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Rocks: Mineralogy and Classification. Unidirectional Dzulynski S and Walton EK (1965) Sedimentary Features of
Aqueous Flow. Flysch and Greywackes. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Leeder MR (1982) Sedimentology; Process and Product, ch.
Further Reading 5, 6, 9. London: Allen & Unwin.
Leeder MR (1999) Sedimentology and Sedimentary Basins,
Allen JRL (1982) Sedimentary Structures: Their Character ch. 5, 6, 10. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
and Physical Basis. Developments in Sedimentology 30A Mutti E (1992) Turbidite Sandstones. Milan: Agip.
& B, pp. 593–663. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Pettijohn FJ and Potter PE (1964) Atlas and Glossary of
Allen JRL (1985) Principles of Physical Sedimentology, Primary Sedimentary Structures. Berlin: Springer.
ch. 8. London: Allen & Unwin. Ricci-Lucchi F (1970) Sedimentografia. Bologna: Zanichelli.
Collinson JD and Thompson DB (1989) Sedimentary Struc- Selley RC (2000) Applied Sedimentology, 2nd edn., ch. 5.
tures, 2nd edn., ch. 3–4. London: Chapman & Hall. San Diego: Academic Press.
consequent sediment load leads to a phenomenon are termed ‘bedforms’, and their hydrodynamic sig-
referred to as ‘autosuspension’. Changes to the bal- nificance and relationships to internal lamination in
ance amongst the variables, mainly through changes sands and sandstones are key elements in interpreting
in bottom gradient, lead to accelerations or decel- processes and environments of deposition.
erations and to phases of erosion and deposition,
respectively. Current Ripples and Ripple Lamination
When sand starts to move, the surface becomes
Lamination in Fine-Grained covered by ‘current ripples’, small-scale, repetitive,
Sediments asymmetrical bedforms, a few centimetres high and
a few tens of centimetres in wavelength (Figure 1).
In settings in which low energy prevails, only the Their dimensions scale with grain size rather than
finest sediment, carried in suspension, settles as mud. with the properties of the flow. Their asymmet-
If the bottom waters are well oxygenated, sediment rical profile parallel to flow has a steep ‘lee side’
will usually be disturbed by burrowing organisms and facing downstream and a gently inclined ‘stoss
the depositional lamination destroyed. If the bottom side’ facing upstream. Soon after formation, current
waters are anaerobic, a fine depositional lamination ripples have rather straight crest lines, orientated
may be preserved. In all cases, burial compaction transverse to flow, but this pattern soon breaks
flattens the original fabric and creates a foliation or down into more complex three-dimensional ‘lin-
lamination of later origin. Only where early cementa- guoid’ geometries, whereby the ripples have strongly
tion occurs, usually as concretions, is depositional curved crest lines, usually convex downstream and
and early postdepositional fabric and lamination with scour pits in front of gaps between adjacent
preserved. ripples. These shapes are intimately related to the
In areas of higher sediment supply, such as a coastal patterns of fluid turbulence over the ripples, with
river mouth, lamination and bedding in sediments flow separation at the crests and downward-directed
deposited from suspension often result from changes eddies converging to create lee-side scour pits. As an
in river discharge. In marine settings, deposition from array of ripples moves downstream, sand is swept
a floating turbid plume can give gradational thin bed- from the scour pits over downstream stoss sides and
ding or lamination due to gradual changes in discharge deposited on lee sides. Ripples and dunes (dealt with
or in the position of the plume. In lakes, where under- below) are together referred to as the ‘lower flow
flows are more common, bedding and lamination may regime’ of bedload transport (Figure 2).
be more sharply defined, particularly in proglacial set- The deposition of sand on the lee sides of ripples
tings where seasonal discharge variations are shown leads to inclined lamination that records successive
by varves (rhythmites; see Sedimentary Environments: positions of the lee side. This cross-lamination is com-
Lake Processes and Deposits). monly defined by micas and other platy grains. It is
In certain tidal settings, particularly estuaries, preserved only when ripple migration takes place
where fine-grained suspended sediment occurs due during vertical aggradation of the bed (Figure 3).
to both river supply and erosion by waves and tidal
currents, the deposition of mud is particularly associ-
ated with slack water periods between tidal flows.
