SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures 593
Rocks: Mineralogy and Classification. Unidirectional
Aqueous Flow.
Further Reading
Allen JRL (1982) Sedimentary Structures: Their Character
and Physical Basis. Developments in Sedimentology 30A
& B, pp. 593–663. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Allen JRL (1985) Principles of Physical Sedimentology,
ch. 8. London: Allen & Unwin.
Collinson JD and Thompson DB (1989) Sedimentary Struc-
tures, 2nd edn., ch. 3–4. London: Chapman & Hall.
Depositional Sedimentary Structures
J Collinson, John Collinson Consulting, Beech, UK
ß 2005, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
Depositional sedimentary structures reflect closely
the processes by which sediment was transported
immediately prior to deposition, and therefore pro-
vide an important starting point for environmental
interpretation through facies analysis (see Sediment-
ary Environments: Depositional Systems and Facies).
Their interpretation requires an appreciation of the
hydrodynamics or aerodynamics of fluid–sediment
interactions.
Sediment Transport and Deposition
Excluding highly concentrated sediment–water mix-
tures, sediment is transported by fluid in two distinct
ways. Finer grained material, commonly clay and silt,
but sometimes including sand and coarser material,
is carried along with the fluid in ‘suspension’, when
particles are supported by the upwards component of
turbulence. Coarser grained material tends to move in
intermittent contact with the bed, once its critical
boundary shear stress has been exceeded. This move-
ment, referred to generally as ‘bedload transport’,
takes place through rolling or, more commonly, boun-
cing of grains on the bed, a process called ‘saltation’.
At its most vigorous, saltation grades into suspension.
Sand particles in saltation, on colliding with a bed of
similar sand, set other grains in motion as their kinetic
energy is dissipated, a process especially important in
wind-blown transport.
Bedload Transport
Bedload transport in water results from unidirec-
tional currents, wave action, and combinations of
Dzulynski S and Walton EK (1965) Sedimentary Features of
Flysch and Greywackes. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Leeder MR (1982) Sedimentology; Process and Product, ch.
5, 6, 9. London: Allen & Unwin.
Leeder MR (1999) Sedimentology and Sedimentary Basins,
ch. 5, 6, 10. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
Mutti E (1992) Turbidite Sandstones. Milan: Agip.
Pettijohn FJ and Potter PE (1964) Atlas and Glossary of
Primary Sedimentary Structures. Berlin: Springer.
Ricci-Lucchi F (1970) Sedimentografia. Bologna: Zanichelli.
Selley RC (2000) Applied Sedimentology, 2nd edn., ch. 5.
San Diego: Academic Press.
the two. Clearly, for waves to affect sediment move-
ment, the bed has to be above wave base (i.e., within
the depth range of the waves), and it is important in
many settings to recognize the distinction between
fair weather and storm wave base.
Suspension
Sediment is carried in suspension provided that the
intensity of turbulence within the fluid remains high.
A current that is underloaded with suspended sedi-
ment can take more material into suspension up to a
certain critical capacity. Sediment is deposited when
the level of turbulence can no longer support all the
suspended grains. This usually occurs when the cur-
rent decelerates, often as a result of flow expansion
at a channel mouth, but also through the waning of
a high-energy event, such as a storm or flood. Coarser
particles, with higher settling velocities, fall from
suspension first. Sedimentation is commonly acceler-
ated in river mouth and estuarine settings where a
freshwater suspension meets saline water and par-
ticles coagulate into larger flocs. Deposition from
suspension occurs in many settings and produces a
variety of types of bedding and lamination. ‘Bedding’
is used for units of centimetres or larger thickness,
whilst ‘lamination’ is used for features at the scale of
millimetres.
At coastal delta fronts, a floating plume of turbid
freshwater floats over denser seawater and may
extend many kilometres offshore before it disperses.
In freshwater lakes, the reverse situation may apply,
with denser turbid water hugging the lake floor as a
density underflow. Such relatively sustained under-
flows contrast with more episodic underflow surges,
which are features of deep marine settings. These
turbidity currents carry a wide variety of grain sizes
in suspension and the interaction of density contrast,
down-slope movement, resultant turbulence, and
594 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures
consequent sediment load leads to a phenomenon
referred to as ‘autosuspension’. Changes to the bal-
ance amongst the variables, mainly through changes
in bottom gradient, lead to accelerations or decel-
erations and to phases of erosion and deposition,
respectively.
