Definitions of symptons, signs and syndromes.

Cough: In medical terminology, a cough occurs when something irritates the throat or air
passages, prompting nerves to transmit signals to the brain. Subsequently, the brain instructs
muscles in the chest and abdomen to expel air from the lungs in order to remove the irritant (1).

• Last week I had the flu, so I was experiencing a persistent cough.

Sneeze: A sneeze is described as a spontaneous, abrupt, forceful, and audible release of air
through both the mouth and nose, typically triggered by the irritation of delicate nerve endings
within the nasal lining. Factors such as allergies, exposure to cold drafts, or even intense light can
provoke sneezing. This reflex is elicited by irritation of the nasal mucous membrane or
occasionally by the stimulation of the eye by bright light (2).

• My cousin began to sneeze when she walked into the attic.

Expectoration: Expectoration involves the action of expelling material from the lungs,
bronchi, and trachea through coughing and spitting. Additionally, it encompasses the act of spitting
out saliva, mucus, and other substances from the upper air passages or digestive tract (3).

• Camilla coughed and spat out mucus from his chest, the doctor said it is a process called
expectoration.

Hemoptysis: Hemoptysis refers to the expulsion of blood or bloody mucus from the lungs
or airway. This condition can stem from various underlying issues such as infections, vascular
problems, tumors, trauma, bronchitis, foreign objects in the airway, drug abuse, or blood clotting
disorders (4)(5).

• Diego was alarmed when he found out that he was experiencing hemoptysis.

Dyspnea: Dyspnea, medically known as difficulty breathing or shortness of breath, is often

characterized by sensations such as chest tightness, air hunger, breathlessness, or a sense of
suffocation (6).

• When Taylor climbed the stairs quickly, she felt dyspnea.

 Wheezing: Wheezing is a squeaky sound you make when breathing, usually when it's hard
to breathe. It can happen when you breathe in (inspiration) or out (expiration) (7).

• The patient’s wheezing was quite severe, indicating a possible asthma attack.

Hoarseness: Hoarseness, or dysphonia, refers to changes in the pitch or quality of the

voice, which can make it sound breathy, raspy, strained, quieter, or lower in pitch (8)(9)(10).

• After shouting at the Karol G concert, she woke up with hoarseness in her voice.

Asthma: Asthma is a long-term lung condition where airways get blocked, causing
difficulty breathing, often with wheezing and coughing, and a feeling of tightness in the chest. It
happens because of inflammation and tightening of muscles around the airways, making breathing
tougher (11)(12).

• My friend was diagnosed with asthma, so she must carry an inhaler all the time to manage
her symptoms.

Bronchitis: Bronchitis is the swelling of the air passages from the nose to the lungs, which
include the trachea and the larger air tubes known as bronchi. It can be either short-term (acute) or
long-lasting (chronic) (13).

• The doctor identified her persistent cough as bronchitis.

Bronchiectasis: Bronchiectasis is a condition where the bronchial tubes, responsible for

air movement in and out of the lungs, are permanently harmed, enlarged, and scarred due to
ongoing infections. This leads to an excess buildup of mucus and bacteria, causing frequent
infections and breathing difficulties (14)(15).

• He suffered from a chronic cough due to bronchiectasis.

Emphysema: Emphysema is a long-term lung problem where the tiny air sacs in the lungs,
called alveoli, become unusually large, causing a loss of elasticity in the lungs. This happens
because the inner walls of these air sacs weaken and break, resulting in larger air spaces instead of
numerous smaller ones (16)(17).

• Years of smoking led to the development of emphysema.

 Atelectasis: Atelectasis occurs when all or part of the lungs collapse. This can happen
when the tiny air sacs within the lungs, known as alveoli, lose air (18)(19).

• An X-ray revealed atelectasis, indicating a partial collapse of his lung.

Pleuritis: Pleuritis, or pleurisy, is the inflammation of the pleura, the thin layers of tissue
separating the lungs from the chest wall. It can lead to intense chest pain that worsens with
breathing (20)(21).

• The sharp chest pain was diagnosed as pleuritis, an inflammation of the lung and chest
lining.

Cystic Fibrosis: Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease that often begins during
infancy or early childhood and progresses over time. It's caused by a genetic defect affecting a
specific protein in the body. Individuals with CF inherit a faulty protein that impacts the cells,
tissues, and glands responsible for producing mucus and sweat (22).

