balance in the soil.
• It’s cheaper to use hence reduce farming costs.
 Conservation farming and Crop Rotation
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Conservation farming
Is a system or practice which aims to conserve soil and water by using a surface cover to
minimise water runoff and erosion to improve the conditions for establishment and growth
of crops.
Benefits of conservation farming methods
• They help in the reduction of soil erosion
• They improve soil structure because soil is protected by mulch and using minimum or
no tillage techniques and crop rotation
• It helps improve rain infiltration and mist efficiency
• It lowers machinery, labour and maintenance costs because minimum tillage
• It leads to high yields
When conservation farming methods are to be used

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• When fine soil tilth is not required for crop planting
• Used on steep slopes so as to reduce on soil erosion hazards

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• Used in perennial crop production to maintain soil structure and control erosion to

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minimise cultivations which can damage crop roots, leading to low yields.
• Applied to maintain and improve on soil fertility.
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Crop rotation
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Is the growing of different crops on the same piece of land season after season in a
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planned sequence.
Importance of crop rotation
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• It reduces the incidences of crop pests and diseases on the farm

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• It increases soil fertility and improves soil structure during the resting period
• There is better use of soil nutrients by the growing crops
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• It increases crop yields

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Importance of legumes in crop rotation

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• They have nodules on the roots that help fix nitrogen into the soil
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• They protect the soil against erosion

• The falling leaves of the plant provide humus to the soil
Intercropping
Is the planting of another crop between the rows of a widely spaced main crop. For
example, the growing of beans between the rows of maize plants.
Importance of intercropping crops
• It controls soil erosion
• There is better utilisation of soil mineral salts
• Legumes growing in the system fix nitrates in the root nodules which enrich the soil.
• It enables farmers to harvest different types of crops from the same field.
 What a farmer considers when intercropping crops
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• Spatial arrangement – growing two or more crops at the same time with at least one
crop planted in rows.
• Plant density – the seeding of each crop in the mixture is adjusted below its full rate to
avoid overcrowding
• Maturity date – planting crops of different maturity periods takes advantage of peak
resources demand for nutrients, water, and sunlight.
• Plant arrangement – allows one member of the mixture to capture sunlight that would
not otherwise be available to others.
Practical
Demonstrate intercropping of crops
The following can be combination for intercropping
• Bananas/beans; cassava/groundnuts; bananas/coffee; maize/beans; cassava/beans;

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potatoes/maize/beans; sunflower/beans; maize/millet; maize/sorghum/beans.
Conservation tillage

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Is where there is no cultivation done but only herbicides are applied to prepare the land.
This is in order to avoid disturbing the soil as much as possible so that the soil and water are

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conserved.
Benefits of no tillage or conservation tillage ia
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• It reduces soil erosion because the soil is not disturbed.
• Soil structure remains stable because mulch of the sol remains undisturbed.
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• Cost such as labour, ploughing and harrowing are eliminated.

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• It leads to high profits because of low initial costs incurred

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• Improves nutrient retention because of reduced cultivation and maintenance of soil

surface cover.
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Green manure
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Is a group of crops grown particularly to be ploughed back to the soil while still green to
improve soil fertility. Legumes are used as green manure crops.
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Importance of green manure crops

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• They provide the soil with organic matter on decomposition.

• They provide nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
• It improves soil aeration and water retention capacity.
• It imparts dark colour to the soil which absorbs and retain heat required for seed
germination.
Using green manure to grow crop
• It should be ideally leguminous crops to provide nutrients such as nitrogen to the soil
• It should be ploughed or dug into the soil and covered completely at flowering stage
when nitrogen content in the root nodules is sufficient enough.
• It should be dug into the soil and a good period of time must elapse between
incorporation of green manure into the soil and crop planting.
Topic 6 www.zedmaterials.com
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Economic Importance of Livestock
Cattle
• Provide manure used to improve soil fertility
• Source of farm power
• Cattle hides increase on agricultural export
• Provide employment to the farmers
• Provide employment to people in agro based industries
• Source of income dairy processing companies create a sense of industrialisation
• Source of food

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• Government get taxes from cattle farmers
Poultry (layers)

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• Provide high class manure used to fertilize the soil

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• Provide eggs and meat which are a source of protein
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Give quicker returns because they grow and mature more quickly than other types of
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livestock.
• It does not require a lot of space.
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• Provides employment to farmers and workers on the farm, hatcheries and poultry
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processing and marketing bodies.

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• Source of income to the farmer thus uplifting their economic standards.

• It does not require a lot of capital to start.
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Anatomy and physiology of livestock

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Digestion in ruminant and non-ruminant animals

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Digestion in a ruminant – Cattle

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• In the mouth food is mixed with saliva to soften it and make it easy to swallow. Food is
chewed and swallowed through the oesophagus to the rumen. www.zedmaterials.com
• In the rumen bacteria, protozoa and fungi at on the cellulose in the grass breaking it
down into fatty acids which are absorbed directly into the blood.
• In the reticulum, food is sieved such that finer particles continue to the omasum while
coarse material is regulated to the mouth for further chewing then swallowed again.
• In the omasum the tough leaves grind the food and extract water from the food then it
continues to the abomasums.
• In the abomasums, pepsin acts on the proteins and changes it to protease, peptides
and polypeptides. Hydrochloric acid provides conducive environment for pepsin action
it also disinfects the food by killing the micro-organisms in the food/ food continues to
the small intestine.
• In the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, pancreatic juice containing the
enzymes amylase, lipase and trypsin continue the chemical digestion of food.

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• The small intestine also produces intestinal juice which completes the digestion process
of food substances.

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Digestion in a non-ruminant

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• In the mouth food is chewed and mixed with saliva which contains the enzyme amylase
responsible for the breaking down of starch to maltose.
• In the stomach, gastric juice containing the enzyme pepsin is produced. Hydrochloric
acid is also produced by the lining of the stomach.
• Hydrochloric acid provides a suitable environment for pepsin to act.
• Pepsin acts on proteins to produce peptides in the stomach.
• The food continues into the duodenum where the pancreas produces pancreatic juice.
• Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes that break starch to maltose, trypsin acts on
proteins to produce peptides and lipase breakdown lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.
• Bile produced by the liver emulsifies fats for better action by lipase
 Bird: Digestive System of a chicken
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The beak picks food and takes it to the mouth where it is mixed with saliva to easy
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swallowing.
• The food in not chewed but just swallowed through the oesophagus to the crop.
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• The crop stores food temporarily and moistens it before it is taken to Proventriculus
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(stomach).
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• In the stomach pepsin breaks down protein to peptides.

• Hydrochloric acid is also produced in the Proventriculus for better pepsin action.
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• The food continues to the gizzard which consists of grits that breaks down food into
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smaller particles to facilitate for digestion.

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• Pancreatic juice and intestinal juice contains enzymes which break down carbohydrates
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to glucose, protein into amino acids and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
• Circulation system in animals:
• The circulation system is exclusively important in the physiology of animals because it
enables all the body cells to be supplied with oxygen and food in order to function,
transports many chemicals required in various parts of the body and removes waste
products of metabolism out of the hear
 Structural function of the circulatory system of animals
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Oxygenated blood move from the lungs to the heart then to all parts of the body where
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oxygen is used by the tissues to produce energy.
• Deoxygenated blood move from the tissues in the body to the heart then to the lungs
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where it is released out as expired air.

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Storage of energy in animal bodies

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• Energy in the body is stored as ATP. ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate.
Energy release and utilisation in the body of animals
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• ATP is broken down to ADP releasing energy for use by the cells of the body.
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Breeding cycles in animals

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• Breeding cycles of farm animals

Species Duration (days)
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Cow 19-21
Ewe 15-17
Sow 19-21
Goat 19-20
Characteristics of breeds of farm animals
• Dairy cattle
• The udder is well developed with well-shaped four teats.
• The animal has a lean angular frame but not very fat.
• It is hump less.
• It has short, well set legs to support the body.
• It is a good temperament.
• It has a large prominent milk vein.
Beef cattle
• They are humped. www.zedmaterials.com
• They have long and strong legs that enable them to walk long distance for searching of good pasture and water.
• They have block conformation.
• They have long dewlaps and long narrow faces.
• They have high food conversional efficiency to enable them reach slaughter weight quickly.
• They have poorly developed udder.
• They are adapted to high ambient temperature (28-44°C).
• They are usually resistant to pests and diseases.
Selecting breeding animals
Criteria used in selecting breeding animals
• An animal is selected according to the capacity to adapt to local environmental conditions.
• Increased production potential.
• There resistance to pests/diseases.
• How long it can stay alive (according to its longevity).
• The breeding record can be used for selection.
Importance of cross- breeding and in-breeding in livestock production

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Cross breeding
Is the mating of different pure breeds e.g. mating a pure Guernsey bull with a pure Brown Swiss cow. The main aim
of cross breeding is to introduce new good genes in the herd.

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Importance of cross breeding
• The offspring grow faster than the parents.

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• The offspring adapt faster to the local environment than the parents.
• Reduces transmission of inheritable diseases in the herd.
• Cross- breeds are more resistant to diseases. ia
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• Cross- breeding increases production potential.
In-breeding in Livestock
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Is the mating of closely related animals so as to concentrate the number of pairs of similar genes for a particular
trait in the offspring’s e.g. high egg production.
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• In-breeding leads to poor breeds.

• The main advantages of in-breeding are that it maintains good characteristics in livestock and used to produce
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pure breed.
Artificial insemination
Is the technique of introducing semen into the female reproductive system, usually the vagina or through cervix
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rather of the uterus artificially.

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Advantages of Artificial Insemination

• Eliminates the cost of keeping a bull on a farm.
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• It permits use of distance males as semen can be imported.

• It prevents the spread of breeding diseases like brucellosis.
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• Semen collected from superior males can be stored.

• It is cheaper to transport semen from one place to another than transporting a bull.
• It prevents large bulls injuring small cows.
• Many cows can be served using semen of one good male in a short period of time.
• It controls inbreeding.
• It allows the farmer to use different types of bulls since semen is gotten from different places. Disadvantages
or Artificial Insemination
• It requires skilled techniques.
• Spermatozoa in semen may die due to poor storage facilities.
• It may be done on animals that are not on heat period.
• Artificial insomnious are few in the country hence some animals pass heir heat period without being
inseminated.
 Below is the drawing showing the artificial insemination
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Development of the foetus
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Fertilisation occurs when the sperm meets the egg in the oviduct. A zygote is formed.
The zygote develops into an embryo in the uterus; the uterus gets oxygen and food
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from the mother through the umbilical cord and expels carbon dioxide and waste
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products into the blood of the mother through the same umbilical cord. The embryo is
surrounded by amniotic fluid which protects it from damage. An embryo develops into
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a foetus with developed blood circulatory system and organs.

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Below is the Drawing showing the development of a foetus.

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 Structure and functions of mammary glands
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Functions of mammary glands
• Mammary glands produce milk for the born baby.
• Mammary glands provide for suckling of young ones.

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• Mammary glands produce milk that can be milked out during lactation for human

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consumption.
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The process of milk let-down and milk hold-up in lactating animals
Milk let-down
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• Milk let-down is a down flow of milk from the alveolar cavity and small duct system to the
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gland cistern and teat canal to outside. This action is dictated by the oxytocin hormone
Milk hold-up
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• Milk hold-up is when the milking animal fails to give its milk. This is caused by external factors
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like frightening, beating, talking roughly to the milking animal just before or during milking
time.
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Health in livestock
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Signs of good and poor health in livestock

Good health in livestock
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• An animal in a good health shows the following signs;

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• Good appetite
• Spends most of its time feeding
• The body temperature is normal
• The pulse rate per minute is normal
• The respiration rate is normal
• The hair is bright
• The eyes are bright and alert
• There is no mucus discharge from the mouth or nostrils
• The urine is of normal colour and smell
• The dung is soft but not loose without worms or segments of blood and has normal smell
• No limping but normal walking
Poor health in livestock
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• Decline in production of milk
• Variations in body temperature
• Loss of weight
• Loss of appetite
• Looks sick and not active
• Variation in pulse rate
• Dung very loose or hard
• Urine may contain blood
• Hair stands
• Mucus discharge from the mouth and nostrils

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Nutritive value of livestock feed
• Livestock are given feed to provide the following values;

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• Feed provides energy for all movements of the animal and for reactions in the cells of
the body.

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• Provides minerals required for growth and repair of the worn out cells of the body.
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• Feed provides substances required to keep the body health and to give it protection
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against diseases.
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• Feed provides power for doing work for draught animals

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• Provides raw materials required for the production of products from animal’s body e.g.
milk, eggs, meat, wool.
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• Feed provides substances for fattening animals before selling.

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The presence of various types of nutrients in animal feeds

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• Animal feeds should contain the following types of nutrients;

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• Carbohydrates: They contain elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen which are chief
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sources of energy for animals.

• Fats: Fats contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen as carbohydrates do, also a source of
energy but they provide twice or three times more energy than carbohydrates.
• Proteins: They are made of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen although some
contain Sulphur and Phosphorus. They are required for growth, repair and replacement
of damaged or worn out tissues.
• Vitamins: vitamins are complex compounds required in the animal’s body in small
quantities to help control different chemical reactions in the animal’s body.
• Minerals: They are also required in small amounts to promote health and prevent
mineral deficiencies.
 Nutritional deficiencies
Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in livestock www.zedmaterials.com
• Some ill-health conditions in livestock are the result of deficiencies in the feeds, for example
lack of or insufficient mineral salts, proteins or vitamins.
Below is a table summarising symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in cattle and poultry
Deficient nutrient Symptoms in cattle Symptoms in poultry (Layers)

a) Protein Reduced growth, infertility, poor muscular development, reduced milk Poor growth, infertility, poor muscular development, reduced egg
and meat. production.
a) Carbohydrates General weakness, emaciation, death. Weakness, emaciation, death.
a) Mineral elements
i. Calcium Reduced growth and reduced appetite, rickets, dullness, decreased Decreased egg production, poor egg shells, loss of muscle control.
sensitivity.
i. Phosphorus Loss of appetite, growth failure, rickets and stiffness, rough hair coat, Reduced egg production, loss of appetite, weakness.
death, weakness, decline in milk yield.
i. Sodium Growth failure, lack of appetite, decreased pulse rate, decline in milk Growth failure, lack of appetite, low egg production, cannibalism among
yield. birds.
i. Zinc Enlarged hocks, shortening and thickening of leg bones, scaling of skin, Poor feathering, low egg production, loss of appetite, weak embryos,
loss of appetite. poor skeletal development.

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i. Manganese Crooked calves, malformed necks and limbs. Chicks have slipped tendons, thin shelled eggs and poor hatchability.
i. Iron Anaemia, abnormal cells, low haemoglobin, lowered immune system. Anaemia, low haemoglobin, lowered immune system.

i. Magnesium Grass titan, convulsions excitability, death. Poor bone formation, emaciation, low egg production and hatchability,

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deformed chicks.
i. Potassium General muscle weakness, weak heart muscle, laboured breath, loss of General muscle weakness, laboured breath, loss of appetite.

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appetite, rough hair coat.
i. Iodine Goitre, stunted growth, lowered production potential, poor hair. Stunted growth, low egg production.
i. Copper
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Anaemia, slow growth, hair discolouration, emaciation, bone Anaemia, slow growth, feather discolouration, loss of weight, bone
deformation, diarrhoea, dullness. disorders, diarrhoea.
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i. Cobalt Anaemia, weakness and death, emaciation, loss of appetite, low Anaemia, weakness and death, emaciation, loss of appetite, low egg
fertility. production.
a) Vitamins
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A Infertility, night blindness, diarrhoea. Infertility, diarrhoea.