Lamination in Fine-Grained
Sediments
In settings in which low energy prevails, only the
finest sediment, carried in suspension, settles as mud.
If the bottom waters are well oxygenated, sediment
will usually be disturbed by burrowing organisms and
the depositional lamination destroyed. If the bottom
waters are anaerobic, a fine depositional lamination
may be preserved. In all cases, burial compaction
flattens the original fabric and creates a foliation or
lamination of later origin. Only where early cementa-
tion occurs, usually as concretions, is depositional
and early postdepositional fabric and lamination
preserved.
In areas of higher sediment supply, such as a coastal
river mouth, lamination and bedding in sediments
deposited from suspension often result from changes
in river discharge. In marine settings, deposition from
a floating turbid plume can give gradational thin bed-
ding or lamination due to gradual changes in discharge
or in the position of the plume. In lakes, where under-
flows are more common, bedding and lamination may
be more sharply defined, particularly in proglacial set-
tings where seasonal discharge variations are shown
by varves (rhythmites; see Sedimentary Environments:
Lake Processes and Deposits).
In certain tidal settings, particularly estuaries,
where fine-grained suspended sediment occurs due
to both river supply and erosion by waves and tidal
currents, the deposition of mud is particularly associ-
ated with slack water periods between tidal flows.
These occur four times a day in subtidal settings and
twice a day in intertidal areas. High concentrations of
suspended mud and the effects of flocculation cause
the deposition of discrete ‘mud drapes’ within the
space of a few hours. When associated with sand
deposition, reflecting higher energy tidal flows, these
help to create ‘heterolithic facies’, which are discussed
below.
Aqueous Sandy Bedforms and their
Internal Structures
Once sand or coarse silt begins to move under a uni-
directional water current, the sediment surface takes
on a succession of dynamic morphologies in response
to changing current strength. These morphologies
are termed ‘bedforms’, and their hydrodynamic sig-
nificance and relationships to internal lamination in
sands and sandstones are key elements in interpreting
processes and environments of deposition.
Current Ripples and Ripple Lamination
When sand starts to move, the surface becomes
covered by ‘current ripples’, small-scale, repetitive,
asymmetrical bedforms, a few centimetres high and
a few tens of centimetres in wavelength (Figure 1).
Their dimensions scale with grain size rather than
with the properties of the flow. Their asymmet-
rical profile parallel to flow has a steep ‘lee side’
facing downstream and a gently inclined ‘stoss
side’ facing upstream. Soon after formation, current
ripples have rather straight crest lines, orientated
transverse to flow, but this pattern soon breaks
down into more complex three-dimensional ‘lin-
guoid’ geometries, whereby the ripples have strongly
curved crest lines, usually convex downstream and
with scour pits in front of gaps between adjacent
ripples. These shapes are intimately related to the
patterns of fluid turbulence over the ripples, with
flow separation at the crests and downward-directed
eddies converging to create lee-side scour pits. As an
array of ripples moves downstream, sand is swept
from the scour pits over downstream stoss sides and
deposited on lee sides. Ripples and dunes (dealt with
below) are together referred to as the ‘lower flow
regime’ of bedload transport (Figure 2).
The deposition of sand on the lee sides of ripples
leads to inclined lamination that records successive
positions of the lee side. This cross-lamination is com-
monly defined by micas and other platy grains. It is
preserved only when ripple migration takes place
during vertical aggradation of the bed (Figure 3).
Figure 1 Small-scale asymmetrical current ripples formed by a
unidirectional flow from left to right. Gently inclined stoss sides
are inclined upstream and steeper lee sides face downstream.
Note the variability in the curvature of the crest lines. Tana River,
Norway.
 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures 595
Figure 2 A plot of stream power vs. grain size showing the fields of occurrence of the main classes of bedform produced by
unidirectional water flows.
Figure 3 Climbing ripple cross-lamination in fine sand. The
trajectories of the ripple crests reflect the balance between the
rate of bed accretion and rate of ripple migration. Where the angle
of climb exceeds that of the ripple stoss sides, stoss-side lamin-
ation is preserved. Holocene terrace deposits, Tana Valley,
Norway.