• She was born with cystic fibrosis, a grave genetic disorder.

Pneumothorax: Pneumothorax happens when air seeps into the area between your lung
and chest wall, exerting pressure on the lung's exterior and causing it to collapse, either entirely or
partially (23).

• A pneumothorax, or collapsed lung, resulted from the car accident.

Hemothorax: Hemothorax is when blood gathers between your chest wall and lungs,
known as the pleural cavity. As the blood accumulates, it can exert pressure on the lung, potentially
leading to its collapse (24).

• The chest injury caused a hemothorax, with blood accumulating between his chest wall
and lung.

Bronchoscopy: Bronchoscopy is a medical procedure conducted by a pulmonologist to

inspect the lungs and airways. It involves inserting a slender tube called a bronchoscope through
the nose or mouth, down the throat, and into the lungs for examination (25).

• A bronchoscopy was performed by the doctor to examine his air passages.

 Spirometry: Spirometry is a routine office test employed to evaluate lung function by
measuring the amount of air you breathe in, the amount you breathe out, and how rapidly you
exhale (26).

• They used spirometry to measure how much air his lungs could hold.

Pleurocentesis: Also known as thoracentesis, is a medical procedure used to extract or

analyze excessive fluid from the area between the lungs and the chest wall, known as the pleural
space (27).

• The doctor drained fluid around his lungs with a procedure called a pleurocentesis.

Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious illness triggered by Mycobacterium

tuberculosis (Mtb) bacteria. While it primarily impacts the lungs, it can also affect various organs
like bones, brain, and spine. Transmission occurs through airborne particles released when infected
individuals cough, sneeze, or spit (28)(29)(30).

• After coughing a lot and losing weight, they found out he had tuberculosis.

Pneumoconiosis: Pneumoconiosis refers to a collection of lung conditions resulting from

the inhalation of specific types of dust particles that harm the lungs (31).

• Working in the coal mine gave him a lung disease called pneumoconiosis.

Pulmonary edema: Pulmonary edema occurs when fluid collects in the lung tissues,
resulting in symptoms such as difficulty breathing, wheezing, and coughing up blood (32).

• His heart failing caused fluid to build up in his lungs, which they called pulmonary edema.

Respiratory failure: Respiratory failure is a condition where the respiratory system cannot
adequately perform its functions of exchanging gases, including oxygenation and carbon dioxide
elimination. It can be categorized as either hypoxemic or hypercapnic (33).

• His condition deteriorated, culminating in respiratory failure.

Laryngitis: Laryngitis is the inflammation or infection of the voice box (larynx) and its
vocal cords. It typically arises from overuse, irritation, or infection of these vocal cords. Swelling
in the cords distorts the sounds passing through them, resulting in a weak or hoarse voice (34)(35).
 • He got laryngitis from that viral infection, which made it hurt to talk.

Pharyngitis: Pharyngitis, often referred to as a sore throat, is the inflammation of the

pharynx, leading to throat discomfort. This condition is typically caused by viral or bacterial
infections, such as the common cold, flu, or Streptococcus bacteria (strep throat) (36)(37).

• They diagnosed his sore throat as pharyngitis.

Tonsillitis: Tonsillitis is the inflammation or infection of the tonsils, which are lymph gland
tissue masses situated on each side at the back of the throat. It's contagious and can be caused by
viruses or bacteria (38).

• They had to take out his tonsils because he kept getting tonsillitis.

Sinusitis: Sinusitis is the inflammation or swelling of the tissue lining the sinuses, which
are air-filled cavities inside the face. Irritation from bacterial or viral infections, as well as allergies,
can lead to blockages in the sinuses, causing them to fill with fluid (39)(40).

• Facial pain and congestion were symptomatic of sinusitis.

Rhinitis: Rhinitis refers to the inflammation or irritation of the mucous membrane lining
the nose. It presents symptoms like nasal congestion, sneezing, and itching. Allergies, infections,
or other health issues can trigger rhinitis (41).

• Constant sneezing and a runny nose were signs of rhinitis.

Rhinoscopy: Rhinoscopy is a medical procedure employed to examine the nasal passages.

It encompasses two main types: Anterior rhinoscopy, which examines the front part of the nose
using a nasal speculum and a headlight, and Posterior rhinoscopy, which inspects the structures
behind the nose (42)(43).

• A rhinoscopy was performed by the doctor to examine the interior of her nasal passages.
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