B Emaciation, diarrhoea, anaemia, poor growth. Emaciation, diarrhoea, anaemia, poor growth, loss of appetite.
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D Rickets, dental decay. Rickets.

E Sterility. Sterility.
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K Prolonged blood clotting. Prolonged blood clotting.

Suitable species of pasture for livestock production in Zambia

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• The species of pasture are classified in two groups, namely;

• Grass pasture species
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• Legume pasture species

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• Grass and legume pastures species can be planted and managed like any other and fed or
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grazed by livestock.
Suitable utilisation of pasture
• Pasture grass and / pasture legumes can be conserved as hay or silage for future use
especially the dry season when there are little pasture for livestock.
• Pasture conservation maintains livestock production throughout the year because there will
be enough feed all the year round.
Consequences of overgrazing
Overgrazing
Is a situation where livestock are grazed continuously on a piece of land and they eat away most
of the vegetative cover to the effect that the land surface is almost bare and subject to soil erosion
agents. Overgrazing results into;
• Soil erosion
• Disappearance of some pasture species
• Leaving less palatable pasture species
• Poor health in animals because they get little pasture which is of low nutritive value
 Pests/Parasites of livestock
Effects of pests on livestock www.zedmaterials.com
• Pests like ticks, lice, mites and hook worms suck blood of the host animal thereby weakening
them and anaemia can occur.
• Ectoparasites cause irritation on the body of the animal causing great discomfort and lowering
production.
• They reduce the host growth rate and cause emaciation of the host.
• They transmit diseases to the host animal. They damage the hide or skin of a host animal as
they bite and suck blood.
• Internal parasites may block the internal passage causing obstruction which may lead to death
of an animal
• They lower the quality of livestock products.
Cycles of Parasites
A. Ectoparasites
One host tick
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Adult female sucks blood from a host becomes engorged and drops to the ground where it
lays eggs. Eggs hatch into larva which limb on plants. Larva climbs on host as it grazes and
sucks blood and become engorged. Engorged larva moult and become nymphs, suck blood of
the same host.

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• Nymph becomes engorged and moult into adults.

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• Adult mate on the same host, suck blood and become engorged and drop to the ground to lay
eggs. ia
Two host tick
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• Adult female lays eggs on the ground, eggs hatch into larvae which hatch onto the first host.
Larvae suck blood and become engorged. Engorged larva moult to nymphs, suck blood and
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become engorged and drop to the ground and become adults. Adults climb a second hose
suck blood and mate. They drop to the ground and lay eggs.
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Three host tick

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• Adult female lays eggs on the ground, eggs hatch into larvae which climb on the host. Larvae
suck blood and become engorged then fall to the ground and moult to nymphs. Nymphs
climb a second host suck blood, become engorged and drop to the ground and moult to
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adults. Adults climb a third host, suck blood, mate on host and become engorged and drop to
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the ground.
Chicken mites
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• 12 to 24 hours after its first blood meal fertilised females lay batches of three to seven eggs in
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cracks or under debris in poultry houses. Larvae emerge after 48 to72 hours and it does not
feed but moult into protonymphs which do not feed. After 1 to 2 days these nymphs moult to
adults. Chicken mites may survive several months without feeding.
• Endo parasites
• Liver fluke – attack liver and bile ducts of infected animal. Adult fluke in liver and bile lay eggs.
Eggs via the blood vessels reach the intestine and pass out in feaces and hatch into larvae
called miracidia which enters the snails where they develop into Sporocytes. Sporocytes
develop into radia and cercariae which come out of snails and swim about. Caricariae climb
water plants and encyst themselves and develop into young flukes. Young flukes are
swallowed by animals and become adults in liver or bile ducts.
• Roundworms – are found in alimentary canal of infested host and are of two types.
• Roundworm (haemonchus Contortus); adult worms in alimentary canal lay eggs which are
passed out in faeces. Eggs develop into larvae, moult twice and climb on vegetation. Livestock
eat infested vegetation and larvae develop into adults in the alimentary canal and start laying
eggs.
Roundworm (ascaris lumbricoides); adults in the gut lay eggs which are passed out in
the faeces. Eggs develop into larvae or infective stage in the www.zedmaterials.com
egg shell. Young
roundworms migrate in the body by boring through the intestinal wall to the blood
stream, heart, lungs and coughed out into the mouth and swallowed back into the
intestines where males and female mate and eggs are produced.
Methods of controlling and preventing pests of farm animals
Ticks
• Fencing the livestock farm.
• Regular dipping and spraying of animals with recommended acaricides
• Hand picking of ticks from the animals
• Heavily infested pastures can be ploughed or burned during the dry season to kill
eggs, larvae nymphs and adult ticks.
• Double fencing with clear spaces between fences to stop ticks from crossing the
adjacent farm.

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Chicken mite
• General sanitation and cleanliness

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• All new birds to be checked to ensure they are pest free before they are brought
into the farm.

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• Physical examination of the flock
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• Apply chemical pesticides directly on the infested birds, using a wet table powder
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or in dust form.
Liver fluke
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• Dose animals with suitable anthelmintic periodically

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• Draining of waterlogged areas

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• Burning of muddy areas during the dry weather.

• Hand picking and killing water snails using fish or water birds to feed on them or
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spraying copper sulphate in infested water.

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• Livestock grazing in poorly drained places should be avoided.

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Periodic cleaning of wells.

Roundworms
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• Regular drenching of farm animals with suitable anthelmintic

• Providing livestock with clean water.
• Regular sanitation in livestock houses
• Rotational grazing.
• Correct disposal of human faecal material in pit latrines.
• Draining of waterlogged pastures ploughing infested pasture.
 Diseases
Methods of preventing and controlling animal diseases www.zedmaterials.com
Regular vaccination of livestock
• Isolating suspected and treating sick animals.
• Controlling disease causing agents like ticks and tsetse flies
• Rotational grazing of animals.
• Proper disposal of livestock waste products.
• Proper feeding and watering of livestock
• Regular cleaning and disinfecting of animal houses.
• Burning or burying dead animals on the farm.
• Using artificial insemination when breeding farm animals.
• Periodic testing for particular animal diseases and culling positive reactors
• Proper fencing to keep out other animals from entering the farm and not allowing livestock to go out of the farm.
• Zero grazing for large animals like cattle, pigs, goats and deep litter or battery system for poultry.
• Instituting quarantine on livestock and their products.
Housing and Marketing
The suitability and maintenance of various types of livestock housing
Calf house
• It should be able to protect calves against extreme weather conditions.

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• Floor should be made of concrete to facilitate cleaning with a slanting drainage channel through which urine can drain.
• It should be sheltered in order not to subject the calves to draughts which can predispose them to pneumonia.
• It should be located on well drained soils.

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• It should have enough space for the number of calves housed to avoid overcrowding.
• It should be well ventilated.

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• It should have individual calf pens to avoid calves suckling navels of fellow calves which can cause hairballs in the digestive
system.
Maintenance of calf house
• Regular cleaning
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• Check regularly for any cracks which should be filled with concrete to avoid pest hiding there.
• Renew thatch before it gets old if the floor is made out of thatch.
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• Plaster old walls.

Cattle houses (Zero grazed)
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• The house should be protected from extreme weather, sheltered, built on well drained soil, slightly slanting land to allow
water to run off. The walls should be plastered and all cracks filled to prevent parasites from hiding there. There should be
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enough ventilation; the roof should not leak and enough feeding and watering space. A yard around the building can be
constructed so that animals can spend some time outside when they are not feeding to help them exercise and get
vitamin D.
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Maintenance of calf houses

• There should be a clear space around the houses so that the area is kept dry to avoid dampness in the walls and floors.
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• Repair of walls, floor and roof should be done immediately to avoid further damage which may necessitate constructing
new houses which is expensive.
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• Cattle dung and urine should be removed from the houses daily to keep them clean and habitable.
Pig houses
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• A pig house should protect pigs from bad weather conditions like rain, wind and coldness. It should be located on a well-
drained site.
• It should be leak-proof. Floor should be made of concrete to ease cleaning.
• There should be a slightly slanted channel to drain away dung and urine to facilitate cleaning. The room should be well
ventilated.
• It should have enough space with feeding and watering area.
• It should be dry and warm enough to keep the pigs warm because the pigs do not have enough hair to keep them warm if
exposed to draughts.
• The walls should be smooth with no cracks where Ectoparasites can hide.
• It should be large enough to hide a number of pigs without overcrowding.
• It should be strong enough to keep pigs.
Maintenance of pig houses
• Pig houses should be cleaned of dung and urine and scrubbed by a brush and detergent and disinfectant daily for proper
hygiene to guard against diseases.
• Any potholes on the floor should be sealed with concrete to avoid dung and urine collecting there.
• The thatch on the floor should be repaired if old. The walls should be repaired if damaged or cracked.
 Poultry houses
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• A poultry house should protect birds against extreme weather conditions i.e. sunshine,
rain and wind.
• The housing should be leak-proof with solid wall on the windward side to protect birds
against draughts which can stress birds.
• The house should be located on a well-drained site to avoid the build-up of pests and
diseases which build where damp conditions prevail.
• The house should have enough space to accommodate a number of birds allocated.
• Walls should be plastered smooth with no cracks where pests hide
• Housing should be leak and vermin proof.
• It should have a lockable door to shut out predators.
• It should be well ventilated to guarantee good health.

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• It should have watering and feeding facilities.
• Maintenance of poultry houses

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• Regular cleaning of the house.

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• Old litter should be removed and replaced to keep the house clean and warm.
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Walls, floors and roof should be repaired if damaged.
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• Poultry equipment in the house should be kept clean.
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• All the bush around the poultry house should be dug up to avoid walls becoming dump.
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Ensure that watering facilities if leaking are repaired immediately.

Preparation of livestock and livestock products for marketing
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• Livestock – should be well fed and watered before marketing so that they fatten and
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look fit and fetch good prices. They should be groomed or cleaned to remove dirt from
their body in order to attract buyers. Animals should be handled gently and carefully to
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avoid bruising them. They should not be overcrowded in vehicles when being
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transported.
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• Livestock products – should be graded according to quality, size, colour before

marketing such that each lot is marketed and priced singly. For example eggs should be
sorted and graded as small, medium and big such that each lot in packed and priced
Organisation
independent of others. What it does
Organisations in Zambia that process and market livestock products
Zambeef Processing and distributing beef, chicken pork, milk, dairy products
and eggs.
Master Pork Processing and distribution of pork products.
Kachema meat supplies limited Processing and distribution of meat products such as fresh, cooked,
cured, smoked pork beef, lamb and goat meat.
Zambia Pork Products Process and marketing pork products.
MMMM
Zamchick Processing and marketing poultry products
Topic 7
FARM STRUCTURES www.zedmaterials.com
• Farm structures involve the study of the erection of buildings for man, animals, crops and farm equipment.
Examples of farm structures
Farm buildings
• Farm houses for workers with their families
• Buildings for livestock
• Building for farm product storage
• Buildings for crop production especially green houses.
• Buildings for processing e.g. milk houses slaughter houses and grain driers.
• Buildings for equipment and supplies e.g. implements shed, garages, farm shops, fuel storage etc.
Fences
• Cattle dips, spray races and crushes
• Selecting a site for farm buildings
• In citing the buildings at the farm the following should be considered;
• They should be at the centre of the farm and near the road.
• They should be on high ground for proper view of the whole farm.

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• They should be cited on least productive soils.
• The place should be of good drainage.
• The place should be near water supply.

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• Bear in mind the direction of the prevailing winds, sunshine and rains.
Planning the construction of the buildings

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• The function of the building should match with the plan or design.
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Fire risks should be considered. ia
Room should be left around each building for future expansion.
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• Building should be flexible in terms of enterprise changes or transfer.
• Reduce cost by designing building which can be constructed using local materials.
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• Building should be designed to be cheap, simple but sound to their purpose.

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Types of farm structures (farm buildings)

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• The type of farm building to be found on a farm depends on the types of enterprises, the volume of the
enterprise and the conditions like its economic status and weather.
Different farm structures
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The following are some of the buildings common on farms;

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Poultry houses: deep litter house, battery, brooder house etc.

• Piggeries: breeding units, fattening units, farrowing units.
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• Cattle housing: milking unit, stall feeding unit, calf pens.

• Produce storage units: maize cribs, granaries, silos, hay bags.
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• Farm equipment stores.

• Tractor implements and fuel stores.
• Input stores: seeds, chemicals, fertilizers etc.
• Manufacturing and processing facilities.
Importance of maintaining farm structures
• To increase production by decreasing crop and animal losses.
• To increase the quality of farm produce.
• To reduce farm labour requirements.
• To protect production tools and machinery from weather elements.
• To store farm produce when market prices are low and sell them when they have risen.
• To increase efficiency and easy in management on the farm.
Topic 8 www.zedmaterials.com
Farm Machinery
Work and power
Work:
Is the application of a force over a distance. A pulley lifting a 1000kg of a bale of hay from the ground
on to a lorry is a good example of doing work.
Work = force applied x distance.
Power
Power is the rate of doing work or how fast the work is done
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Power = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Horsepower
Is a unit that is used to measure the power of engines and motors. One unit of horsepower is equal to
the power needed to lift 550 pounds one foot in one second or one unit of horsepower is equal to 745.7
watts.

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Importance of knowledge of horse power on a farm
• It is a guiding factor to the farmer and the farm manager in regards to purchasing and using the right
size machine for appropriate work e.g. tractor.

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Levers, pulleys and screws.
Levers

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Consists of a rigid bar, which is free to turn about a fixed point called fulcrum. The effort force is exerted
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upon one lever arm, and the other arm will go up or down in the opposite direction. Levers are divided into
three classes.
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First class levers
Is when the fulcrum lies between the force arm and the lever arm.
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• When the fulcrum is midway between the force and the load, there is no change in force, sped or
distance. Examples include a pair of scissors, a water pump and a pair of pliers.
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Second class lever

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The load arm lies between the fulcrum and the force arm. A good example is the wheelbarrow.
Third class levers
The force arm lies between the fulcrum and the load arm. Because of this arrangement, a relatively
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large force is required to move the load. Examples include fishing rods, a pair of callipers and a spade or
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shovel
b) Pulleys:
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A pulley is a wheel with a groove that allows a rope or belt or chain to ride securely on it. A pulley is a
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circular lever. It makes a farmer use less force lifting heavy load.
Screw:
A screw is an incline plane wrapped around a cylinder. The incline plane forms ridges in a spiral along the
cylinder. These ridges are called the threads of the screw. The screw depends on another simple machine, a
screwdriver for its operation. The screw is used for fastening objects and to remove or raise liquids or solids.
Hydraulic jack: It is used to lift the car when removing or fixing a tyre.
Calculating mechanical advantage and velocity ratio
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Mechanical advantage = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 e.g. if the load of 500N is lifted to a height of 20m by a machine
500𝑁
using the effort of 200N that moved 40m then the mechanical advantage = 200𝑁 =2.5
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 40𝑚
Velocity ration = from example above velocity ratio = 20𝑚 = 2
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
 The main parts of the mouldboard plough, cultivator, harrow, planter and ridges
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Main parts of mouldboard plough
• Main beam: For carrying other parts of the plough to which power is applied.
• Disc coulter: For scraping soil from the mouldboard.
• Share: Provides the cutting edge.
• Mouldboard: It is located behind the share. It receives the furrow slice from the share
and turns it.
• Furrow wheel: Assists in penetrating hard soil.
• Frog: This is the part on which the mouldboard and the share are attached.

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Main parts of the cultivator plough

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• Wheel: Assists in penetrating.