Where migration occurs without aggradation, lee-side
scour removes the cross-laminated sand deposited by
the preceding ripple. When aggradation occurs, the
trajectory of the scour zone climbs downstream,
allowing the partial preservation of cross-laminated
sand. The angle of climb determines the extent of pre-
servation, but, in many cases, the angle is not apparent
because of the random component of erosion created
by migrating scour pits. Where climb angles are high,
due to high aggradation rates, the inclination of erosion
surfaces between cross-laminated sets may be appar-
ent, and the style is referred to as ‘ripple drift’ or
‘climbing ripple lamination’ (Figure 3). Where climb
angles exceed the inclination of the stoss sides, stoss-
side laminae are preserved with no erosion between
sets.
Figure 4 Block diagram to show the main types of three-
dimensional geometries of cross-bedding and cross-lamination
and the terminologies used.
In three dimensions, the geometry of ripple cross-
lamination most commonly occurs as a series of inter-
secting troughs, each filled with curved cross-laminae
that are concave both upwards and downstream
(Figure 4). The troughs are the curved erosion sur-
faces cut by the migration of the scour pits and the
laminae record their filling by the migration of the
succeeding ripples. Usually, only the lower parts of
lee-side laminae are preserved. In plan view, trough
cross-lamination appears as a pattern of flow-parallel
zones of curved laminae, known as ‘rib and furrow’,
which is an important palaeocurrent indicator.
Palaeocurrents are most accurately measured from
the axes of the troughs. Rib and furrow is a more
596 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures
common record of current ripples than the preserva-
tion of ripple forms on bedding surfaces. Where
ripple forms are preserved, they are usually overlain
by a drape of finer grained sediment due to a rapid
reduction in current strength.
Dunes, Sand Waves, and Cross-Bedding
As current velocities increase above those appropriate
for ripples, sand beds deform into larger bedforms,
termed ‘dunes’ or ‘sand waves’, provided that the
water is deep enough (Figure 2). These have a similar
asymmetry to current ripples, although the wave-
lengths are greater, seldom less than 1 m and
extending to many tens of metres. Heights are in tens
of centimetres or even metres. There is a clear hydro-
dynamic distinction between ripples and dunes, illus-
trated by the superimposition of ripples on the larger
forms under equilibrium conditions. Dunes, there-
fore, are not just large ripples. The orientations of
superimposed ripples reflect the direction of flow
close to the bed over and around the dunes, recording
patterns of eddy separation and reattachment, espe-
cially those associated with scour pits.
Dunes and sand waves occur in a wide range of
plan forms, from straight crested through highly three
dimensional, and also span a wide range of height to
length ratios (Figures 5 and 6). Steep, strongly three-
dimensional forms are mainly a response to strong
and relatively deep flows, whilst straight-crested or
low-relief forms, which tend to lack scour pits, are
responses to less strong or more shallow flows. The
dimensions of dunes and sand waves reflect the proper-
ties of the flow, rather than the sediment. They seem
particularly susceptible to changes in flow depth. How-
ever, it is quite difficult to interpret large bedforms
in terms of flow parameters as they are commonly
out of equilibrium with the prevailing current. Large
Figure 5 Small, three-dimensional dunes with well-developed
scour pits in their lee-side areas. Note how the superimposed
ripples fan out to reflect the pattern of eddying over the dunes
close to the bed. Note also the difference in scale of the dunes and
the ripples. Tana River Delta, Norway.
Figure 6 A wide sandy braided bed of the Tana River, Norway,
showing large, low-relief sand wave bedforms. These examples
have curved crest lines (convex downstream), superimposed
ripples, and, locally, smaller dunes on their upper surfaces.
Whilst their spacing is in hundreds of metres, the heights of
their lee faces seldom exceed 1 m. The larger areas of sand,
which separate the river into discrete channels, are compound
bedforms or bars. Tana River Delta, Norway.
volumes of sand must be moved to remould large
forms and, in rivers where discharge varies quickly or
in tidal settings, large-scale bedforms are often in a state
of disequilibrium. In intertidal settings or on emergent
river beds, larger bedforms are commonly modified by
the process of emergence. Changing flow patterns over
and around the forms and the action of waves both
rework ripple patterns and reduce the angle of the lee-
side slipfaces. In subtidal settings, sand waves often are
present on the seabed where they are susceptible to
semi-diurnal reversals of flow. Asymmetrical profiles
may reflect quite a small asymmetry in strengths of ebb
and flood tides.