These occur four times a day in subtidal settings and
twice a day in intertidal areas. High concentrations of
suspended mud and the effects of flocculation cause
the deposition of discrete ‘mud drapes’ within the
space of a few hours. When associated with sand
deposition, reflecting higher energy tidal flows, these
help to create ‘heterolithic facies’, which are discussed
below.
Figure 2 A plot of stream power vs. grain size showing the fields of occurrence of the main classes of bedform produced by
unidirectional water flows.
surface grow beyond a critical height, they move Wave Ripples and their Lamination
rapidly upstream and break, a case described as ‘anti-
The to-and-fro movement of water associated with
dunes’. Breaking antidunes temporarily wipe out the
waves is able to move sediment, both on its own and
undulations and the cycle of growth and breaking is
in conjunction with unidirectional currents. Sand
repeated. This whole family of transport mechanisms
moved by waves is readily moulded into ripples,
is referred to as ‘upper flow regime’ transport.
which are distinguished in several ways from current
Standing waves and antidunes are highly ephem-
ripples. Wave ripples, most distinctively, have straight
eral features and preservation of their deposits is rare.
crests, which may be rounded or quite cuspate in
However, where plane bed conditions coincide with profile (Figure 11). Their profile is also commonly
bed aggradation, distinctive parallel and horizontal
symmetrical, although not always so. Where the
lamination forms. This may be accentuated by mica
strength of the wave surge is stronger in one direction
and gives rise to flaggy sandstones that split easily
than in the other, or where waves coexist with cur-
parallel to bedding. The bedding surfaces themselves
rents, asymmetry results. Wave ripples vary quite
show a distinctive lineation (‘parting lineation’)
widely in spacing, depending on the grain size, the
(Figure 10) parallel to the current, which is a useful
strength of the waves, and the water depth. Less
palaeocurrent indicator. Rarely, parting lineation
common are ripples produced by coexisting wave
occurs on the bedding surfaces of undulatory lamin- trains with differing propagation directions. These
ation, indicating the chance preservation of standing
show interference patterns, reflecting the wave sets
waves.
responsible.
As well as producing ripples in their own right,
waves also modify pre-existing bedforms, particularly
under emergent or near-emergent conditions. Wave-
modified current ripples are particularly common on
tidal flats.
Internally, wave ripples produce small-scale cross-
lamination which is not always easy to distinguish
from that of current ripples. Interfingering bundles
of laminae with opposed dips, draping laminae over
symmetrical ripple crests, and discordances between
internal lamination and ripple forms all suggest wave
influence, but many cases are difficult to fully diagnose
(Figure 12).
As well as producing ripples, waves also create
Figure 9 Standing waves on the surface of a shallow, rapidly plane bed conditions. This occurs most readily in
flowing stream. In-phase undulations on the underlying, rapidly the swash zone of beaches where the run-up and
moving sand bed may produce undulating lamination with low backwash of waves produce the shallow, rapid flows
preservation potential.
Figure 10 Upper bedding surface of parallel laminated sand- Figure 11 Small, straight-crested wave ripples with symmet-
stone showing a clear parting lineation or primary current linea- rical, rather rounded crest lines. The straightness of the crest
tion. This lies parallel to the direction of the shallow, rapid flow lines and the tuning-fork junctions along the crests are most
that produced it. Middle Jurassic, Yorkshire Coast, England. characteristic of wave influence. Tana River Delta, Norway.
SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures 599
Figure 12 A wave-ripple bedding surface with clear, symmet- Figure 14 Heterolithic interlaminated sand and mud typical of
rical ripple profiles, underlain by a unit of ripple laminated sand many tidal settings where energy levels fluctuate between strong
showing bundled laminae and trough forms in a view normal to currents capable of transporting sand and still conditions where
the crest lines. Namurian, County Clare, Ireland. mud falls from suspension to drape the bed morphology. Lower
Cretaceous, Isle of Wight, England.
ripples and are less clearly asymmetrical. They are have superimposed smaller dunes, which leads to
commonly straight crested with the bifurcation of complex morphologies. The size of the largest forms
crest lines. means that they change shape only over long periods
The vigorous saltation leads to grains following of time and thus reflect a wind regime rather than a
asymmetrical trajectories: a steep uplift from the particular wind episode. Some are out of phase with
bed, and a lower angle approach and impact. The the current regime as a result of lag effects.