• Lever: For row adjustment mechanism, it enables movement of the mechanism.
• Cast iron part: Outer tines which break soil clods after being cut by the reversible tines.
• Reversible tines: Beaks through the hard soil leaving back broken clods.
 www.zedmaterials.com
Main parts of harrow plough
• Metallic rectangular beam: It is the main frame on which the zigzag design with spikes
tooth harrows are fixed.
• Zigzag spikes-tooth harrow: These form a conventional zigzag design with fairly small
sections of appropriate size, which can be attached to each other to extend the width
of cultivation.

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Main parts of planter

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• Top bar: It connects the unit onto a tractor.

• Press wheel: It presses seeds into the soil.
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• Coulters: These make fallows in the soil into which seeds fall.
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• Delivery tubes: These are tubes through which seed pass from seed plates into the soil.
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• Seed hopper: This is the chamber where seeds are placed.

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• Seed plates: These are the plates which pick up seeds and carry them round till they
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drop into delivery tube.

• Drive shaft: This is driven by a chain. It makes the seed plates rotate inside.
 An ox - drawn planter
Main parts of a ridge plough www.zedmaterials.com
• Spanner: The handle has for positions to take care of the height of the operator.
• Depth adjustment wheel: This is a wheel of 20cm diameter and it is adjusted by a sliding stark
mechanism which can be fixed by a lock pin at any desired position.
• Upset share: Produces rounded top ridges and the furrow width can be adjusted by a simple
mechanism.
• Mouldboard: This works hand in hand with the upset share to produce top ridges.
• Adjustable wings: These are fitted to mouldboard and they enhance the process of producing
rounded top ridges together with upset share.
Centre of gravity and its practical application
• The centre of gravity of an object is the balance point around which there are equal moment
arms of length times weight.
• Finding centre of gravity requires that the object is under the influence of gravity, while centre
of mass is the centre of mass distribution.
• Application of centre of gravity include: the fact that free rotation of an object is always

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around its centre of gravity and that an object will tip over when the centre of gravity lies
outside the supporting base of the object. Also, the greater force is applied through the
centre of gravity.

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Maintenance of farm implements

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• Farm equipment – can be considered as those tools that are too big to be used by hand.
Most modern farm equipment is either motorised, or comes as an attachment to a piece of
farm machinery such as a tractor. ia
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Farm equipment Maintenance
• Cleaning and inspection - regular cleaning prevents damage by ensuring that nothing gets
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stuck into the machine. The equipment should also be inspected for wear and damage. Once
the equipment is clean, it is easy to see what needs to be repaired, replaced and what is in
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perfect condition.
• Maintenance and repair – proper maintenance involves inspecting and replacing those parts
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as they wear pot and making sure all fluids are topped up. It also means making all those little
repairs that do not appear to make any immediate difference but add up over the long run.
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Managing the tools

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Storage: large garden tools like rakes are stored on hanging racks and smaller ones like knives
are hung on peg boards in order to prevent them from attracting dust and moisture.
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• Clean up: use high pressure water and scrub brush to remove clods of soil on the tools like
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hoes.
• Maintenance: quick sanding and coat of boiled linseed oil is used to keep the wooden
handles smooth.
• Sharpening: all tools with cutting edges should be regularly be sharpened
How to repair farm equipment
• Make sure your insurance is in order by choosing an insurance company which covers farm
equipment breakdown.
• Assess your mechanical inclination by ensuring that you attend courses that teach repair for
every farm equipment you operate.
• Grab the farm equipment’s manual and brows the trouble shooting section.
• Contact a repair shop.
• Have the repair man inspect your machine for repairs. Listen to the diagnosis.
Topic 9 www.zedmaterials.com

FARM MANAGEMENT
Factor of production
• Factors of production are resources that are the building blocks of the economy they
are what people use to produce goods and services. Factors of production can be
divided into four categories;
• Land– includes any natural resource used to produce gods and services such as fibre,
building materials and other raw materials needed by man some common land or
natural resources are water, oil, copper, natural gas, coal and forests.
• Labour - is the effort that people contribute to the production of goods and services. It
is affected by the total population in the labour force, wage rates, health of workers
and average hours worked per day or per week per person.

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• Capital – is the machinery, tools and buildings which farmers use to produce goods and
services. Some common examples of capital include tractors, agricultural drugs and
chemicals, agricultural tools, etc.

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• Entrepreneurship – is a person who combines the other factors of production to earn a

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profit. The most successful entrepreneurs are innovators who find new ways to
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produce goods and services or who develop new goods and services to bring to the
market.
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Ways of improving production
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• Use of improved tools and implements

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• Improved farm management

• Intensification of production involves the production of the greatest output from the
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least input
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Soil improvement is done through the use of fertilisers to maintain soil fertility and
boost yields.
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• Crop protection through the use of effective pest and disease control measures
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• Crop and animal improvement by using improved varieties of plants and breeds of
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animals.
• Animal health by seeking technical advice from veterinary officers.
• Irrigation of crops by using irrigation equipment such as pumps
• Transportation, processing and storage
• Farmers must have many means of preserving their harvest.
• Adequate and accurate market information
Law of diminishing returns
The law of diminishing returns states that if a viable input is increased while the other
inputs in use remain constant, a point is eventually reached where the additional
output for each additional input will decline.
 Law of supply and demand
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• Law of supply and demand states that the lower the supply the higher the prices of products
on the market and the higher the supply the lower the prices of products on the market.
Effects of controlling prices of agricultural inputs and products on demand and supply

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Supply and demand curve
Effects of controlling prices
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• Government set prices which were unrelated to supply and demand
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• In remote areas, transport costs are very high, contributing to the high market costs of most
boards
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• The agricultural development banks nevertheless experienced great problems in obtaining

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repayment and the system, where the marketing board repaid the bank loan when the farmer
sold his maize.
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• Government set unrealistically low prices for maize, this leads to shortage of maize in the
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town.
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Marketing of agricultural products

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Suggest ways of increasing sales of agricultural products in the local area

Increasing sales of products
• Timely buying and assembling produce
• Timely selling of produce through presentation and advertising
• Transportation of produce from centres of supply to centre of consumption
• Storage of produce when there are seasonal surpluses or before distribution
• Timely processing of the farm produce to change them to another form required by the
consumer
• Farm produce should be graded before selling them.
• Timely financing of the distribution of the products to the consumers
• Farmers should be able to bear risks involved in the handling of produce.
• Timely collection and analysis of market information by government so as to advise farmers.
 Effects of production distribution on marketing of farm produce
• Additional income is realised by the farmer from both crops andwww.zedmaterials.com
animals instead of relying on
one enterprise
• A farmer can get income from one enterprise if the one fails due to pests and diseases attack
• Labour can be used continuously throughout the year
• The remains of some crops such as stalks, potato vines and groundnuts haulms can be fed to
livestock instead of being wasted
• Improved human nutrition is achieved by farmers, a varied and balanced diet is possible
Effects of agricultural marketing policies on the development of agriculture
• Diversification of crop production to allow for the production of more drought tolerant crops
• Emphasis on service delivery to smallholders to ensure that small holders take full
opportunity to share in the economic growth and development arising from the police of
liberalisation
• Development of the livestock sector to allow for increased productivity of Zambia livestock to
improve the welfare of rural people through expanded food supplies and increased cash
income.

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• Expanded opportunities for outlying area to capture the lavational dualistic nature of the
agriculture sector
• Improving the economic status of women given the importance of women in agriculture

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• Improve use of available water resources to tap the vast of resource endowment of rivers

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lakes and ground water supply.
• Full utilisation of land suitable for agriculture ia
• Helping farmers deal with natural disasters
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• Emphasising sustainability agriculture to prevent soil erosion and minimise any adverse of
changing farming technology on the environment.
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Advantages and disadvantages of liberalising marketing of

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agricultural input and products

Advantages
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• Farmers take their maize to a local market and sell it direct to consumers
• Farmers can sell their produce to trader for fast money
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• A retailer accepts payment for fertiliser in form of unmilled maize which in turn sells in his
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store or sells to large scale trader

• Large scale traders buy direct from farmer and deliver direct to miller
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• Collector/retailer visits villages to buy directly from farmers and subsequently sell the maize
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to the consumer
Disadvantages
• Mutual mistrust between public and private sectors
• The enforcement of the legislation that support the private sector development is not very
strong, the legal process for enforcing the contract is very slow, thus those under commercial
contracts are not well protected
• Limited market infrastructure
• The maize market has been characterised by immoral business practices by some private
sector traders
• Data constraints in- depth analysis of the effects of market reforms on farmer and consumer
welfare is limited by lack of adequate and accurate data
• Limited market information, adequate and accurate market information is a critical factor for
a farmer.

THE END OF GRADE 10

 GRADE 11 www.zedmaterials.com
Topic 1
AGRICULTURE IN ZAMBIA
Land use
Ways in which some factors limit the use of land in different areas of Zambia
Factors that limit the use of land:
• Topography –This is the nature of the landscape which can be flat, gently sloping or steep. Land with flat or gently sloping
terrain is more of agricultural use than that of steep slopes because it is able to retain more plant nutrients and soil
moisture for plat growth and is less likely to be eroded by wind or water as happens on steep slopes. Land on steep slopes
tends to lose its fertility more frequently due to increased soil erosion by wind and / or water. Generally, the land has
shallow profile because of frequent soil erosion and dries up more quickly because there is little soil to hold the soil
moisture.
• Climate–Is the average weather condition of an area over a long period of time .It consists of rainfall, temperature, wind,
sunshine, humidity etc. The climate of an area influences the use of land in that area. Low rainfall limits the use of land
because growing of crops and rearing of animals require adequate rainfall to realise high production. Too low or too high
atmospheric temperatures limit the use of land. Low temperatures cause slow growth and poor production of the majority
of crops while high temperatures encourage rapid evaporation of moisture from the s Different forms of land use,
including different agricultural systems and farming
practices

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Agricultural systems:
Shifting cultivation
land is cleared, tilled and crops are grown to supply the family’s needs until soil fertility decline with continuous cropping.

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Then farmers move on to another piece of land abandoning the previous plot.
Subsistence farming

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Farmers produce agricultural products just to meet the family’s food requirements only. Usually, farmers have small
holdings, use limited inputs and do not use modern scientific practices in their farming.
Arable farming ia
Agriculture where farmers may specialise in the growing of only one type of crop on the same field.
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Commercial farming
Is an s agricultural systems in which farmers produce vest quantities of products for sale. Is characterised by large scale
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hectarage of crops, use of modern scientific methods.

Farming practices:
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Rotations
Crop rotation is the growing of different types of crops on the same piece of land in a planned sequence from a season to
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season in order to maximise use of available land.

Mixed farming-
This is the type of farming in which both crops and livestock are produced on the same farm. Mixed farming offers for
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agricultural diversification since crops and livestock are produced on the same, mixed farming ensures proper use of labour
throughout the year.
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Mono culture
This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece of land. In other words, it is the growing of crops in pure stands in
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a garden, e.g. growing of maize alone in a field.

Advantages of monoculture:
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• Spraying against pests and disease is easy.

• Application of fertilisers is easy since each type of crop has its own recommended application rate.
• Farmers can specialise and become experts in growing a particular crop.
Disadvantages of monoculture:
• Pest or disease attack is faster in pure stands
• Only one type of crop is harvested.
• Some crop types e.g. maize or cotton encourage soil erosion if grown successively on a piece of land.
Advantages of practising crop rotation
• Helps to control pests and diseases of crops since different types of crops are grown.
• Soil nitrogen is replenished by growing legumes which fix nitrogen.
• Soil structure is improved.
• Soil moisture is conserved.
• Soil erosion is controlled.
Disadvantages of crop rotation
• Labour costs can be high.
• Wider range of skills and knowledge are needed to manage different crops and plan a good rotation system.
 Land classification-
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Land is classified according to how it is put to use basing on suitability as explained
hereunder.
• Arable land suitable for intensive cultivation, where limitations to sustained high level
of agricultural productions are minor or absent.
• Land suitable for grazing, but not for cultivation.
• Land unsuitable for agriculture or at best suited only to light grazing.
• Grazing land or land suited to pasture improvement. It may be cultivated or cropped in
rotation with sown pasture.
Development of Agriculture
Factors that affect agricultural development in a nation
• Capital-Capital is the stock or money invested in a business to develop it. The main aim
of investing capital in agriculture is to produce more. Capital can be in form of money

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or goods used in production process.
• Labour-Labour refers to the physical force or mental capability a human being applied
in production process. It can be inform of physical work done by people or mental

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service injected in the production process. Lack of labour accounts for low production

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and poor quality products because agricultural potential is not fully exploited and most

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of the production activities are not carried out at an appropriate time.
Policy- Policy is a course of action selected from among alternatives. It is a high-level
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overall plan embracing the general principles and aims of an organisation, usually the
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government.
• Market-Market is the act of buying and selling of commodities. It involves moving of
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goods from the producer to the consumer.

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Effects of land tenure on agriculture

• Free hold land tenure system - In this type of tenure, an individual has the right over
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the land although he/ she may not have the legal land title.
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• Effects
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• The owner can plan for long-term projects since he/she is sure that land belongs to him
or her indefinitely.
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• An individual land owner may not have enough capital to invest in developmental
projects on that land so; the land may remain underused.
• Leasehold land tenure system - Leasehold tenure system is when an individual secures
land from the government and stays on it and uses it for an agreed- upon period of
time.
• An individual gets a leasehold title which he/she can use as mortgage to access an
agricultural credit from the bank or any other money-lending institution which he/she
can use to boost agriculture on the farm.
• Communal land tenure system- In this type of tenure, the land belongs to the
community; no individual ownership. This type of ownership allows every member of
the community to use the land freely and the land can be passed from generation to
generation without paying.
T0PIC 2 www.zedmaterials.com
SOIL SCIENCE
Soil profiles and classification
Soil profile
Is the vertical arrangement of soil layers (horizons) from the top layer to the parent rock.
• Top soil (Horizon A)-This is the topsoil (topmost) layer of the soil profile. It is fertile
than any other layer because it contains more humus which renders it to be darker
than the rest of the layer and contains more soil microorganisms which break down
organic matter and humus to liberate soil nutrients.
• Sub soil (Horizon B)-The subsoil lies below the top soil layer. It contains less humus; less
air, less plant roots, less soil micro-organisms and more compacted than topsoil.

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• Gravel (Horizon C)-Gravel layer lies below the sub soil layer. This layer contains
unconsolidated material matter which is less weathered. It consists of rock particles

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and stones.
• Parent rock (Horizon D)- This is the original soil parent material which is still

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consolidated and unweathered. All the other three layers above come from the parent
rock.
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Below drawing shows the detailed soil profile
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 Importance of a soil profile
• Soils with well-developed deep profiles have the ability to retain more soil moisture for plant growth and are able to hold more plant nutrients.
• www.zedmaterials.com
Soils with shallow, poorly developed profiles tend to dry out quickly, contain less plant nutrients and provide less anchorage to growing plants all of
which have negative effects on agricultural production.
• Soils with deep profiles conserve more soil moisture and nutrients thus reducing on soil erosion hazards to which soils with shallow profiles are prone.
Classify soil samples
• Sand- Sand particles are composed of silica and are large enough to be seen with a naked eye. Coarse Particles range between 2.0 mm to 0.2mmin
diameter while fine sand particles range from 0.2 mm to 0.02 mm. Sand particles are heavy and feel gritty when wetted and rubbed between thumb and
fingers, sandy soils are suitable for crops which do not require large amounts of water, e.g. groundnuts.
• Loam-Loam soil is an optimal mixture of sand, silt and clay, showing no distinct characteristics of neither. A loam soil contains enough nutrients, water
and has a suitable pH for proper plant growth.
• Clay-Clay particles are crystals of silica and alumina and cannot be seen with a naked eye. A clay particle has a diameter of less than 0.002mm.
Composition and properties of soil
Determine the constituents (components) of soil
• Air- Good soil has air pockets which are used by plant roots and soil micro-organisms to breathe in order to live and function properly.
• Water-Water dissolves mineral salts, gases and organic molecules which determine its ph. Water forms about 25% of soil by volume.
• Organic matter (humus)-It is derived from remains of plants and animals decomposed by soil micro-organisms. Organic matter is found mainly in topsoil
layer and forms about 5% of soil volume
• Mineral matter–It is primarily derived from the weathered parent material although some come from decomposed organic materials.
• Living organism-A diversity of living organisms live in soil where they help in the decomposition of organic matter to form humus and other functions.
Soil organisms include bacteria, fungi, earthworms and termites etc.
• Explain the importance of constituents of soil.
• Importance of constituents of soil.
Air
Is required by plants to generate energy (ATP) adenosine triphosphate to be used to absorb salts from soil water. Oxygen from soil air is required by soil

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organisms and micro-organisms which decompose organic matter to produce humus.
Water
• Soil water is required by soil micro-organisms to live and perform their functions
• It also keeps the leaves turgid for proper photosynthesis

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• It helps in the transpiration process in plants
• Soil water dissolves plant nutrients.