As with ripples, internal lamination produced by
dune-scale bedforms is dominated by inclined lamin-
ation, generally referred to as ‘cross-bedding’ (Figure 7).
The individual dipping laminae are termed ‘foresets’,
whilst packages of foresets produced by the migration
of individual dunes are ‘sets’. Sets range in thickness
from around 10 cm up to several metres, and foresets
are generally defined by slight differences in grain
size, related to avalanches of grains (grain flows) on
the lee side and to fluctuating turbulence in that area.
In vertical section, some foresets are straight with
an angular basal contact (termed ‘planar’), whilst
others have a tangential or asymptotic contact. The
sets fall into one of two classes depending on the shape
of the set boundaries. Where these are broadly subpar-
allel and flat-lying, the sets are described as ‘tabular’.
Where set boundaries are concave-upwards erosion
surfaces, they compare, except in scale, with ripple
cross-lamination, and the term ‘trough cross-bedding’
is used. The foresets of trough sets are predominantly
concave upwards and tangential, whilst the foresets of
 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures 597
Figure 7 Examples of cross-bedding in sandstones. (A) Coset
of small sets with slightly asymptotic foresets. The bounding
surfaces between sets are themselves inclined downstream, sug-
gesting deposition on the downstream side of a larger compound
bar form. Westphalian, Northumberland, England. (B) Tabular sets
with thin units of ripple lamination between sets. The foresets are
essentially planar. Namurian, Staffordshire, England.
tabular sets vary in shape. This reflects the association
between trough sets and lee-side scour pits and the fact
that steep, three-dimensional dunes, which commonly
have such pits, are associated with stronger currents.
Tabular sets record the migration of dunes or sand
waves without scour pits, probably with straight or
only gently curved crest lines.
Changes in the shape of foresets along a set re-
cord changes in flow strength during the life of the
bedform. They are a particular feature of tidal sedi-
ments and the deposits of rivers with large discharge
variations. Wave action on emergence during the fall-
ing stage may create low-angle erosion surfaces, trun-
cating the foresets. Succeeding foresets re-establish
the higher angle dips above these ‘reactivation sur-
faces’ (Figure 8). Flow reversals in subtidal settings
produce similar structures and tidal slack water can
cause mud drapes to be interbedded with the fore-
sets. In exceptional cases, the spacing of drapes can
be interpreted in terms of spring-neap tidal cycles
(‘tidal bundles’).
Figure 8 Reactivation surface within a tabular cross-bedded
set produced by the migration of a low-relief sand wave. The
discontinuity reflects modification of the lee side of the bedform
during emergence during falling water discharge. Tana River,
Norway.
Compound Bedforms and Bars
In many wide, sandy rivers, the large repetitive bed-
forms described above are organized into compound
forms, which commonly appear to scale with the chan-
nel itself. Some of these features are attached to channel
banks, whilst others are located in mid-channel. Some
examples have a clear asymmetry to their stream-
parallel profile with a slipface at the downstream
end. In other cases, dunes descend a more gently in-
clined lee side. These compound features are com-
monly referred to as ‘bars’, of which there are many
types. The important point, in terms of internal struc-
ture and its interpretation, is the relative movement
directions of dunes and of the accretion of the bar.
Where the bar advances downstream, in the same
direction as the dunes, either a large, cross-bedded
set will be present beneath smaller cross-beds, or
the bounding surfaces between sets will be inclined
downstream. Where bars move laterally as a result of
dunes migrating along their flanks, bounding surfaces
dip in a direction highly divergent from that of the
cross-bedding (lateral accretion surfaces).
Upper Flow Regime Bedforms and Lamination
In situations in which water flow is very rapid and/or
very shallow, saltating sand close to the bed moves
continuously over an essentially flat surface. This
phase of movement is known as ‘plane bed transport’
with the moving grain layer termed a ‘traction
carpet’. When the flow is particularly strong, the
bed develops gentle undulations, forming ridges
transverse to flow or three-dimensional domes.