impact throws other grains into motion, but the extent Internally, dune sands show complex cross-bedding
of this depends on the inclination of the bed at the at scales up to many metres thick. The inclined
point of impact. If the bed slopes upwind, the impact laminae are commonly well defined and it may be
is steep and energy is dissipated strongly into grains possible to differentiate grainfall, grain-flow and
near the impact point, throwing some into saltation wind-ripple laminae. Wind-ripple laminae generally
and advancing others by a process of creep. If the occur in more gently inclined intervals, whilst grain
bed slopes downwind, energy is dissipated more flow is commonly close to the angle of rest (ca. 30 ).
gently and grains accumulate. Wind ripples reflect Aeolian dune cross-bedding is characterized by dis-
this behaviour and their wavelength scales to the cordances or bounding surfaces at several scales. In-
saltation path length and, hence, to the wind strength. dividual cross-bedded sets are separated from one
Where wind blows dry sand across a surface that is another by erosion surfaces, and internally they may
immobile, such as a rock surface, a gravel bed, or a also be punctuated by low-angle erosion surfaces
damp surface, wind ripples may be widely spaced and similar to the reactivation surfaces of aqueous cross-
may begin to cluster together into larger forms that beds. These record the complexity of the wind regime
are incipient dunes. Where the surface is damp, salt- whereby the lee sides of dunes become sites of erosion
ating grains may adhere on impact through surface during particular wind episodes. They may also result
tension and patterns of wind ‘adhesion ripples’ or from the migration of dunes over slipfaceless draas
‘adhesion warts’ may form. These irregular warty or the oblique migration of scour pits along the flanks
forms have steeper sides pointing upwind. All wind of dunes.
ripples have quite a low preservation potential, but
examples do occur in the rock record. Wind ripples
Structureless Sand and Sandstone
commonly produce subparallel lamination, ‘pin-
stripe’ lamination with inverse grading, and rare Not all sand and sandstone has visible internal lamin-
cross-lamination. It is an important component in ation. This happens for several reasons. First, it may
the cross-bedding produced by aeolian dunes. have been deposited in that way. The dumping of
Vigorous wind transport commonly leads to the sediment from suspension from, for example, a decel-
development of larger bedforms, ‘aeolian dunes’ (see erating current, may have been so rapid that there
Sedimentary Processes: Aeolian Processes), which was no time for the sand to be reworked into bed-
occur in isolation on hard substrates or as parts of forms and laminae. On the other hand, sand that
larger accumulations of sand. Dunes vary greatly in was initially laminated may have lost its lamination
both scale and shape, and it is quite common for through later remobilization, perhaps due to liquefac-
dunes of several scales to occur superimposed upon tion. Finally, lamination may be lost through the
one another. An important distinction is between activities of burrowing organisms, which have the
dunes with their own slipfaces and those without ability to totally homogenize laminated sediments
such surfaces. Slipfaces occur downwind of crest (see Trace Fossils).
lines where sand accumulates through grain flow
avalanches. Such processes commonly occur in con- Decelerating Flows and the
junction with grainfall, whereby grains are thrown
over the dune crest and accumulate on the lee side.
Bouma Sequence
Where grainfall dominates, the inclination of the sur- Many sandstone beds in interbedded sandstone–
faces may be lower and reworking by wind ripples mudstone successions show an internal vertical se-
may occur, particularly in the lower, more gently quence of lamination types that are diagnostic of
inclined parts of the dunes (‘plinths’). decelerating flows. The sandstones are sharp based
Where sand supply is insufficient for the substrate and may have erosional sole marks (see Sedimentary
to be fully covered, ‘barchan dunes’ or, more rarely, Processes: Erosional Sedimentary Structures). Above
‘linear (seif) dunes’ occur. In sand seas, a variety their bases, they show one or more intervals of five
of more complex forms occurs. These include trans- different lamination types that occur in a constant
verse dunes, barchanoid forms, and star-shaped relative order even though they are rarely all present
dunes. The largest forms, termed ‘draa’, commonly in the same bed. These five types are: A, structureless
SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES/Depositional Sedimentary Structures 601
Figure 15 A schematic profile through a turbidite sandstone bed showing a complete sequence of Bouma intervals and their
hydrodynamic interpretation.