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Organic matter
• It provides nutrients to plants after decomposition.
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It improves drainage and aeration by binding particles together to form aggregates.
It is a source of food for soil organisms and micro-organisms.
Mineral matter
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• It is a source of minerals required by plants and soil micro-organisms.
• It provides anchorage to plant roots so that plants do not fall over when growing.
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Living organisms
• Some organisms help in fixing nitrogen in the soil e.g. azotobacter and rhizobium bacteria, thus increasing plant nutrients.
• They help in the decomposition of soil organic matter to liberate nutrients.
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Physical and chemical characteristics of different soils

• Sandy -Particles are large and are composed of silica and they can be seen with naked eye.
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• They are easy to work because the particles do not lump together.
• They are light.
• Sandy soil retains little water and tends to dry up quickly in hot weather.
• Sandy soils are course textured.
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• They have low capillarity.

• They are well drained, aerated and acidic.
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• Clay soil-Clay particles are usually very small, usually smaller than 0.002mm in diameter.
• Clay soils are not easily eroded by water or wind because the particles have high cohesion force which hold them together.
• They are fine textured.
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• They have low porosity and this makes them poorly drained, poorly aerated and difficult to cultivate.
• Loam soil-Loam soils are moderately textured with good drainage.
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• They have good aeration.

• Loam soils are easy to cultivate with moderate erodibility.
• They have good physical and chemical properties that make them best soils for agricultural purposes.
• Clay loam-Clay loams are fine textured and are able to hold a lot of water which makes them poorly drained and poorly aerated.
• They are difficult to cultivate.
• They soil PH ranges between slightly acidic to slightly alkaline.
• They are suitable for crops which can withstand water logging conditions e.g. yams.
• Sandy loam- They have a medium course texture which enables them to be well drained and well aerated.
• Water retention is moderate but leaching is high.
• Their open structure renders them to be easily eroded.
• Cereal crops perform well in these soils.
• Silts loam - They have fine texture which makes them capable of holding enough water and nutrients.
• They are fertile and moderately well drained and poorly aerated.
• They are slightly acidic.
Topic 3
CROP PRODUCTION
Prepare a site for growing a crop www.zedmaterials.com
Site for a crop
• A suitable site for growing sweet potatoes or bananas should be fertile to supply enough soil nutrients for proper growth and
development of these crops.
• The soil should be deep to provide adequate crop plant anchorage and sufficient space for plant roots.
• The soil should be able to retain water for crop use especially during the dry weather.
• The soils should have a good soil pH to facilitate mineral absorption and availability to plant roots.
• The soil should be easy to cultivate and not stony so as to allow easy root penetration.
• The site for these crops should be located where the topography is flat or gently sloping to avoid soil erosion hazards and to allow for
mechanical cultivation.
• The land should be cleared of existing vegetation by slashing and uprooting trees and tree – stumps.
Clearing a site for a crop
• Clearing -This is the physical cutting of trees, shrubs, herbs.etc.
• Stumping - This is the uprooting of trees.
• Ploughing or cultivation. This is divided into two primary and secondary tillage.
• Primary tillage - After cutting trees the farmer goes into the field and start cultivating without caring about the size of how deep he
should go down or the size of clods.
• Secondary tillage - A farmer cultivate using mechanical such as harrows, ridges, rakes with standardized size of how deep he should dig.
Seedbed preparation and sowing / planting
Process of land preparation for crop production

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Land preparation
• Refer to grade 12 works on crop production on land preparation.
Advantages and disadvantages of various forms of land preparation
Forms of land preparation

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• Minimum Tillage
• Light tools are used to open up the soil and sow the crop whereby the soil disturbance is limited only where the crop is planed while the

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original vegetation may be removed by slashing.
Advantages of minimum tillage
•
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It saves the cost of heavy tillage machinery and implements.
It is a quick method of preparing.
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• It prevents soil erosion on the farm.
• It reduces soil surface evaporation thus conserving soil for the planted crops.
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Disadvantages of minimum tillage

• Crops which require fine soil tilth cannot be grown using this method e.g. finger millet.
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• Where there is soil capping, rain infiltration is checked thus reducing the availability of moisture to the crops.
• The debris may provide a hiding and breeding place for crop pests e.g. insect pests, mice, nematodes or Eelworms etc.
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CONSERVATION TILLAGE
Is when land preparation is done without cultivating the land at all but only herbicides are applied to clear the land.
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Advantages of conservation tillage

• There is reduced soil erosion because the soil is not disturbed at all.
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Soil structure remains undisturbed.

• Tillage costs, machinery and implement costs are eliminated.
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• It helps the soil to retain nutrients for crop growth since soil and water are properly conserved.
• It may lead to high crop yield because soil fertility is maintained and improved by conserving soil and water.
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Disadvantages of conservation tillage

• The herbicides applied may have a long residual effect in the soil which may damage planted crops thus reducing yields.
• The frequent use of herbicides may affect beneficial soil micro-organisms; reducing their numbers and activity in the soil.
• Using herbicides may be expensive to local farmers.
• Some crops which require fine seedbeds may not be grown using this method of preparing land.
• It requires technical knowledge to apply which ordinary farmer may lack.
CONVENTIONAL TILLAGE.
Is when the soil is intensively worked to prepare a fine tilth during land preparation? Hand tools or machinery are employed to prepare
land.
Advantages of conventional tillage
• It permits easy planting of crops which require a fine seedbed.
• Trash is incorporated into the soil to provide soil organic matter.
• It facilitates infiltration and soil aeration because hard pans are broken during land preparation.
• Deep cultivation facilitates proper growth of deep rooted crops.
• It exposes soil pests to their natural enemies and also, disease causing agents in the soil are destroyed by desiccation in the sun.
Disadvantages of conventional tillage
• It exposes the soil to soil erosion hazards because it removes plant debris from the soil surface.
• It encourages surface evaporation which may affect crop germination.
• It requires a lot of human labour and it is tiring to prepare the land using this method.
• It is expensive in terms of fuel demands and labour when heavy machinery is employed in the land preparation process.
 Seedbeds suitable for germination of seeds
Seedbed preparation www.zedmaterials.com
• Seedbed preparation includes ploughing if machinery is used and digging if hand tools are used.
• Secondary cultivation is used to break large soil clods into smaller ones while removing as many
weeds as possible such that a fine seedbed is created.
• Trash should be incorporated into the soil to improve soil organic matter which is a source of soil
nutrients.
• The soil should not be over finned because this destroys soil structure which subjects the soil to soil
erosion when there are heavy downpours.
• Very small seed requires a reasonable fine seedbed while bigger seeds require a moderately rough
seedbed.
• The seedbed should be dug to an appreciable depth to create enough room for root growth and
anchorage, drainage and aeration.
• Big trees should be removed because they will impose shade on the growing crops which may
etiolate.
• Seedbeds should be prepared early enough to ensure crops are planted at the right time which
increases crop yields.

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• Manure or fertilisers should be dug into the soil at time so that they improve on crop growth,
development and yielding.
Practice sowing/planting of crops

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Sowing/planting.
• Maize

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• Planting is done at the beginning of rains using a recommended hybrid seed.
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Seeds are dressed with fernasan D. ia
Recommended spacing is 90cm x 30 or 90cm x 20cm for most varieties.
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• Spacing depends on the cultivar and the ecological condition of the area.
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FERTILIZER APPLICATION
Methods of applying fertilisers for the crops
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Applying fertiliser.
• Phosphate fertilisers are applied at planting time using drilling method. Whereby fertilisers is applied
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in drills with the seeds. Compound fertilisers are used as basal dressing which can be applied before or
after planting.
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• Nitrogen is top dressed when plants are knee-high (45-60cm).fertilisers is applied using side dressing
method.
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• Other methods that can be used are foliar spray, application by plough, ring method, fertigation.
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Calculate the quantity of fertiliser for the crop

Calculating quantities of fertiliser for crop
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• Apply 300-400 kg/hectare of compound D as basal dressing.

• Apply 250-300kg/ hectare of urea as top dressing.
Why particular types of fertiliser are recommended for the crop
Refer to mineral requirements of the crop.
• Nitrogenous fertiliser supply nitrogen to the maize plants to encourage them to grow
vigorously.
• The nitrogen supplied helps in the formation of chlorophyll which is responsible for
photosynthesis in maize plants.
• Phosphate fertilisers are applied to supply phosphorus which is responsible for proper
and early root growth in maize.
 WEED CONTROL
www.zedmaterials.com
Methods of weed control in the crops
• Weed control is an extremely vital practice and if possible, it should be carried
throughout the growing period of maize plant.
• Use herbicides e.g. atrazine F.W to eliminate weeds.
• Also by the use of a hoe
• By cultivation- ploughing, harrowing and hand cultivation of the soil help to bury the
weeds. This method is a useful preparation of the land before the crop is planted but
the weeds usually come up again as the crop grows.
chemical control of weeds
• Chemicals used to control weeds are called herbicides. Herbicides are available in
concentrated form and they are usually diluted with water before they are applied on
weeds as sprays. Herbicides are sold as liquid or wetable powders but some are in
granular form. This latter group is specifically formulated to be used on difficult e.g.

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sugar cane plantations. Herbicides kill weeds by inhibiting nitrogen metabolism, killing
the cells, causing abnormal tissue development, inhibiting photosynthesis and

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interfering with respiration.

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PESTS AND DISEASES OF CROPS

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Characteristics of pests for crops ia
There are chewing and biting pests which eat parts of or whole plants they attacks
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using their biting and chewing mouth parts. These pests are able to eat leaves, stems or
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roots of the crops they attack.

• Some crops pests have characteristic of boring crops plants they attack they make
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tunnels into stems and fruits or seeds of the crop and remain inside while consuming
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contents.
• Other crop pests have the characteristics of piercing and sucking the crops they attack
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using their modified mouth parts. These pests suck the sap of the attacked crops after
piercing them.
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Symptoms of common diseases of crops

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• Symptoms of common diseases.(Maize)

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• Maize streak virus-stunted growth and delayed in flowering.

• Leaf blight- large elongated brown lesions on the leaves.
• Cob rot –dry rot on cob in the field.
Crops that have been attacked by diseases
Crops attacked by diseases
• Infected crops plants become stunted; examples are stunted groundnut plants when
attacked by groundnut rosette virus disease.
• Crops attacked by disease may give low yields, e.g. cassava plants attacked by mosaic
give low yield.
• Diseased crop plants may develop cankers on stems e.g. cankers on cowpeas stems
caused by bacterial.
• Diseased crops wilt and totally die e.g. cotton plants attacked by fusarium wilt.
 PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF PESTS AND DISEASES ON CROPS
Methods of Preventing and controlling pests and diseases on crops www.zedmaterials.com
• Early or timely planting of crops prevents and controlling pests and disease in crops
• Weeding of crops helps to prevent and control pests and disease on crops
• Crop pruning opens up crop plants thereby removing hiding and breeding sites for crop pests and
preventing a micro climate which favours the multiplication of disease causing agents.
• Restriction of movement of agricultural material e.g. seeds, suckers, stems,etc.
• Application of chemicals e.g. pesticides and fungicides controls crop pests and fungal disease by killing
the attacking pest or disease on crop plant.
• Crop rotation helps to prevent and control crop pests and disease by making certain crops unavailable
during certain times so that their pests and disease causing organisms die due to lack of host and by
the time those crops are grown again in those field their pests or disease
Carrying out preventive measures of pests on crops
Maize
• Maize stalk borer are controlled by spraying with thloden or endosulphan at a rate of 2 kg /hectare.
• American bore worm are controlled by the use of endosulfan 2 kg /hectare.
HARVESTING

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Signs of crops ready for harvesting
• In some crops, the leaves change from green to yellow colour when they mature for harvesting e .g
bean and soya beans.

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• Some crops shed their leaves when they are ready for harvesting, e.g. groundnuts, beans and soya

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beans.
• Some crops dry up to show that they are ready for harvesting, e.g. field peas and maize.
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Usually when some crops ready for harvesting, they become big in size to show that they are mature
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enough, e.g. pumpkins, cassava and sweet potato.
Harvesting crops
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• The time of harvesting depends on methods to be adopted. If mechanically harvested plants are
normally left in the field to reduce the moisture to about 13.5%. If is just by hands you can harvest it
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earlier and then dry its, it is important to harvest during the dry season to reduce instance of cob rot.
STORAGE
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Methods of storing crops

• Cribs - are constructed from a wire mesh except for solid wall on the windward side and
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the roof is thatched with corrugated iron sheets.

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• Bags or sacks-products is packed in bags or sacks for storage. Produce in the bags can
be stacked on a dry floor.
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• Granaries- granaries are structures that stand upright on four poles with thatched
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roofs, there should be a rat guard fitted on each pole to prevent entry of rats, mice and
termites into the granary. Floor can be plastered with mud or cow dung.
• Poles-the produce is tried in bundles which are hung on rope tied on trees and vertical
poles just near homes.
• Racks-Racks are constructed from local materials. They are usually raised 2 to 3 m
above the ground to prevent dampness from the ground. Produce is placed and stored
on these racks.
• Baskets-small amount of produce are usually stored in baskets which are covered and
kept in farmer’s houses. This type of storage is characteristics of small farmers.
 Advantages and disadvantages of various methods of crop storage
Baskets www.zedmaterials.com
Advantages
• This method of crop storage does not require any specialized skill. Any farmer can use it.
• It is cheap to use as no cost is involved.
Disadvantages
• This method of storage cannot be used when large amount of crops need to be stored.
• Storage pests’ e .g weevils can easily access and attack the stored produce.
• Stored crops can easily be stolen by thieves because it is not locked up for safety.
Bags or sacks
Advantages
• This storage method is cheap to use.
• Using this method of crop storage does not require technical skills
Disadvantages
• Rodents can easily access the produce, damage the bags and eat the products.
• Bags are easy to be stolen by thieves if they are not securely locked up.
• This method of crop storage imposes the produce to fire hazard problems.

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Granaries
Advantages
• Granaries are cheap to construct and can be constructed from local materials and do not need specialised skills to erect.
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If properly maintained by periodic plastering and thatching, granaries are quite durable.
Disadvantages

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• Many small scale farmers usually do not put on rat guards during construction and this makes the stored produce easily subjected to
pest damage
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Poorly thatched granaries expose the stored produce to being damage by rain.
Granaries are usually broken into by thieves who steal the stored produce.
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Cribs
Advantages
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• Cribs usually store large amounts of produce. They are very durable on the farm and can serve for so long.
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• Cribs are a safe method of crop storage provided they are vermin proof and leak proof.
Disadvantages
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• Cribs are expensive to construct.