When this happens, the water surface also takes on
a wave form which parallels that on the sediment
surface. These undulations are ‘standing waves’
(Figure 9). Where the standing waves on the water
598 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures
surface grow beyond a critical height, they move
rapidly upstream and break, a case described as ‘anti-
dunes’. Breaking antidunes temporarily wipe out the
undulations and the cycle of growth and breaking is
repeated. This whole family of transport mechanisms
is referred to as ‘upper flow regime’ transport.
Standing waves and antidunes are highly ephem-
eral features and preservation of their deposits is rare.
However, where plane bed conditions coincide with
bed aggradation, distinctive parallel and horizontal
lamination forms. This may be accentuated by mica
and gives rise to flaggy sandstones that split easily
parallel to bedding. The bedding surfaces themselves
show a distinctive lineation (‘parting lineation’)
(Figure 10) parallel to the current, which is a useful
palaeocurrent indicator. Rarely, parting lineation
occurs on the bedding surfaces of undulatory lamin-
ation, indicating the chance preservation of standing
waves.
Figure 9 Standing waves on the surface of a shallow, rapidly
flowing stream. In-phase undulations on the underlying, rapidly
moving sand bed may produce undulating lamination with low
preservation potential.
Figure 10 Upper bedding surface of parallel laminated sand-
stone showing a clear parting lineation or primary current linea-
tion. This lies parallel to the direction of the shallow, rapid flow
that produced it. Middle Jurassic, Yorkshire Coast, England.
Wave Ripples and their Lamination
The to-and-fro movement of water associated with
waves is able to move sediment, both on its own and
in conjunction with unidirectional currents. Sand
moved by waves is readily moulded into ripples,
which are distinguished in several ways from current
ripples. Wave ripples, most distinctively, have straight
crests, which may be rounded or quite cuspate in
profile (Figure 11). Their profile is also commonly
symmetrical, although not always so. Where the
strength of the wave surge is stronger in one direction
than in the other, or where waves coexist with cur-
rents, asymmetry results. Wave ripples vary quite
widely in spacing, depending on the grain size, the
strength of the waves, and the water depth. Less
common are ripples produced by coexisting wave
trains with differing propagation directions. These
show interference patterns, reflecting the wave sets
responsible.
As well as producing ripples in their own right,
waves also modify pre-existing bedforms, particularly
under emergent or near-emergent conditions. Wave-
modified current ripples are particularly common on
tidal flats.
Internally, wave ripples produce small-scale cross-
lamination which is not always easy to distinguish
from that of current ripples. Interfingering bundles
of laminae with opposed dips, draping laminae over
symmetrical ripple crests, and discordances between
internal lamination and ripple forms all suggest wave
influence, but many cases are difficult to fully diagnose
(Figure 12).
As well as producing ripples, waves also create
plane bed conditions. This occurs most readily in
the swash zone of beaches where the run-up and
backwash of waves produce the shallow, rapid flows
Figure 11 Small, straight-crested wave ripples with symmet-
rical, rather rounded crest lines. The straightness of the crest
lines and the tuning-fork junctions along the crests are most
characteristic of wave influence. Tana River Delta, Norway.
 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures 599
Figure 12 A wave-ripple bedding surface with clear, symmet-
rical ripple profiles, underlain by a unit of ripple laminated sand
showing bundled laminae and trough forms in a view normal to
the crest lines. Namurian, County Clare, Ireland.
Figure 13 Sandstone bed with undulating lamination with
convex-upwards sectors and undulatory erosion surfaces. This
assemblage of hummocky and swaley cross-stratification is typical
of deposition from storms under conditions of coexisting, intense
current and wave activity. Upper Jurassic, Dorset, England.
needed. Parallel lamination and parting lineations
result if the sand is preserved.
Wave–Current Interaction
During storms, shallow-water shelf or nearshore
areas are commonly subjected to energy regimes
involving a combination of waves and currents.
Under such conditions, sand falling from suspension
may be reworked into low-relief, rounded forms
and may be re-eroded by higher energy surges. The
result is an undulatory lamination, characterized by
gentle convex-upwards patterns and gentle scours.
Where the convex-upwards laminae dominate, the
structure is called ‘hummocky cross-stratification’,
and where the scours dominate, it is termed ‘swaley
cross-stratification’ (Figure 13).
