School of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

School Year 2020-2021

Kinematics of
a Particle
Lecture 2 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies
Week 4-5

Objective At the end of this module, the student must know the basic
principle of kinematics as well as be able to apply it in solving
problems theoretically.

Content In this module, the following will be discussed:

• General Curvilinear Motion
• Rectangular Coordinates
• Normal and Tangential Coordinates
• Free Fall and Projectile Motion

Activities Within this module, students will perform graded activities.

Quiz, class discussions, problem set computations, and recitations
are to be expected.

References L.G. Kraige and J.L. Meriam, (2012). Engineering Mechanics

Volume 2 Dynamics 7th Edition. Massachusetts, USA: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
R.C. Hibbeler, (2010). Engineering Mechanics Statics & Dynamics
Twelfth Edition. New Jersey, USA: Pearson Prentice Hall

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

Lecture 2 and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department
School Year 2020-2021

I. GENERAL CURVILINEAR MOTION

Curvilinear motion occurs when a particle moves along a curved path. Since this path is often described
in three dimensions, vector analysis will be used to formulate the particle’s position, velocity, and
acceleration. In this section the general aspects of curvilinear motion are discussed.
Position. Consider a particle located at a point on a space curve defined
by the path function s(t). The position of the particle, measured from a
fixed point O, will be designated by the position vector r = r(t). Notice
that both the magnitude and direction of this vector will change as the
particle moves along the curve.

Displacement. Suppose that during a small time interval Δt the particle

moves a distance Δs along the curve to a new position defined by r’ = r
+ Δr. The displacement Δr represents the change in the particle’s
position and is determined by vector subtraction; i.e., Δr = r’ – r.

Velocity. During the time Δt, the average velocity of

the particle is:

The instantaneous velocity is:

Acceleration. If the particle has a velocity v at time t and a velocity v’ =

v + Δv at t + Δt, then the average acceleration of the particle during the
time interval is

The instantaneous acceleration is:

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

Lecture 2 and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department
School Year 2020-2021

II. RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

This system of coordinates is particularly useful for describing motions where the x- and y-components
of acceleration are independently generated or determined. The resulting curvilinear motion is then
obtained by a vector combination of the x- and y-components of the position vector, the velocity, and
the acceleration.
Figure 2.1(a) shows the path of particle A, which moves in a fixed rectangular reference frame. Letting
i, j, and k be the base vectors (unit vectors), the position vector of the particle can be written as
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧

where x, y, and z are the time-dependent rectangular coordinates of the particle.

Figure 2.1

Applying the definition of velocity (first derivative of position) , and the chain rule of differentiation, we
obtain:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

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𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥′𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦′𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧′𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Figure 2.2

Because the coordinate axes are fixed, the base vectors remain constant, so that di/dt = dj/dt = dk/dt = 0.
Therefore, the velocity becomes:

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘

Where rectangular components are:

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥′ 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦′ 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧′

Figure 2.3

Similarly, the definition of acceleration (first derivative of velocity), yields:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 = = (𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣𝑣 ′𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣𝑣 ′𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑣𝑣 ′𝑘𝑘
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦𝑗𝑗 + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘

Figure 2.4

Where rectangular components are:

𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥′ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦′ 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 = 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧′

 PLANE MOTION
Plane motion occurs often enough in engineering applications to warrant special
attention. Figure 2.2 shows the path of a particle A that moves in the xy-plane. To obtain

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

Lecture 2 and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department
School Year 2020-2021

the two-dimensional rectangular components of r, v, and a, we set z = 0 in the equations

highlighted above. The results are:

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦𝑗𝑗

Figure 2.3 shows the rectangular components of the velocity. The angle θ, which defines
the direction of v, can be obtained from:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = =
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Because the slope of the path is also equal to dy/dx, we see that v is tangent to the path.

The rectangular components of a are shown in Figure 2.4. The angle β that defines the
direction of a can be computed from:

𝑑𝑑2𝑦𝑦⁄
𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = =
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥 ⁄
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2

Because β is generally not equal to θ, the acceleration is not necessarily tangent to the
path.

 RECTILINEAR MOTION

If the path of a particle is a straight line, the motion is called rectilinear. An example of
rectilinear motion, in which the particle A moves along the x-axis, is depicted if we set
both y and z to 0, obtaining:

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

Lecture 2 and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department
School Year 2020-2021

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖

III. NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL COMPONENTS
When the path along which a particle travels is known, then it is often convenient to describe the motion
using n and t coordinate axes which act normal and tangent to the path, respectively, and at the instant
considered have their origin located at the particle.