• They require technical skills to construct.
Poles
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Advantages
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• This method of storage is cheap and easy to use.

• Disadvantages.
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• The stored crops are not properly protected from extremes of weather, especially rain.
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Thieves an easily steal the produce.

• Racks.
• Advantages
• They are easy to construct.
• The produce on the racks dries properly because there is enough air circulation in the produce.
• Disadvantages
• If the racks are not properly roofed, produce can be damaged by rain.
• Storage pests can easily infest the produce on the racks.
• Thieves can easily access the racks and steal the produce.
• Silos
• Advantages
• The produce is properly and safely stored in silos because adequate facilities and technical skills of crop storage are available.
• Disadvantages
• It is expensive to erect or buy a silo.
Topic 4 www.zedmaterials.com
FORESTRY
Deforestation
Causes of deforestation
• Logs and sawn timber demands.
• Demand for more agricultural land.
• Seasonal fire outbreaks.
• Charcoal burning.
• Construction industry.
Effects of deforestation
• Deforestation leads to climate changes, especially reduced rainfall leading to less

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reliable rainfall which results in unsustainable agricultural economy.
• Deforestation results in soil erosion on steep slopes because the soil lacks vegetation

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cover and plant roots to hold the particles together.

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• Deforestation destroy the natural habitats for wild life –ecosystem, for the flora and
fauna of the country are destabilised leading to extinction of certain plants and
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animals.
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• Deforestation causes reduced water supply from lakes, rivers, stream and swamps
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because of continuous reduced rainfall.

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MEASURES TO CONTRL DEFORESTATION

Formulate measures of preventing and controlling of deforestation
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Measures of Preventing and controlling of deforestation

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• People in the country should be educated massively through mass media on the
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importance of forests.
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• Forest encroachers should be evicted by law and the affects areas should be reforested
to prevent and control deforestation.
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• Energy- saving stoves should be installed in homes, schools, colleges, army barracks,
prisons and other institutions to reduce on biomass demands.
• The government should emphasize birth control programmes to ascertain manageable
population size to avert the problem of overpopulation which forces people to
encroach on gazetted natural forest reserves.
Topic 5
CONSERVATION FARMING www.zedmaterials.com
ORGANIC MATTTER AND FERTILIZER
Advantages and disadvantages of using organic matter and artificial fertiliser to supply
nutrients to crops
Advantages of using organic matter
• Organic matter controls weed growth.
• Organic matter prevents evaporation of water from the soil thereby conserving soil moisture for plant growth.
• It does not require technical skills to apply.
• It is cheap to get organic matter for use.
• It has a buffering effect on maintaining acid-base condition in the soil thus resisting soil pH changes.
• It encourages soil microorganism activities and populations by providing food and shelter.
• Soil organic matter improves the soil structure and soil aeration.
Disadvantages of using organic matter
• Organic matter cannot be collected in bulk to be applied over an extensive area and this limits its use in large scale crop
production.
• It produces heat which can damage crop roots if applied when still fresh.
• Organic matter takes some time to decompose and release nutrients for plant growth which makes it unsuitable for
immediate use.

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• It is bulky which makes it difficult to store, expensive to transport and tiresome to apply.
Advantages of using artificial fertiliser
• Artificial fertilisers release large amounts of nutrients on application because they are soluble in soil water and this helps

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to correct soil infertility.
• Each artificial fertiliser type contains specific nutrients indicated on the packaging which helps farmers to supply the

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nutrients that may be lacking in the soil when artificial fertiliser is applied.
• They are easy to store, cheap to transport and easy to handle and apply because they are not bulky.
Disadvantages of artificial fertilisers.
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Because they are quite soluble, artificial fertilisers are easily lost form the soil because of leaching.
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• Artificial fertilisers cannot improve on the soil structure.
• Application of fertilisers requires specialised skills otherwise; wrong use of them can impact adverse effects on the soil,
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crop plants or environment.

COMPOST
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Importance of compost to a crop

• It improves soil structure which helps to control soil erosion.
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• It improves soil water absorption and retention all of which are necessary for plant growth.
• It supplies plant nutrients for example nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients required for crop plant
growth and development.
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• Compost supplies soil organic matter which changes in to humus that improves soil aeration, drainage and workability
through improved soil structure.
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Preparing a compost heap.

• Compost is made of layers of organic materials alternating with layers of soil on top of one another in a heap.
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• Add fertilisers such as nitrogen fertiliser to each layer of the organic materials to encourage decomposition by bacteria and
to improve compost quality.
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• Cover the heap with a layer of soil, the soil layers contains micro-organisms which help to break down the organic
materials in the heap and organic material like plant leaves to prevent the evaporation of nutrient from the heap.
• Add decomposed organic manure to encourage micro organisms’ population and activity.
• The heap should be prepared under the shade to protect it from rain which can cause mineral leaching or sunshine and
wind which dry the materials and cause evaporation of nutrients.
• Turning of the materials in the heap should be done to help break and aerate the materials to speed up the decomposition
processes.
 ANIMAL MANURE
Importance of using animal manure. www.zedmaterials.com
• Animal manure improves soil structure whereby the organic matter and the carbonic acid produced
help the soil to be granular and this facilitates drainage of water and encourages soil aeration.
• It increases the humus content of the soil which results in improved water holding capacity of the soil.
• It supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and some trace elements required for crop growth,
development and production.
• It traps soil heat which helps in seed germination and encourages soil micro organisms’ populations
and activities to increase.
Crop nutrients provided by various types of animal manure
Nutrients provided by manure
• Cattle manure - It supplies nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium with other elements in minute
quantities.
• Pig manure - It is relatively low in nitrogen and potassium.
• Goat, sheep manure and rabbit manure-It supplies nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
• Poultry manure –It is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphorus than any other animal manure
source.

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Harvesting, handling and storage of animal manure
• Straw beddings are put in animal quarter. Nitrogen –rich beddings, e .g leguminous plants should be
used .animals defecate on the beddings and mix them up with the dung and urine. Then the soiled

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beddings are removed and put in the prepared place. The prepared place should be under shade to
avoid losses through evaporation by sunshine and leaching by rain. The floor of the shade should be

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made of concrete or covered with polythene sheets to avoid leaching of soluble nutrients from
decomposing materials. Then the materials are finally covered with a polythene sheet to avoid
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evaporation of valuable nutrients e .g nitrogen from the decaying materials. The materials should be
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left to decompose completely; the longer the materials are allowed to decompose, the better the
quality of the end product. Animal manure should be applied in field when completely decomposed.
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SOIL PREPARATION
Soil preparation for growing a crop under organic farming.
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• Refer to cabbage, beans, tomatoes, maize.

• First clear vegetation by slashing and felling trees and removal of tree stumps to facilitate mechanical
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cultivation.
• The land is opened using hand tools or machinery.
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• The cultivated land is rested for some time so that the trash rots to ease its incorporation into the soil
during the subsequent operation.
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• The soil is cultivated deeply to break soil pans to facilitate soil aeration, rain infiltration and root
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penetration.
• Secondary cultivation is done by breaking large soil clods so that planting of crops will be cultivated.
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• Organic manure, composts and other organic materials can be added to the field are integrated into
the soil to increase soil organic matter in addition to the trash.
• Manure should be applied in agronomic rates.
• The soils should not be over fine during secondary cultivation since this encourages soil erosion to
occur.
• The soil tilth should be moderately coarse which helps to trap more rain and facilitate infiltration.
• All the weeds should be uprooted so that crops are planted in weed –free conditions which give
planted crops a good start.
• The uprooted weeds can be raked, collected and turned periodically so that they dry up and be used
as mulch.
• At this point the field is ready for planting.
 PESTS AND DISEASES
Natural pesticides to control pests
• Preparing natural pesticides to control pests (e.g. chilli, ash).
www.zedmaterials.com
• Wood ashes dusted on crop plants can control ants, leaf miners, and caterpillars and stem bores. Wood is burnt to produce the ash.
• Chilli peppers are pounded and mixed with human urine stored for several days and sprinkled around banana stools to control banana
weevils.
• Onion bulbs or garlic is mixed with produced to control storage pests especially in beans and cereals.
ROLE OF CROP ROTATION IN PEST AND DIEASE CONTROL
• Crop rotation prevents the incidence of pests and diseases in crops because different types of crops follow one another in a sequence
which causes pests and disease causing agents to die before the same type of crop is grown again the same field.
Here is an example of a crop rotation

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CROPPING SYSTEMS AND PESTS AND DISEASE CONTROL.
Companion planting.
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Is the growing of two different types of crops in proximity whereby the use of companion crops may reduce the need for weeding. Rows of
one type of crop alternate with rows of the other crop type e.g. growing soya beans with sunflower.
Example of possible companion planting includes the following
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• Maize/beans.
• Bananas/coffee.
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• Cassava/groundnuts.
• Maize/millet.
• Cassava/maize.
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• Bananas/beans. Etc.
Using plants to attract predators and parasites.
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• Certain especially attractive plants are planted with crops to divert the pests from the main crop to themselves.
• The pests collecting to the attractive plants are sprayed with a pesticide and killed.
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BARRIERS AND TRAPS FOR PESTS

Use barriers and traps to control crop pests.
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• Using barriers and traps to control pests.

• Trench fences can be constructed around crop gardens to prevent large animals like buffalos, elephants, baboons, straying from game
parks or game reserves.
• Thorny plants likes the apple can be planted around crop arms as barriers to prevent larger animals from attacking crops.
• Barbed wire strands can also be used to construct a fence around crop fields to control pests e.g. straying domestic livestock.
• Woven wire is also used to fence around crop gardens as a barrier to control pests.
TIMING OF PLANTING
Importance of timing of planting in the reduction of pest attack.
• Timely planting of crops can avoid attacks of stalk borers on maize, bollworms on cotton, and strainers on cotton, millet and rice.
• Timely crop planting offers an early good start before pest build- up which occurs later in the season.
• Early – planted crops grow more vigorously than late planted ones because they utilise the available soil nutrients and rainfall maximally
which causes them to withstand pest attacks.
 Topic 6
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION www.zedmaterials.com
Importance of livestock
Economic importance of livestock.
• Sheep include Ducks:
• Sheep farmers sell sheep to earn income.
• Newly born sheep are killed for their soft skins called pelts. The pelts are used for making expensive jackets.
• Sheep can bring in economic returns more quickly since they have a high growth rate.
• Sheep provide manure which is applied in crop field to increased crop yield that increase and improve the economic status of the farmer.
• Sheep are source of wool which is an important industrial raw material that helps to initiate the establishment of a wool-based industry. The wool can as
well be exported to earn foreign income.
HEALTH IN LIVESTOCK
Signs of good and poor health in livestock
Signs of good health in livestock
• The animal does not cough or breathe with difficulty.
• The animal has a normal pulse rate.
• It drinks water normally as usual.
• It walks with no signs of lameness or limping.
• It produces regularly and produces good- quality products, e.g. milk and eggs.
• The animal is fleshy and not emaciated.
• The animal is alert and active.
• The animal passes out faeces being fairly loose but not hard or loose.
• The animal has blight and clear eyes.

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• A healthy animal has good appetite for food.
• It has a normal body temperature characteristic of that class of livestock. E.g. cattle 38.5 -39.5o c.
Signs of poor health in livestock
• Increase or decrease in body temperature.

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• Increase or decrease in pulse rates.
• Lack of desire to eat and drink.
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Dull coat.
• Watery or hard dung.
• Brown or red urine.
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Sudden drop in milk production.
Coughing or sneezing.
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• Lameness or abnormal movement.
• There may be grunting and grinding of teeth of a sick animal.
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It looks emaciated.
• Loses appetite for food and water.
LIVESTOCK FEED
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Nutritive value of the livestock feed for the animals studied.

• Carbohydrates which supply energy for all the biological and biochemical processes to occur and continue functioning in the body of an animal.
•
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Fats which provide energy to the body. Fats give twice as much as energy as do carbohydrates.
• Proteins that are required for building up new tissue cells for growth, repair and replacement of worn out tissue cells.
• Minerals which – help in the formation of teeth and skeletal bones.
• Form part of the animal blood.
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• Act as catalysts of enzymes.

• Help in the synthesis of animal product.
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• Vitamins which help the body of the animal to grow properly.

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NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES
Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in livestock. (Sheep and ducks)
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• General weakness.
• Emaciation.
• Stunted growth.
• Difficulty in breathing.
• Anaemia.
• Diarrhoea.
• Blindness.
• Prolonged blood clotting.
• Reduced irritability.
• Suitable species of pasture for livestock
• Species of pasture for livestock
• Rhodes grass-this is grown on high altitudes. It is good for both hay and grazing. It is established form seeds or splits. It
does not last long unless properly fertilised.
• Elephant grass-it is also known as Napier grass and grows naturally in hot, wet areas. It is a tall grass producing a large
quantity of green feed for animals. It is cut and fed to animals. It is established from splits or stem cutting.
 PESTS OF LIVESTOCK
Effects of Pests on livestock: Diseases, poor health
• Pests suck blood from birds and cause anaemia and weakness to the host animals, e.g. hookworms. www.zedmaterials.com
• Pests transmit disease agents to the host animals, e.g. tsetse flies or ticks.
• They lower the quality of livestock products, e.g. liver flukes in the liver of a slaughtered animal.
• Parasites like ticks destroy the hide or skin of the hose animal and lower its quality. Etc.
Methods of preventing and controlling pests that attack animals
( cattle and sheep)
• Passing the animals through a spray race.
• Dipping the animals in dip wash.
• Burning pasture grass.
• Hand spraying.
• Rotational grazing.
• Ploughing of pasture.
• Regular cleaning of water points helps to control liver fluke infestation in animals.
• Eradication of intermediate hosts, e.g. waters nails, helps to control liver flukes attacking animal.
DISEASES
Methods of preventing and controlling diseases on animals studied
• Vaccination –it is a process of introducing weakened or killed organisms into the body of an animal to stimulate the production of antibodies against the disease cause by the
organisms e.g. Newcastle, chicken can be vaccinated every 6 months.
• Dipping-it is a process of dipping animals in dip wash every 14 days to prevent external parasites.
Others may include
• Giving clean water to animals, Provide enough ventilation, Regular cleanliness in and around the animal houses.
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HOUSING
Suitability and maintenance of various types of livestock housing.
Maintenance of houses and structures.

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Pig house
• A pig house should be able to protect pigs from extremes of weather like rain, sunshine, wind, and coldness.
• It should have smooth walls with no cracks where parasites can hide.
• The floor should be slightly slanted with channel to aid drainage.

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Maintenance
• Regular cleaning by washing and scrubbing with a hard brush and detergents and disinfectant to prevent incidence of diseases should

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be done daily.
• Periodic repairs on wall and replacement of thatch should be carried out when necessary.
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Potholes on the floor should be filled with concrete to avoid urine and dung collecting there which can be a source of infection.
Calf house (Traditional kraal)
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• It should be able to protect calves from weather extremes.
• It should be located on strong well drained sites.
•
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There should be enough ventilation, with enough floor space to avoid overcrowding.
• It should have a firm floor made of concrete with drainage channel to facilitate removal of urine and dung.
Maintenance
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• Regular removal of dung and urine and thorough cleaning should be done daily.
• Any cracks appearing on the floor should be replaced when necessary.
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• Maintain a clean space around calf houses to prevent dampness.

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MARKETING
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Preparing livestock/Products for marketing

• The livestock to be marketed should be well fed on nutritious feeds so that they fatten and look good prior to marketing in order to
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fetch good prices.

• The animals should be treated for any disease or pests identified or suspected so that only disease and pests –free animals are
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marketed.
• The animals requires to be handled with care so that they are not injured or bruised before or during marketing, they should not be
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overcrowded in vehicle or beaten in transit to the markets.