Heterolithic Lamination
In settings in which energy levels fluctuate and in
which there is a significant amount of sediment in
Figure 14 Heterolithic interlaminated sand and mud typical of
many tidal settings where energy levels fluctuate between strong
currents capable of transporting sand and still conditions where
mud falls from suspension to drape the bed morphology. Lower
Cretaceous, Isle of Wight, England.
suspension, it is common for mixed sand–mud sedi-
ments to be deposited. These record the alternation of
suspended and bedload sediment deposition and are
a particular, although not exclusive, feature of tidal
settings. The sandy components are often ripple
laminated with ripple profiles commonly preserved,
so that current and wave forms can be distinguished.
Collectively, these interlaminated sediments are
termed ‘heterolithic’ (Figure 14) and are subdivided
using the proportions of sandy and muddy compon-
ents. Where mud dominates and sand forms isolated
ripple lenses, the term ‘lenticular bedding’ is applied,
whilst ripple-laminated sand with discrete mud
drapes is called ‘flaser bedding’. More or less equal
components are referred to as ‘wavy bedding’. Some
confusion surrounds the application of these terms.
Laminae rich in mica and carbonaceous debris in
normal ripple cross-laminated sand can look superfi-
cially like flaser bedding, but the term is best reserved
for cases with a clear separation of sand and mud.
Aeolian Bedforms and
Internal Bedding
Wind, blowing over dry sand, initiates movement in
much the same way as water. Above a certain critical
velocity or shear stress, grains begin to move as bed-
load. However, in comparison with water, wind
moves a much narrower range of grain sizes in this
way. The buoyant effect of water is much greater than
that of air and, in addition, the viscosity of water
dampens collision impacts between grains in salta-
tion. The result is that sands moved by air tend to
be very well sorted and also well rounded. The first
bedforms to develop on dry sand are ripples. These
have low relief compared with aqueous current
600 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures
ripples and are less clearly asymmetrical. They are
commonly straight crested with the bifurcation of
crest lines.
The vigorous saltation leads to grains following
asymmetrical trajectories: a steep uplift from the
bed, and a lower angle approach and impact. The
impact throws other grains into motion, but the extent
of this depends on the inclination of the bed at the
point of impact. If the bed slopes upwind, the impact
is steep and energy is dissipated strongly into grains
near the impact point, throwing some into saltation
and advancing others by a process of creep. If the
bed slopes downwind, energy is dissipated more
gently and grains accumulate. Wind ripples reflect
this behaviour and their wavelength scales to the
saltation path length and, hence, to the wind strength.
Where wind blows dry sand across a surface that is
immobile, such as a rock surface, a gravel bed, or a
damp surface, wind ripples may be widely spaced and
may begin to cluster together into larger forms that
are incipient dunes. Where the surface is damp, salt-
ating grains may adhere on impact through surface
tension and patterns of wind ‘adhesion ripples’ or
‘adhesion warts’ may form. These irregular warty
forms have steeper sides pointing upwind. All wind
ripples have quite a low preservation potential, but
examples do occur in the rock record. Wind ripples
commonly produce subparallel lamination, ‘pin-
stripe’ lamination with inverse grading, and rare
cross-lamination. It is an important component in
the cross-bedding produced by aeolian dunes.
Vigorous wind transport commonly leads to the
development of larger bedforms, ‘aeolian dunes’ (see
Sedimentary Processes: Aeolian Processes), which
occur in isolation on hard substrates or as parts of
larger accumulations of sand. Dunes vary greatly in
both scale and shape, and it is quite common for
dunes of several scales to occur superimposed upon
one another. An important distinction is between
dunes with their own slipfaces and those without
such surfaces. Slipfaces occur downwind of crest
lines where sand accumulates through grain flow
avalanches. Such processes commonly occur in con-
junction with grainfall, whereby grains are thrown
over the dune crest and accumulate on the lee side.
Where grainfall dominates, the inclination of the sur-
faces may be lower and reworking by wind ripples
may occur, particularly in the lower, more gently
inclined parts of the dunes (‘plinths’).