 Position
Consider the particle shown in Figure 2.5, which moves in a
plane along a fixed curve, such that at a given instant it is at
position s, measured from point O. We will now consider a
coordinate system that has its origin at a fixed point on the
curve, and at the instant considered this origin happens to
coincide with the location of the particle. The t axis is tangent to
the curve at the point and is positive in the direction of
increasing s. We will designate this positive direction with the
unit vector ut .
Figure 2.5

A unique choice for the normal axis can be made by noting that
geometrically, the curve is constructed from a series of
differential arc segments ds, Figure 2.6. Each segment ds is
formed from the arc of an associated circle having a radius of
curvature ρ (rho) center of curvature O’. The normal axis n is

Figure 2.6

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

Lecture 2 and Architecture

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perpendicular to the t axis with its positive sense directed toward the center of curvature O’, as shown in
Figure 2.5. This positive direction, which is always on the concave side of the curve, will be designated
by the unit vector un . The plane which contains the n and t axes is referred to as the embracing or
osculating plane, and in this case it is fixed in the plane of motion.

 Velocity
Since the particle moves, s is a function of time. the particle’s
velocity v has a direction that is always tangent to the path, and a
magnitude that is determined by taking the time derivative of the
path function s = s (t), e.g. υ = ds/dt . Hence

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝒕𝒕
Where

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑠𝑠′
Figure 2.7

 Acceleration
The acceleration of the particle is the time rate of change of the
velocity. Thus,

𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉′ = 𝑣𝑣′𝒖𝒖𝒕𝒕 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝒕𝒕′

Figure 2.8
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡𝒖𝒖𝒕𝒕 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝒖𝒖𝒏𝒏

Where:

𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝒗𝒗′ 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

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And

𝑣𝑣2 Figure 2.9

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 =
𝜌𝜌

These two mutually perpendicular components are shown in

Figure 2.10. Therefore, the magnitude of acceleration is the
positive value of:

𝑎𝑎 = √𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛2

Figure 2.10

 Procedure for Analysis

∂ Coordinate System

1. Provided the path of the particle is known, we can establish a set of n and t coordinates
having a fixed origin, which is coincident with the particle at the instant considered.

2. The positive tangent axis acts in the direction of motion and the positive normal axis is
directed toward the path’s center of curvature.

∂ Velocity

3. The particle’s velocity is always tangent to the path.

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

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4. The magnitude of velocity is found from the time derivative of the path function.

∂ Tangential Acceleration

5. The tangential component of acceleration is the result of the time rate of change in the
magnitude of velocity. This component acts in the positive s direction if the particle’s
speed is increasing or in the opposite direction if the speed is decreasing.

6. The relations between a, v, t, and s are the same as for rectilinear motion, namely,

𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝒗𝒗′ 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

7. If 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 is constant, the above equations, when integrated, yield:

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

1
𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜 = ∆𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2
2

𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜2 + 2𝑎𝑎∆𝑠𝑠

∂ Normal Acceleration

8. The normal component of acceleration is the result of the time rate of change in the
direction of the velocity. This component is always directed toward the center of
curvature of the path, i.e., along the positive n axis.

9. The magnitude of this component is determined from:

𝑣𝑣2
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 =
𝜌𝜌

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

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10. If the path is expressed as y = f(x) the radius of curvature at any point on the path is
determined from the equation:

3
[1 + (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)2]2
𝜌𝜌 =
|𝑑𝑑2𝑦𝑦⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2|

IV. FREE FALL AND PROJECTILE MOTION

The free-flight motion of a projectile is often studied in terms of its rectangular components. When air
resistance is neglected, the only force acting on the projectile is its weight, which causes the projectile
to have a constant downward
acceleration of approximately a = g
= 9.81 m/s2 or g = 32.2 ft/s2.

Each picture in this

sequence is taken after the same
time interval. The red ball falls
from rest, whereas the yellow ball is
given a horizontal velocity when
released. Both balls accelerate
downward at the same rate, and so
they remain at the same elevation
at any instant. This acceleration
causes the difference in elevation
between the balls to increase
between successive photos. Also,
note the horizontal distance
between successive photos of the
yellow ball is constant since the
velocity in the horizontal
direction remains constant.

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

Lecture 2 and Architecture

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School Year 2020-2021

To illustrate the kinematic analysis, consider a projectile launched at point (xo,yo), with an initial
velocity of having components (vo)x and (vo)y

Things to remember:

 No acceleration in the horizontal direction.

 Velocity in the horizontal direction, (vo)x is the same all throughout the motion. Therefore, (vo)x
= vx

 Acceleration in the vertical direction is constant and is equal to the acceleration due to gravity, g.
Therefore, a = g
Formulas to be used:

The three general formulas for constant acceleration:

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
1
𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜 = ∆𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2
2
𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜2 + 2𝑎𝑎∆𝑠𝑠

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies School of Engineering

Lecture 2 and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department
School Year 2020-2021

To transform this to the y-axis direction or the vertical direction, the formulas become:

𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

1
∆𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔2
2
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2 + 2𝑔𝑔∆𝑦𝑦

Note: ∆y = vertical displacement from original position

Since horizontal velocity is same all throughout the motion, there is no acceleration. Therefore:

𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 =
𝑡𝑡

Note: The distance x in the formula is in partner with time or varies directly with time. Therefore, if you
use the total distance traveled horizontally, you will get the total time for the projectile to travel.

Free Fall and Projectile Motion Sign Conventions:

I. II.

III. IV.

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