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• Animals should be grouped according to size, sex and age when preparing them for marketing to facilitate pricing.
Organisations in Zambia that process and market the livestock products.
• Parmalat.
• Zambeef.
• Zamchick.
• Master pork.
• Zambia pork products.
• Kachema meat supplies Ltd.
• Dairy produce Board.
• Cold Storage Board.
•
BEE FARMING
• COMMON METHOD OF BEE FARMING.
• Log-hive method.
• Traditional –hive method.
• Top-bar hive- method.
• Johnson box- hive - method.
 Construct a framed bee hive.
• www.zedmaterials.com
A framed beehive is constructed using timber with a bottom side, two-sided, two ends, twenty eight
top –bars and one lid of specific dimensions. These members are joined to form a trough like box with
top bars placed in their position.
Establish and manage an apiary
Managing the Apiary
• After constructing the hive, they are placed in suitable places where they are colonized by the swarms
of bees. Some little honey or bee wax may be put in the hive to attract bees to colonize it.
• The hive should be treated on the outside with a wood preservative in absence of which oil paint can
be applied to prevent rooting and weather damage.
• The hives should be placed under shade to prevent overheating in the hive which forces the bees to
abandon the hive. Hives should be put under shade of trees or farmers can construct roofed sheds
where the hives are places on racks. The shed is heavily fenced with a strong lockable door.
• Hives should not be placed on the ground to rotting of the timber and entry of ants which eat the
honey. The hives are suspended on wires between adjacent trees or posts.
• Flowering plants like morning glory, sunflower, banana, roses and other flowers can be planted within
the vicinity of the apiary from which the foragers get the nectar and pollen required in the hives.
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The hives should have water provided in shallow basins near the apiary, mainly in the dry season.
Sugared water should be changed daily to avoid fermentation of the solution.
• A clear space of two metres wide should be maintained around the apiary to guard against fire which
may burn the hives, especially during the dry season.

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• An apiary should be inspected regularly.

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Methods of harvesting honey
• Smoking- a smoker produces smoke which is puffed into the hive to quieten the bees during
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harvesting. The smoke is made by burning straw inside the smoker.
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• harvesting gear-hand gloves soaked in vegetables oil protect the harvester form stings on the hands, a
knife is used to cut the honey combs from the top bars or hive sides in other types of hives and a veil
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covers the head of the harvester to protect him/her from stings, while an overall protects the whole
body from stings.
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Process and grade honey and honey products for marketing

• Process
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• The combs are uncapped and put in large sieves which are hung over containers. Honey drips out of
the combs. The combs are left on the sieves. The combs left can be processed into wax.
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• Honey combs are mashed and hung in cloth bags over containers. Honey drips out of the cloth bags
and collects in the containers, leaving the combs in the bags
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• Honey combs are uncapped and put in a centrifugal extractor which is either operation manually or
electrically. Honey is fore out of the combs by rotation force, leaving the combs in the centrifuge. The
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extracted honey is put in lean containers covered to avoid contamination by insects including bees.
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• Honey should be graded according to colour and taste, such that similar honey is packed separately
from the other so as to facilitate pricing, handling and marking. Honey is poured in containers of
different capacities labelled made ready for marketing.
• When the honey has been extracted from the combs, bees wax can also be obtained. The combs are
heated and melted in hot water which is passed through clean cloth. The molten wax is put in clean
containers to cool. A solar wax extract to can be used to extract wax which is used to make candles
and shoe polish.
• In short crush the hone combs. Sieve the hone through mosquito netting cloth. The rest of the combs
is heated in water to produce
Topic 7
FARM STRUCTURES www.zedmaterials.com
Fencing
Is a farm practice of enclosing an area for agricultural purpose on the farm.
Types and uses of fences.
• Metallic.
• Wooden.
• Wall.
• Electric (live).
• Hedges.
Uses of fences
• Acting as windbreaks.
• Helping in controlling breeding in livestock.
• Adding value to the farm.
• Keeping out trespassers and thieves.
• Enhancing the beauty of the farm and attract customers for income generation.

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• Double fencing helps in controlling ticks.
• Controlling spread of diseases among animal.
Fence an area on the farm

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Fencing

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• Once the position of the proposed kraal has been decided, mark out the lines of the fence with a
string. Place pegs along the string at each point where a post is to be dug. The use of droppers in a
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fence reduces the number of main posts or standards needed. Droppers are thin poles which support
the wire of the fence but do not reach the ground. The spacing of the standards depends on how big
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the kraal is and weather the wire can be strained tight. Posts at 8m intervals with three droppers
spaced 2m apart in between are suitable for a kraal.
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• The post holes should be 50cm deep and 30cm in diameter. The poles should be 180 cm in length and
15 cm in diameter. When you put posts in, start with a corner post. Mix some concrete and put it
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down each hole, pressing it firmly around the post. Give the corners of the fence extra support by
putting an extra post 1 m each side of the corner. The fit a cross piece of wood across the top and
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secure crossed wires.

• Barbed wire is then fixed, once the posts are in place, starting in a corner with the top line of wire. A
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wire straining apparatus is essential for good results. This is secured at one end of the fence. When
the wire has been pulled tight it is stapled to the posts.
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• Four rows of barbed wire 30 cm apart are sufficient. (Another method of wiring is to have barbed wire
at the top and bottom and three rows of tightly pulled plain wire in between, 25 cm apart).
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• Lastly, the droppers are tied to the barbed wire at regular intervals, using ‘soft’ wire.
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Advantages and disadvantages of fences on a farm

Advantages of fences
• Mixed farming can easily be carried out.
• Available land can be put to proper use; e.g. by farming, cropping rotations.
• They make rotational and strip grazing possible since the pasture is divided into grazing units.
• They help to isolate and group livestock accordingly e.g. young ones, pregnant ones, males, females
and sick ones.
Disadvantages of fences.
• Some communal benefits are lost such as construction of expensive cattle dips by one individual.
• Enclosed farm animals become vulnerable when they go out.
• In case of shifting fences, extra farm expenditure must be needed.
• Fences require regular labour for their maintenance and repair.
 HEDGES
Uses of hedges www.zedmaterials.com
• To keep away intruders or by passers
• To prevent stocks from entering into the garden or field.
• Where there is a strong prevailing wind they can be used to give cattle some shelter.
Establishing and maintaining hedges.
• During a rainy season, dig a continuous trench around the area for fencing; whose depth should be about 30 cm. Fill it with
loam soil which should be mixed with decomposed organic matter.
• Planting materials can be seedling, suckers and stem cuttings, depending on the type of plant to be used for hedge.
• Spacing should be closed enough about 30 cm from one planting material to the other.
• Phosphate fertilisers should be incorporated into the soil so as to encourage rooting of the planting materials.
• Watering of the planted materials ought to be done regularly every evening and also every early morning for about three
months from the day of planting. Even after three months, irrigation in case of a dry season should be done to encourage
continuous growth.
• Wedding of unwanted plants found growing in the hedge must be done by hand through pulling and by digging them out
using a small hoe. Weeding must be done early enough and be continued up to the time when the hedge has completely
got established.
• Gap filling must be done to attain uniform and continuous growth of the hedge.
• Side to side mulching of the ground base of the hedge must be done to controlling soil erosion and also to conserve
moisture for the hedge.

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• When the hedge has grown and reached a preferred height by the farmer, trimming should be started on and continued
whenever necessary as a way of stimulating growth of buds and suckers at both o the hedge to give it the thickness
required by the farmer.
• In case of pest attack, especially the leaf eating caterpillars, spraying using recommended insecticides must be done in

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time as a way of killing them.
• Advantages of hedges

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• They are cheap to establish since vegetative parts which are used, readily start rooting.
• There are no risks of rooting of planted trees or bushes.
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When established, hedges need less maintenance and labour. ia
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They act as wind breaks.
• Hedges add value to the fenced land coupled with enhancing beauty of the farm.
•
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Disadvantages of hedges.
• They take long time to get established.
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Hedges cannot hold big animals such as cattle satisfactorily.

• They can compete with crops for nutrients and moisture.
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Regular trimming requires much money, time and labour.

• Hedges are not effective where security is a problem.
GREEN HOUSE
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A green house (also called a glasshouse) is a building or complex in which plants are grown. These structure range in size from
small sheds to industrial-sized buildings. Commercial glass green houses are often of high technology production facilities for
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vegetables or flowers. The glass house is filled with equipment like screening installations, heating, cooling and lighting.
A greenhouse also may be described as a structural building with different type of covering materials, such as a glass or plastic
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roof and often glass or plastic walls; it heats up because incoming visible sunshine is absorbed inside the structure. Air warmed by
the heat from warm interior surface is retained in the building by the roof and wall; the air warmed near the ground is prevented
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from rising indefinitely and flowering away.

Advantages of a green house.
• Agricultural and horticultural crop production schedules Can be effectively to take advantage of the market needs
• The productivity of the crop is increased considerable.
• Superior quality products can be obtained as they are grown under a suitable controlled environment.
• Percentages of germination of seeds are high in greenhouse.
• Greenhouses are suitable for automation of irrigation .application of other inputs and environmental control by using
computers and artificial intelligence techniques.
Disadvantages of a green house.
• Requires a lot of work is the main disadvantage to greenhouses in that they are extremely difficult to set up as well as
maintain.
• Greenhouses are fairly expensive to construct if you develop a high quality one. Glass an also add to the costs as many
greenhouses are composed primarily of glass.
• Electricity costs normally raise during the cold season as well, since the majority of greenhouses may require heating
during the very cold times.
• Although a plastic greenhouse covering is cheaper, many people don’t care for its look as it is often considered a “cheap”
look. As many green houses are attached to people’s homes, this can create problems with neighbours, depending upon
the location of your greenhouse.
• Glass is also extremely susceptible to dirt, meaning that owners are required to constantly clean the glass.
Topic 8 www.zedmaterials.com
FARM MACHINERY
Machine
A machine is an instrument which makes work easier. Thus, a machine is a device with moving parts that work
together to accomplish a task.
Effects of friction on farm machinery
Friction
Is defined as a force that opposes motion. Thus, whenever one object slides over another object, friction tries to
stop the movement. In other ways, friction always opposes the movement of an object.
• Friction results in wear of all machine functional parts due to the resistance of the moving parts that are in
contact. So wear due to friction is the decreasing of the mass and dimensions of the solid bodies’ surfaces as a
result of the mutual effect of these surfaces as well as causing loss of a part of the movement energy of these
bodies.
Ways of increasing and overcoming friction

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Increasing friction
• By not lubricating parts that are supposes to be lubricated.

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• Increasing the weight/load of a substance being pulled or pushed: increase in the weight of the body cause an
increase in the amount of resistance of offered to the relative motion of the surface in contact.

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• Increasing heat: normally the change in materials as they are heated causes more friction and not the heat

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itself.
Treading the wheels of vehicles.
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• Choosing a design thus increasing drag.
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• Increasing adhesion: increasing contact surface area of rubbing substances increases friction.
Overcoming friction
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• Reduction of contact point: if you reduce the area of contact, you will reduce the amount of friction generated.
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• Mechanical engineering: using wheels, ball/roller bearing help to convert sliding friction into a milder form of
rolling friction.
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Below is drawing showing a bearing

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• Sprinkling soft powder on the surfaces reduces friction.

• By applying grease, oil (lubrication).
• Using correct combination of surfaces in contact.
 RUSTING
Conditions that encourage rusting: www.zedmaterials.com
• Air
• Moisture
What happens during rusting
The process of rusting.
• When a drop of water hits an iron objects, two things begin to happen almost immediately. First water, a good
electrolyte, combines with carbon dioxide in the air to form a weak carbonic acid, an even better electrolyte. As
the acid is formed and the iron dissolved, some of the water will begin to break down into its component pieces
of hydrogen and oxygen. The free oxygen and dissolved iron, bond into iron oxide, in the process of freeing
electrons. The electrons liberated from the anode portion of the iron, flow to the cathode which may be a piece
of a metal lee electrically reactive than iron, or another point on the piece of iron itself.
Preventing rusting on farm machines
• Oiling-Prevents rust by repelling water, since oil and water don’t mix, therefore a coat of oil will keep water
away from the metal parts that could rust. Oil prevents rust by providing a barrier between moisture and the
metal.
• Greasing- Grease prevents air from getting into contact with the bare metal. Grease prevents rust than paint
because paint can chip and peels off, but grease repels water and other liquid substance thus, allowing it to a
solid such as iron.

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• Painting- Protects car body panels from rusting. Painting prevents water or oxygen reaching the iron body of
the car and indeed other metals like door and window frame.
• Galvanising – painting of a metal using another metal.

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Topic 9
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BUDGETIN
FARM MANAGEMENT ia
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Is a way for a person to plan for future; it refers to estimating the future incomes, costs and profits of a business.
You record what you expect to happen and then compare it with the reality of what has actually taken place planning
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ahead in this way helps a farmer/ business person to assess why what actually occurred is different from what he/she
expected. It provides an estimated of how much money is required to start a new enterprise.
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Prepare a budget for an enterprise

Preparing a budget for Maize production enterprise
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Estimated costs Estimated sale

(Expenses) (Returns)
Item Amount (k) Item Amount (k)
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Bought 50 kg seed @ 750.00 240 bags of 50 kg maize @k85 each 20000.00

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k15/kg Shelled cobs for fires

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Labour to prepare land 500.00 220.00

Three 50 kg base 540.00
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dressing fertiliser @
k180/bag
Four 50 kg top dressing 600.00
fertilisers @k150/bag
Transport costs 80.00
Hire of tractor to plough 650.00
Labour for weeding 260.00
Wages for harvesting 570.00
Expected Total costs 3950.00 Expected Total income 20,620.00

Expected profit 20,620-3,950=k16,670

 How to Prepare a cash flow budget for an enterprise
Cash flow budget
www.zedmaterials.com
Is an estimate of all cash receipts and all ash expenditures that are expected to occur during a certain time period. Estimates can made monthly, bimonthly
or quarterly, and can include non-farm income and expenditures as well as farm items. Cash flow budgeting looks only at movement, though not at net income
or profitability.
Steps to be followed in preparing a cash flow budget
Outline your tentative plans for livestock and crop production for the year, as shown in example
EXAMPLE 1:
• Production plans for the year:
• 500 hectares of corn.
• 400 hectares of soy beans.
• 50 hectares of fodder.
Livestock production plans
• 224 litres farrow –to – finish.
• Taking an inventory of livestock on hand and crops in storage now. If a recent financial statement is available, information found under the current
assets section can be used.
• Estimate feed required for the proposed livestock programme.
• Estimate feed available, list beginning inventory prior to harvest, and expected new crop production after harvest. Finally, estimate the quantity of feed
supply and feed purchases needed if any, and the quantity available to sell. Once your feed supply and feed requirement are estimated, you may want to
adjust the livestock programme to fit them.
• Now you are ready to start with the actual cash flow budget.
• Plan sales of no feed crops and excess feed.
• Estimate income from other sources.
• Consider capital purchases such as machinery, equipment, land, or additional breeding livestock.
• Summarise debt repayment.