Where sand supply is insufficient for the substrate
to be fully covered, ‘barchan dunes’ or, more rarely,
‘linear (seif) dunes’ occur. In sand seas, a variety
of more complex forms occurs. These include trans-
verse dunes, barchanoid forms, and star-shaped
dunes. The largest forms, termed ‘draa’, commonly
have superimposed smaller dunes, which leads to
complex morphologies. The size of the largest forms
means that they change shape only over long periods
of time and thus reflect a wind regime rather than a
particular wind episode. Some are out of phase with
the current regime as a result of lag effects.
Internally, dune sands show complex cross-bedding
at scales up to many metres thick. The inclined
laminae are commonly well defined and it may be
possible to differentiate grainfall, grain-flow and
wind-ripple laminae. Wind-ripple laminae generally
occur in more gently inclined intervals, whilst grain
flow is commonly close to the angle of rest (ca. 30
).
Aeolian dune cross-bedding is characterized by dis-
cordances or bounding surfaces at several scales. In-
dividual cross-bedded sets are separated from one
another by erosion surfaces, and internally they may
also be punctuated by low-angle erosion surfaces
similar to the reactivation surfaces of aqueous cross-
beds. These record the complexity of the wind regime
whereby the lee sides of dunes become sites of erosion
during particular wind episodes. They may also result
from the migration of dunes over slipfaceless draas
or the oblique migration of scour pits along the flanks
of dunes.
Structureless Sand and Sandstone
Not all sand and sandstone has visible internal lamin-
ation. This happens for several reasons. First, it may
have been deposited in that way. The dumping of
sediment from suspension from, for example, a decel-
erating current, may have been so rapid that there
was no time for the sand to be reworked into bed-
forms and laminae. On the other hand, sand that
was initially laminated may have lost its lamination
through later remobilization, perhaps due to liquefac-
tion. Finally, lamination may be lost through the
activities of burrowing organisms, which have the
ability to totally homogenize laminated sediments
(see Trace Fossils).
Decelerating Flows and the
Bouma Sequence
Many sandstone beds in interbedded sandstone–
mudstone successions show an internal vertical se-
quence of lamination types that are diagnostic of
decelerating flows. The sandstones are sharp based
and may have erosional sole marks (see Sedimentary
Processes: Erosional Sedimentary Structures). Above
their bases, they show one or more intervals of five
different lamination types that occur in a constant
relative order even though they are rarely all present
in the same bed. These five types are: A, structureless
 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures 601

Figure 15 A schematic profile through a turbidite sandstone bed showing a complete sequence of Bouma intervals and their
hydrodynamic interpretation.

(commonly graded) sandstone; B, parallel laminated

sandstone; C, ripple cross-laminated sandstone; D,
horizontally laminated (commonly silty) sandstone;
E, mudstone. The complete succession of lamination
types is known as the ‘Bouma sequence’ (Figure 15).
The A interval records rapid deposition from suspen-
sion, with graded bedding reflecting sorting within the
flow of a mixed grain size population. The B interval
records upper flow regime plane bed transport, whilst
the C interval records ripples moving in the lower
flow regime. Climbing ripple lamination is quite
common, recording rapid rates of bed aggradation, Figure 16 Coarse fluvial gravels showing clear pebble imbrica-
and convolute lamination may also result from rapid tion. The flat surfaces of the clasts dip upstream, indicating that
deposition. The D interval, often poorly displayed in flow, in this case, was from left to right. Holocene, Pyrenees, Spain.
weathered exposures, records fallout from suspen-
sion with weak reworking on the bed, whilst the crevassing of river banks during floods. Similar sands
E interval grades into the background sedimentation also occur in shallow marine settings as a result of
from suspension. storms, although the Bouma sequence may then be
The overall succession, however complete or incom- modified to include hummocky cross-stratification
plete, records an episodic current, possibly erosional in and wave ripples.
its early stages, and progressively decelerating there-
after. Most commonly, the Bouma sequence is asso-
ciated with deep-water settings where the episodic
Gravel Forms and Fabric
flows are turbidity currents (see Sedimentary Processes: Whilst the preceding section deals mainly with sands
Particle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity Processes), but and finer grained sediments, powerful water currents
similar decelerating flows occur in shallow-water set- also transport gravel, and its deposition can lead to
tings of floodplains, shallow lagoons, and lakes due to distinctive structures and fabrics (see Sedimentary
602 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Post-Depositional Sedimentary Structures
Rocks: Rudaceous Rocks). Where gravel moves as a
traction load, on a stream bed or on a beach, it may
become lodged on the bed, particularly where clasts
land amongst similar sized clasts. If the clasts are
flattened, they will tend to be deposited in an imbri-
cated fabric with an upstream dip. This is the most
stable position beneath the prevailing flow and, when
seen in the rock record, ‘imbrication’ (Figure 16) is a
valuable palaeocurrent indicator.