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• Estimate non –farm expenditures.
• Sum total cash inflows and total cash outflows.
COSTING AND ACCOUNTING
Direct enterprise

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Costs that specifically identify with a particular enterprise of the farm. For example, the cost of bean seeds is specifically identified with the bean enterprise
while

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Overhead costs
These costs are those that are incurred regardless of whether or not production takes place. These costs do not vary as the size of an enterprise changes
unless a very large and dramatic change is made.
Factors that determine prices of commodities
• Supply and demand of commodities
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• Inventories and stocks
• Currency
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Inflation
• Weather conditions
• Economic and political conditions
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• Government policies
• Price elasticity
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How to calculate gross margins of an enterprise

Gross margins
Are one of the most common tools used by farmers to help them plan. Gross margins are used as a management tool to help farmers choose between
proposed strategies. This may mean choose between two different enterprises or choosing between different methods of production for the same enterprises or
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gross margin of an enterprise is the difference between the gross income earned by the enterprise and the variable or direct costs associated with it.
In summary, gross margin is the difference between gross income and variable costs
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Gross margin= gross income - variable costs

Variable costs
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Are the costs directly linked to the enterprise. They are called variable because they vary with the size of the enterprise. This means that the more groundnuts
a farmer grows, the more fertilizer, seed, spray and machinery costs will be incurred.
Ways of increasing gross margin of an enterprise
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• Increasing productivity-this could mean making your works work smarter and /or harder. Buy faster IT equipment- staff using antiquated software and
computers could be wasting time.
• Adding new product lines-try to add new products and services which complement your existing portfolio. Using your existing customers, you can sell
new lines very quickly.
• Having a sale-people are always on the lookout for bargains; it seems that having a sale is a good way to promote your products and services. Is also a
good way of converting old stock into cash
• Decrease stock costs-are you getting the best price for your stock? You could save a fortune in looking at new supplies.
• Taking credit cards-by taking credit card payments you are more likely to increase your sales because people are more likely to spend bigger on a credit
card than with cash.
• Customer service-always make the customer feel really good about the products and services you provide, they are more likely to come back to you or
recommend you to their friends and family.
How to calculating profit of an enterprise
The following are the steps
• Gather all revenue figures, which will include good sold, rent received, interest earned, infrastructure or equipment sold and any other revenue gained
by the business.
• Calculate cost of goods sold. Including raw materials and labour costs directly related to product.
• Add all purchases of raw materials, and subtract the ending inventory giving the amount used during this accounting period and assigning a dollar figure
to the difference.
• Assign a dollar figure using either the first –in –first- out method or the last in first out method. If you use first in first –out, use the amount you paid for
the oldest inventory. If you use last in first – out, use the amount you paid for the most recent purchases. Be consistent.
• Subtract the figures calculated in step 2 from the revenue figures in step 1 to determine the gross profit before overhead. Add up all overhead expenses,
which include such items as indirect labour and staff salaries, building rent, utilities and depreciation.
• Subtract the figures calculated in step 4 from the figures determined in step 3 to get the profit before taxes.
• Subtract taxes from the figure you arrived at in step 5.this is the figure you were targeting and is the net profit, or the bottom line of your business.
 GRADE 12
Topic 1 www.zedmaterials.com
AGRICULTURE IN ZAMBIA
Modern Agriculture
Various enterprises farmers engage in on a /the farm
• Poultry
• Field crops
• piggery
• horticulture
• Fish farming
Advantages of several enterprises on the farm.
• Helps in case the other business is not doing fine thus productive.
• Helps in diversification.
• In case of an outbreak of a disease, e.g. in piggery thus horticulture can fund the other enterprise.
The harm agriculture can cause to the environment
Effects of agriculture on the environment
• Pollution
• Soil erosion
• Deforestation
Farmer experiments
• Explain why farmers should carryout experiment with new and own technologies.
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Experimenting with new technologies.
• Refer to grade 10 works
• Explain how farmer experiments can be improved.
• Improving farmer experiments.
For answers refer to grade 10 works

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• State the importance of disseminating farmer experimental results.
• Disseminating farmer experimental results.

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Refer to grade 10 works

Topic 2 ia
SOIL SCIENCE
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• Soil and water
• Determine the capillarity of given soil samples.
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• Capillarity of soils
Experiment
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• Collect a sample of dry sandy soil.

• Collect a sample of powdered clay (dry).
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Collect two long glass tubes.

• Fill two glass tubes with two sample of soil to about two centimetres from top.
• Plug the bottom of the two glass tubes before filling them with the sample of soil.
• Place the glass tubes with samples of soil into a basin containing water.
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• Observe what happens. Write down your observation.

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Capillarity of sand and clay

• The rate at which water rises in soil depends on the size of the soil particles and the size of the space or pores between then. When water enters the
pores of clay by capillarity the water rises higher than in sand soil because the holes are very small.
 Drainage rates of soils
www.zedmaterials.com
Experiment
Method
• Collect equal quantities of dry samples of loamy, clay and sandy soils.
• Put fitter paper carefully in the funnels.
• To one funnel add clay soil, to another add loamy soil and to the third sandy soil.
• Place the funnels gently on top of the measuring cylinders as shown below.
• Add equal volumes of water to each soil sample gently.
• Compare how long it takes to collect 10cm 2 of water in each cylinder.

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Types of soil moisture

Hygroscopic water
Is water absorbed by fine soil particles of clay and humus. The water is absorbed from
the air but this is held too tightly by the particles for it to be available to plants.
Gravitation water
This is water which drain downwards through pore spaces by force of gravity.
Capillarity water
Is water which is pulled against the force of gravity. The water is found between spores.
 Soil fertility
Factors that determine soil fertility
www.zedmaterials.com
• Humus or organic matter
• mineral elements
• Soil PH
• Aeration
• Drainage
• Good soil structure
• Soil temperature
Role of Nitrogen cycle in soil fertility

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Carbon cycle and its role in soil fertility

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 Maintenance of soil fertility
www.zedmaterials.com
Improvement of soil fertility
• Application of organic manure to soil.
• Fallowing.
• Practice proper farming methods.
Radicals and minerals contained in a sample of fertilizer
• CO3-
• NO3-nitrate
• SO4–sulphate group
• NH4 - ammonium
• Ca -calcium

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• Na -sodium
• K - potassium

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Soil acidity and Alkalinity

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Uses of acids, bases and salts in agriculture.
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Uses of
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• Acids -
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• Bases –it is used in neutralises acids in the soil.

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• Salts–a salt is used in livestock feeds.

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Effects of acids, bases and salts on crop and soil organisms

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• The effects of these, they make nutrients an available to crops while

making soil organisms in active.
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Effects of excessive use of fertilisers

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• It leads to soil acidity and alkalinity.

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• Decreased activity of soil microbes

• Pollution of water resources.
• Results in destruction of soil structure.
Neutralisation of soil acids
• Refers to the addition of agricultural lime such as calcium carbonate
to the soil in the presence of water to reduce acids in soil.
Lime application to a piece of land
• Is applied by broadcasting method.
• Rate is 5000 -30000 kg /ha and is applied every 2 to4 years.
Topic 3 www.zedmaterials.com
CROP PRODUCTION
Site for a crop
Clear the site for growing a crop
• Involves the removal of bushes, trees, stumps, crop residues and any other undesirable objects from the site. it is done to ;
• Facilitate tillage operations
• Avoid competition between crops and trees / shrubs for nutrients, water and light
• Control pests and diseases
Seedbeds preparation and sowing/planting
Process of land preparation for crop production
• Land preparation.
• State the disadvantages and advantages of various forms of land preparation
• Advantages and disadvantages of various forms of land preparation.
• Prepare seedbeds suitable for germination of seeds.
• Preparing seedbeds for germination
• Practice sowing/ planting of crops studied.
• Sowing/planting crops
For answers, refer to grade 10 and 11 works on crops

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Fertiliser application
Methods of applying fertiliser
• Broadcasting – fertilizer is spread over the field.

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• Banding – fertilizer is placed in bands (strips) on one side or both sides of a row of seeds at planting time.
• Ring method – applied in a ring round a plant.

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• Foliar spraying – application of fertilizer in solution form to leaves of crops.
•
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Fertigation -fertilizer applied to soil in irrigation water.
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Side dressing – fertilizer applied as continuous band near and along a crop row or dibbled in between plants.
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Calculate the quantity of fertilisers recommended for the crops
Quantity of fertilisers for crops
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Refer to grade 11 works, on quantity fertilizers recommended

Why particular types of fertilisers are recommended for the crops
•
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Fertilisers recommended for crops

• Fertilizers containing Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in their right amounts are most recommended for crops
because growing crops utilise more of those three elements than any other soil nutrients.
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Weed control
Methods of weed control in the crops
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• Mechanical weed control method–weeds are removed during land preparation by cultivation using hoes, harrows,
cultivators and ploughs so as to create weed free environment for the planting of maize and groundnuts.
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• Chemical weed control method (Herbicides) - can be used to control weeds in maize and groundnut fields at two levels
thus pre – emergence applied when crops have just been planted and before any weeds have emerged and post –
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emergence applied after crops have just germinated and grown.

• Others include Hand, hoe and biological method.
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Ways in which different chemicals control weeds in the crops studied.

• Chemical control of weeds
• Herbicides are grouped basing on mode of action, use, time of application and chemical properties –
• -Selective herbicides -kill only certain weed species when applied among a weed population and leave others unharmed.
• ii) While non – selective herbicides – kill all plants that they come into contact with e g Glyphosate.
• - Systematic herbicides– Are readily absorbed by plant parts e g roots, stems or leaves of the treated plant example of
systematic herbicides are 2, 4-D and Atrazine.
• -And contact herbicides –kill only parts of weeds they come in contact with. Normally applied on foliage of weeds
example of paraquat.
 Pests and diseases of crops
Characteristics of common pests of crops. www.zedmaterials.com
• The body is divided into three distinct parts, head, thorax and abdomen.
• Their mouthparts are adapted for a particular type of feeding.
• Have a pair of antennae on the head.
• Have three pairs of jointed legs attached to the thorax.
• Most insects have wings attached to the thorax.
• Have a simple digestive tract.
• Breath through small holes along the body.
Symptoms of common diseases of crops
• Total death of plants can be a sign of disease e g fusarium wilt on banana plants.
• Disease attack on crops is characterised by yellowing of leaves.
• Stunting of attacked plants can be a sign of disease attack on crops.
• Development of spots on the attacked plants can be a sign of a disease attack.
• Mottling and curling of leaves can be a sign of disease attack on crops.
Pests that attack crops
• Locust
• Termites
• Grasshoppers

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• Beetles
• Leaf miners
• Aphids

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• Maize stalk borer
• Bollworms and weevils

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Methods of preventing and controlling pests and diseases on crops.
• Mechanical, chemical and biological methods.
•
Pests
Others may include ia
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• Practising crop rotation.
• Timely or early planting of crops controls and prevents pest attacks on crops.
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• Planting pest – free materials prevents and controls crop pests.

• Weed control prevents and control pests.
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• Removal of pest – infected plants from the garden can control crop pests.
• Legislation on allowing only pest – free crop materials in the country helps to prevent and control pests.
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Diseases
• Planning of resistant or tolerant varieties.
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• Crop rotation.
• Removing diseased parts or whole plants and destroying them.
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• Seed dressing of planting seeds helps prevent and control crop diseases.
• Controlling of weeds.
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• Spraying with recommended chemical to control disease.

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Preventive measures of pests.

For answers refer to pests and diseases above
Harvesting
Signs of crops ready for harvesting.
• Some crops lose their leaves when they are ready for harvesting.
• Changing of colour of leaves from green to yellow is a common sign.
• Some plants dry up to indicate that they are ready for harvesting.
• Ripening 0f crop seeds is a sign of readiness for harvesting.
• Some crops grow big in size to show that they are ready for harvesting.
• Others crops like underground root tubers e g sweet potatoes cause cracks on the soil surface when they are ready for
harvesting.
Harvesting crops correctly.
• Maize is harvested by hands whereby cobs are removed from stalks when still green or when dry. On large scale farming,
maize is left to dry in the field and a combine harvester can be used to remove cobs and shell the maize concurrently.
• Groundnuts can be harvested by hand pulling if the soil is light and moist so that the nuts are lifted. A hoe can be used to
left the groundnuts but care should be taken not to damage the pods. On large scale production, ox – drawn or tractor –
drawn implements can be used to lift the groundnuts.
 Storage
Methods of storing crops www.zedmaterials.com
• Maize - cobs can be stored in cribs which should be well ventilated, vermin – proof and leak – proof and raised above the
ground to avoid dampness from the soil
• Can be stored in granaries made of locally available material. Structures should be raised off the ground, with rat guards,
thatched properly to make them leak – proof with the inside smeared with cow dung and sand
• Large grain silos can be used to store maize grains which should be protected by seed dressing.
• Groundnuts– at village level van be stored in granaries or bags raised off the ground. On large Production can be stored in
stores.
• Others storage may include– Baskets, poles and bins.
Advantages- Baskets
• Cheap to use as no costs is involved.
• Does not require any specialized skill. Any farmer can use it.
Disadvantages
• Can be used when large amount of crop need to be stored
• Storage pests, e g weevils an easily access and attack the stored produce
Advantages – Bags or sacks
• Storage method is cheap to use
• Does not require technical skill
Disadvantages

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• Rodents can easily access the produce, damage the bags and eat the produce
• This method of crop storage imposes the produce to fire hazard problems
Advantages - Granaries

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• Are cheap to construct and can be made from local materials and do not need specialised skill to erect
• If properly maintained granaries are quite durable

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• Disadvantages
•
•
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Granaries are usually broken into by thieves who steal the stored produce
Many small sale farmer usually do not put on rat guards during construction and this makes the stored produce easily
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subjected to pest damage
• Irrigation
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Need for irrigation.

• Is to supply a crop with sufficient water to enable it to grow properly. This means making sure that the soil receive the
correct amount of water to support the crop.
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Methods of irrigating crops

Methods of irrigation
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• Surface irrigation – use of surface (soil) as means of transporting water to plants.

• Overhead irrigation – apply water to crops in ways which resemble falling rain, one of these is the use of sprinklers which
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are attached to pipes, water is pumped into them and delivered to the crop through nozzles in the rotation heads of the
sprinklers.
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Drip irrigation– system whereby plastic pipes are either supported about 0.5m above the ground, along the rows of the
crop to be irrigated.
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Basin irrigation -
Suitable methods of irrigation according to the landscape
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• Surface irrigation - (topography)the slope of the land affects water run –off. The extent of irrigation needed on a slope
differs from that needed on flat ground.
Effects of irrigation on the environment
• Causes soil erosion.
• Causes soil to have hard pans.
• Pollutes underground water.
• Explain reduction of salinity.
• Salinity- amount of soluble salt (NaCl) in the soil.
• Reduction – Application of agricultural lime to soil and practise crop rotation.
Water cycle and ground water resources
• Water cycle, its significance is that it tries to explain stages on how water is lost in the atmosphere by different process e g
transpiration, respiration and evaporation and how they tend to form cloud formation later on fall as rains used in
agriculture
Topic 4 www.zedmaterials.com

FORESTRY
Site for trees
Site suitable for growing trees.
• Deep soil
• Well drained soil that is free from water – logging.
• Level land or flat land.
• An area without heavy frost.
• Adequate rainfall of a minimum of 700mm of rainfall per annum.
Preparing a site for growing trees
• Involves the removal of bushes, unwanted trees, stumps and any other undesirable objects
from the site ; it is done to
• Facilitate tillage operations

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• Tree planting
Establishment and management of trees

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• Establishing starts with preparing a tree nursery – a farmer need to prepare nursery soil for
the seeds therefore good soil with nutrients need to be prepared for planting.

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• Management involves aspects to do with weeding, watering, fertilizer and manure
application, pest and disease control etc.
Management of a woodlot
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• Woodlot
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Is a piece of land set aside for growing trees; a small forest plantation
Management involves
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• -Prune off the lower branches of trees to facilitate access to plantation.

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-Control insects pests and fungal diseases.

• -Protect woodlot from fire by removing weeds.
•
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-Thin out the weaker trees so that the best trees can grow bigger.
Improved fallow
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• Fallow - refers to giving rest to a field thus without planting anything for some years, this
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helps to rebuild soil structure and retention of nutrients.

• Improved fallow –refers to giving rest to the field but planting legumes which are ploughed
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back to enrich the soil (field) with nutrients.

Advantages and disadvantages of improved fallow
Advantages of improved fallow
• Improves soil structure.
• It adds nutrients to soil.
• It breaks the life cycle for pests and diseases.
• Legumes are used in improved fallow.
Disadvantages of improved fallow
• It’s too involving as it uses legumes.
• Expensive because it involves ploughing of the field.
• Its requires knowledge on how to go about it.
Topic 5
Conservation agriculture www.zedmaterials.com
Is practices which aim to conserve soil and water by using surface cover(mulch), Thus this type of agriculture reserves activities which involves the disturbing
soil but promotes zero tillage.
Importance of conservation agriculture:
• Improved soil structure
• Nutrient retention
• Maintains soil moisture
Soil factors that are recognised in conservation agriculture
• Soil
• Organic matter
• Nutrients
Agricultural technique
Sustainable agriculture can provide adequate nutrient availability in the soil
• Goal of conservation agriculture – zero tillage
• Sustainable agriculture and availability of nutrients – careful use of resources
Organic matter in the soil
Importance of organic matter:
• Humus helps to retain air, water and nutrients.
• Helps to improve the structure of soil.
• Helps in heat – absorbing capacity.
• Add microorganisms to soil and supply them with food.
•

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It gives colour to the soil.
Reduction of organic matter in soil
• Continuous cropping
• Through soil erosion
• Burning of the fields

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• Improper farming methods
Ways to increase organic matter in the soil.

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• Plant residues
• Agro forestry
•
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Soil life
Soil conditions
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• Soil acidity and alkalinity
• Additional of green and other manures to soil
• Practice crop rotation
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Conservation practices
Describe how clearing plants from the field damages the soil.
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Damaging soil by clearing the plants from the field.

• Exposure of soil to erosion
• Exposure of soil to direct sunlight
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Planning for deep and shallow rooted crops

Cotton Maize
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As deep rooted As shallow rooted

Sunflower Soya beans
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As shallow rooted As deep rooted

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How cropping practices can encourage water retention in the soil

Retaining water in the soil through cropping practices
• Apply conservation practices by planning for deep and shallow rooted crops e g
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• By planting cover crops such as velvet beans this helps in water retention.
• Practicing zero tillage.
• By practicing inter – cropping.
• By planting shallow rooted crops.
Cropping systems that encourage soil and water retention.
• Use of cropping systems that encourage soil and water retention (conservation practices).
Importance of maintaining a high cover on soil throughout the dry and rain season
• Helps to conserve water moisture during dry periods.
• Reduces weeds in the field.
• Adds organic matter to the soil.
• Maintain a high cover on soil throughout the dry and rain season.
Refer to conservational practices
Aeration of soil
Importance of soil aeration

• It improves on drainage and air circulation in soil.

• It affords roots to penetrate easily without difficulties.
• Incorporates organic matter to the soil.
Improving soil aeration in the field
• By ploughing
• By sub – soiling
• By applying agricultural lime
Topic 6 www.zedmaterials.com
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Importance of livestock
Economic importance of livestock
• Source of income and employment to cattle farmers.
• Provide raw materials to industries.
• Source of foreign exchange.
• Source of manure for improving soil fertility.
• Source of animal protein.
Health in livestock
Signs of good and poor health in livestock
Good health
•
• A good upright stance and steady walk
• A good appetite
• Head held upright
• Nose cold and wet
• Correct body temperature
• Eyes clean and bright
Poor health in livestock
• Poor stance and walk
• No appetite

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• Rough coat
• Poor skin
• Watery dung
• Incorrect temperature
•

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Emaciation
Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in livestock
• Curled toe paralysis

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• Rickets
• Aphosphorosis
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Retardation in growth
General weakness
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• Blindness
• Anaemia
• Prolonged blood clotting
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Suitable species of pasture for livestock

•
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• Kikuyu grass (pennisetumclandestinum).

• Napier or elephant grass.
• Star grass (cynodonoethiopicus).
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Livestock feed
Nutritive value of livestock feed for the animals in community with the Zambian standards
Feed for livestock animals has the following nutritional value
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• Carbohydrates which supply energy for all the biological and biochemical processes to occur and continue functioning in the body of an animal.
• Fats which provides energy to the body. Fats give twice as much energy as do carbohydrates.
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• Proteins that are required for building up new tissue cells for growth, repair and placement of worn out tissue cells.
• Minerals which; helps in the formation of teeth and skeletal bones, form part of animals blood and vitamins help the body of the animal to grow
properly.
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Pests and Diseases of livestock

Effect of pests on livestock
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• Pests suck blood from animals and cause them anaemia and weakness.
• Transmit diseases.
• Make animal weak rendering them susceptible to disease attack.
• Lower the quality of livestock products.
• Cause irritation and inflammatory reaction in the host.
• Reduces growth rates of the host animal.
Methods of preventing and controlling pests that attack farm animals
• Regular spraying or dipping.
• Regular deworming.
• Eradication of intermediate hosts.
• Ploughing or burning pest – infected pasture.
• Regular cleaning of water points helps to control liver fluke infestation in animal.
•
Methods of preventing and controlling diseases on animals.
• Regular vaccination.
• Controlling ticks by regular dipping or spraying using acaricides.
• Regular cleanliness in and around the animal houses.
• Giving clean water.
• Isolation of sick animals.
 Housing
Maintenance of livestock houses.
• Periodic repairs of the floor, walls, roofs and yards are necessary all the time. www.zedmaterials.com
• Regular cleaning of the house by removing dung and urine and washing the floor should be carried out daily.
Livestock Marketing
Preparing livestock/livestock products for marketing.
• Livestock to be marketed should be well fed on nutritious feeds so that they fatten and look good prior to marketing in order to fetch good prices
• Animals should be treated for any diseases or pests identified or suspected so that only disease and pest free animals are marketed
• Treatment should be done well ahead of marketing to avoid chemicals tainting the animal products especially meat if the animals are brought for
slaughter
• There should be enough withdrawal periods before marketing the treated animals
• Animals should be grouped according to size, sex and age when preparing them for marketing to facilitate pricing
Organisations in Zambia that process and market the livestock products
• Dairy produce board
• Cold storage board
• Zambeef
• Master pork
• Kachema meat supplies ltd
• Zambia pork products
• Zamchick
• Parmalat
Types of fish found in Zambia.
Tilapia family
• Nile tilapia (Oreochromisniloticus)

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• Spotted tilapia (Oreochromisandersonii)
• Longfin tilapia (Oreochromismacrochir)
• Redbreast tilapia (tilapia rendalli)
Others includes

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• Common Carp
• Brown trout

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• Catfish (bubble)
Foodstuffs for fish
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Natural aquatic foods which consist of plankton example of insects, worms and water plants
Supplementary feeds in form of agricultural by – products example of maize, rice bran, brewers mash, cabbage leaves and oil seed cakes
Methods of fish farming in Zambia
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• Subsistence fish farming
• Commercial fish farming.
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Advantages and disadvantages of integrated fish farming

Advantages
•
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• Maximizes on farm space as well as other resources such as feed, water, fertilizer etc.
• Resources that could have been used on only one enterprise may end up benefiting two or more other ventures.
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Disadvantages
• It requires knowledge on how to go about it, in short experience.
• It’s too involving as it combines two enterprises e g fish- cum- duck or fish- cum- pig.
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Fish pond
Establish and manage fish pond
Stages in the construction of a fish pond
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• Selection of a suitable site.

• Measure out pond area and demarcation.
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• Construct pond walls.

• Work on pond floor.
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• Construct inlet and outlet channels.

• Plant grass.
• Construct a strong link – chain wire fence.
• Fill up the pond.
Management of fish pond-
• Fill up water in the pond when necessary.
• Cut grass around the pond.
• Feed fish.
• Plant grass around the pond.
• Fertilizer the pond.
Harvesting fish
• Use of Fish traps.
• Use of gill nets.
• Completely draining of the pond to expose the fish.
• Use of hook and line – pole.
• Use of fish traps.
 Fish Marketing
Preparing marketing fish www.zedmaterials.com
Preparing fish
• Scaling
• Gutting
• Trimming
• Splitting
• Filleting
• Final washing
• Chilling / icing
Marketing fish
• Fish can be marketed in different forms these are
• Frozen fish
• Dry
•

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Smoked
• Sun – dried
• Canned

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• And live fish

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Topic 7 ia
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FARM STRUCTURES
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Structures for water supply

• Borehole
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• Wells
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• Dams
Methods of maintaining named water supply system
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Water supply systems

Borehole
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• Periodic check up on wells, pump and the surrounding the structures.

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Pollution of water supplies

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Water pollution
Is the contamination of water bodies with toxic or harmful substances which can lead to death of humans
or animals.
Ways in which water supplies on the farm may be polluted
Pollution of water supplies on the farm
• Through continued use of nitrogenous fertilizers
• Through careless use of herbicides and pesticides in fields on the farm
Ways of preventing and controlling pollution of water supplies on the farm
• Through correcting disposal of farm chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides
• Through construction of pit latrines like in rural areas
• Through proper siting of water supplies in order to avoid sewage or industrial waste from
contaminating the water supplies
Topic 8
FARM MACHINERY www.zedmaterials.com
Engines
Parts of an engine and the function
• Cylinder-
• Pistons – compresses the fuel –air mixture in the cylinder and transmits power to the crank shaft by moving up and down.
• Connecting rods–connect the piston to the crankshaft and convert the up and down movement of the piton to the rotary or circular
motion of the crankshaft.
• Crankshaft – change up and down movement (reciprocation) of the piston to rotary motion thereby transmitting power to the
differential gear.
• Camshaft – They control the movement of valves
• Valves – used for opening and closed the passage leading to the engine cylinder.
• Sparking plugs – to ignite the fuel - air mixture.
Working of a four and two stroke internal petrol engine

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Differences between petrol and diesel engines

Petrol Diesel
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Parts are made of lighter metals Parts arte made o heavier metals
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Have a carburettor Have injector pump

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Have spark plugs Have injectors

At induction, fuel/air mixture is sucked in At induction air is sucked in
Maintenance of the main system of an engine.
• Make sure the fuel tank is filled with the correct fuel.
• Top up the radiator with water.
• Clean the fuel filter bowl to remove dirt.
• Check that the fan belt is tight.
• Check the level of oil in the engine and top up if necessary.
• Check the oil level in the air cleaner and top up if necessary.
• Grease all the greasing points using a grease gun.
• Check wheel nuts and other fittings to see that they are tight.
Lubrication system of a four stroke petrol engine
Lubrication
Means keeping oil in the engine so that the parts move against each other easily. In the engine the pistons must have oil on them so that
they move easily against the walls of the cylinder. The correct amount of engine oil is put into the e4ngine and there is a pump to force the oil
to all the places where it is needed. If there is not enough oil in the engine the parts are not lubricated properly.
 Electrical system of a petrol engine
The electric system
www.zedmaterials.com
Is made up several components such the battery, starter motor, solenoid, coil, distributor and sparking
plugs.
Below is the drawing explaining the electrical system of petrol

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Water and air cooling systems of engines

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Most large engines are cooled by water. Water is put in a radiator and pumped through a sleeve round the
outside of the engine by a water pump. A fan driven by the engine fans air on to the radiator to cool the
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water in it. The water keeps going round through the radiator and over the engine. If there is not enough
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water in the radiator, the engine will over heat and become damaged.
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Farm mechanisation
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Is the use of machinery in farm operations

Advantages and disadvantages of farm mechanisation
Advantages
• Farm operations can be achieved on time.
• It reduces drudgery i e it makes work easy and enjoyable.
• Because farm operations are carried out on time, high yields can be obtained.
• Increased acreage, large areas can be covered within a short time.
• Mechanizing agriculture is particularly useful in times of labour shortage. very few workers are
employed to do a certain job on a farm.
• Disadvantages
• Very expensive type farming.
• It requires knowledge on how to operate farm machinery.
Topic 9 www.zedmaterials.com
FARM MANAGEMENT
Farm valuation
Inventory of assets on a farm
Livestock inventory
All the livestock owned should be listed distinguishing between the various classes and showing their value in each case.
• Cattle – 4 bulls
• 200 breeding cows
• 40 in calf heifers
• 150 calves
• 350 steers
• 80 heifers
• 30 oxen
Prepare an opening and closing valuation on a farm
Opening valuation
Is the variation that is done at the beginning of the business or financial (farming) year.
Closing valuations
Is the valuation that is done at the end of the business or financial year. In most cases, the previous year closing valuation

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becomes next year’s opening valuation.
Methods of calculating depreciation of farm machinery
Depreciation of farm machinery

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• Straight – line method - Annual depreciation is computed by dividing the original cost of the asset less the salvage value
by the expected years of the assets life.

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• Declining balance method – A fixed rate of depreciation is used every year and applied to the value of the asset at the
beginning of the year; salvage value is not subtracted from the cost.
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Sum of year digits method – Is the type of annual depreciation determined by multiplying a fraction and the amount to be
depreciated (cost less salvage value).
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Insurance
Risks and uncertainties
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• Risks – Can be predicted e.g. fire, pests and diseases while

• Uncertainties – Cannot be predicted e.g. Change in demand and Price fluctuation
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Importance of insurance policies in agriculture

• The importance is that in case the farm suffers loss or damage to property over, say, one year, the insurance companies
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will be able to composites a farmer by giving them money to start again.

Types of insurance in agriculture.
• Livestock insurance
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• crop insurance
• machinery insurance
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Cooperatives
How cooperatives are organised
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Organisation of cooperatives
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• Adequate funds or finance-a co –operative needs money for erecting buildings used as offices and stores for purchasing
agricultural inputs used in farming.
• Adequate volume of business-the volume of business should enough to enable society to benefit from economies of large
scale operation.
• Goals and objectives-the goal and objectives of a co-operative must be clearly defined and known by members.
Refer to grade 10 and 11 works
Common interest of farmers in a cooperative
• Co-operators can employ well trained and experienced staff such as secretary managers and cashiers to work for them,
which they could not do individually.
• Members have easy access to agricultural inputs such as drugs for livestock, feed, fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides and
seeds.
• Members have a big bargaining power for better price. Condition etc.
• Members can obtain credit to help them in their farming activities much more easily.
• Members share some overhead costs, such as depreciation on machinery.
 Entrepreneurship
www.zedmaterials.com
Different kinds of agricultural enterprises
Kinds of agricultural businesses

Bee keeping
This is the keeping of bees, and when the bees are kept the bees can produce
honey which can be sold to people.
Livestock farming
This is the rearing of animals; the following by products can be released such as
milk, meat, eggs, skin and hides.
Crop farming
This is the growing of crops such as maize, wheat, rice, millet, and soya beans
etc.

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What makes an agricultural enterprise successful
Successful agricultural enterprises
• Good management of the business.

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• Proper market.

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Why market research is important
Market research.
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• So that a farmer can know the mode of transport to use when taking the products
to the markets.
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• So that a farm can know the availability of crops on the market with the one he
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has, if less on the market then he can sell them on a high price hence earning
more money.
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• It also helps a farm to sit the price on the crops he /she have on the farm.
• It also helps a farmer to know the standard of living in that area, where the
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products will be sold; this will help him price the products.
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•
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How to cost and price a product

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Costing and pricing a product

• After taking care of market you have to consider transport to the market, labour
incurred during farming period, money used in purchasing farming inputs such as
seeds ,fertilisers ,herbicides ,insecticides etc.
• After taking caring care of the market, pricing can follow after looking at the
quality of the products you have.
• Pricing can be done after looking at the availability of the crop on the market or
demand of crop on the market.
THE END OF GRADE 8, 9,10, 11, AND 12
EDUCATION IS NOT TO PUNISH YOU BUT TO EDUCATE YOU
ALL THE BEST