Gravel is also deposited in bars on river beds and
these commonly have slipfaces at their downstream
ends. Cross-bedding results from the avalanching that
takes place there. Depending on the overall sediment
population, sandy and gravel-rich foresets may be
intermixed.
See Also
Sedimentary Environments: Depositional Systems and
Facies; Lake Processes and Deposits. Sedimentary Pro-
cesses: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; Post-Depos-
itional Sedimentary Structures; Aeolian Processes;
Particle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity Processes. Sedi-
mentary Rocks: Rudaceous Rocks. Trace Fossils. Uni-
directional Aqueous Flow.
Post-Depositional Sedimentary Structures
J Collinson, John Collinson Consulting, Beech, UK
ß 2005, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
Primary sedimentary structures and lamination in
clastic sediments result from deposition under differ-
ent hydrodynamic regimes. However, there are other
secondary structures, which originate during or very
soon after deposition as a result of sediment instabil-
ity, extreme climatic effects, or chemical changes
during burial. The last group involves the precipita-
tion of mineral cements within the sediment. Some of
the early physical structures deform primary depos-
itional structures and lamination, whilst others origin-
ate entirely as a result of the deformation processes.
Those associated with cementation often help to pre-
serve original lamination and other delicate features,
particularly in fine-grained sediment, that would
otherwise have been destroyed by compaction.
Soft-Sediment Deformation Processes
Early formed soft-sediment deformation structures are
typically features of sandstones and finer sediment.
Further Reading
Allen JRL (1982) Sedimentary Structures: Their Character
and Physical Basis. Developments in Sedimentology 30A
& B, pp. 593, 663. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Allen JRL (1985) Principles of Physical Sedimentology.
ch. 4. London: Allen & Unwin.
Brookfield ME and Alhbrandt TS (eds.) (1983) Eolian Sedi-
ments and Processes. Developments in Sedimentology
38, p. 660. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Collinson JD and Thompson DB (1989) Sedimentary Struc-
tures, 2nd edn., ch. 5–7. London: Chapman & Hall.
Leeder MR (1982) Sedimentology; Process and Product,
ch. 6–8. London: Allen & Unwin.
Leeder MR (1999) Sedimentology and Sedimentary Basins,
ch. 4–12. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
Mutti E (1992) Turbidite Sandstones. Milan: Agip.
Pettijohn FJ and Potter PE (1964) Atlas and Glossary of
Primary Sedimentary Structures. Berlin: Springer.
Pye K and Lancaster N (eds.) (1993) Aeolian Sediments
Ancient and Modern. Special Publication of the Inter-
national Association of Sedimentologists 16, p. 167.
Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Reineck HE and Singh IB (1980) Depositional Sedimentary
Environments, 2nd edn. Berlin: Springer.
Selley RC (2000) Applied Sedimentology, 2nd edn., Ch. 5.
San Diego: Academic press.
Deformation in gravels and conglomerates is rare,
except in glacial and periglacial settings, or where
there is abundant muddy matrix. The structures have
an entirely physical origin and must be distinguished
from organic deformation structures, such as burrows
and trails of animals and disturbance by plant roots (see
Trace Fossils). In addition, tectonic structures are often
geometrically identical with syndepositional struc-
tures, and the boundaries between widespread tectonic
deformation and more local, sediment-induced de-
formation may be blurred.
Deformation structures are quite difficult to classify
as they result from rather diverse processes. However,
all attempts at interpreting physical soft-sediment
deformation structures must consider two discrete
questions. First, why did the sediment lose its strength
and become susceptible to deformation? Second, what
forces operated on the weakened sediment to cause
the deformation?
In most cases, the sediment loses frictional shear
strength and behaves, briefly, as a plastic or a fluid. In
other cases, a loss of tensile strength can lead to brittle
deformation as soft-sediment faults. Loss of frictional
shear strength may result in total remobilization of
the sediment and transformation into a gravitational