Conic Sections 1 Mixed Exercise 2

1 a A general parabola with equation 1 c

y 2 = 4ax has focus (a, 0)
12
Here y = 12 x ⇒ 4a = 12 ⇒ a = =3
2

4
So the focus S, has coordinates (3, 0)

b Line l: y = 3x (1)

Parabola C: y 2 = 12 x (2)
1
Area ∆OPS = (3)(4)
Substituting (1) into (2) gives 2
1
= (12)
(3 x)2 = 12 x 2
9 x 2 = 12 x =6
9 x 2 − 12 x = 0
Therefore, Area ∆OPS = 6
3 x(3 x − 4) = 0

x = 0 or
4 2 a (k, 6) lies on y 2 = 24 x gives
3 36 3
62 = 24k ⇒ 36 = 24k ⇒ =k ⇒k =
24 2
Substituting these values of x back into
equation (1): b A general parabola with equation
y 2 = 4ax has focus (a, 0)
x = 0 ⇒ y = 3(0) = 0 ⇒ (0, 0)
24
Here y = 24 x ⇒ 4a = 24 ⇒ a = =6
2
4  4 4 
x= ⇒ y = 3  = 4 ⇒  , 4  4
3  3 3  So the focus S has coordinates (6, 0)
As y > 0 at P, the coordinates of P are c The points P and S have coordinates
4  3 
 ,4 P  ,6  and S(6, 0)
3  2 
0 − 6 −6 12 4
ml = m PS = = = − = −
6 − 32 9
2 9 3
l is the line
4
y − 0 = − ( x − 6)
3
3 y = −4( x − 6)
3 y = −4 x + 24
4 x + 3 y − 24 = 0

Therefore an equation for l is

4 x + 3 y − 24 = 0

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2 d From part b, as a = 6, an equation for the 3 a y = 24t
directrix is x + 6 = 0 or x = −6 y
So t = (1)
24
Substituting x = −6 into l gives:
4(−6) + 3 y − 24 = 0
x = 12t 2 (2)
3 y = 24 + 24
3 y = 48 Substitute (1) into (2):
2
y = 16  y 
x = 12  
 24 
Hence the coordinates of D are ( −6, 16) 12 y 2 y2
So x = simplifies to x =
576 48

Hence, the Cartesian equation of C is

y 2 = 48 x

b A general parabola with equation

y 2 = 4ax has directrix x + a = 0
Here y 2 = 48x ⇒ 4a = 48,
48
giving a = = 12
4
Using the sketch and the regions as labelled Therefore and equation of the directrix of
you can find the area required. C is x + 12 = 0 or x = −12
Let Area ∆OPD = Area (R)

Method 1

Area ( R) = Area ( R + S + T ) − Area (S ) − Area (T )

1  15  1 13
= (16 + 6)   − (6)(16) −   (6)
2  2 2 22
1  15  3
= (22)   − 3(16) −   (3)
2  2 2
 165  9
=  − 48 −  
 2  2
= 30

Therefore, Area ∆OPD = 30

Method 2

Area ( R ) = Area ( R + S + T + U ) − Area ( S )

− Area(TU )
1 1 1
= (12)(16) − (6)(16) − (6)(6)
2 2 2
= 96 − 48 − 18
= 30
Therefore, Area ∆OPD = 30

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3 c By part b, since a = 12, the coordinates of 3 d
S, the focus of C, are (12, 0)

Hence, drawing a sketch gives,

Let Area ∆OSP = Area(A)

Area( A) = Area( A + B ) − Area( B )

1 1
= (16)(16 3) − (4)(16 3)
2 2
= 128 3 − 32 3
= 96 3
The (shortest) distance of P to the line
x = −16 is the distance XP. Area ∆OSP = 96 3 and k = 96
The distance SP = 28
4 a Line: 4x − 9 y + 32 = 0 (1)
The focus directrix property implies that
SP = XP = 28 Parabola C: y 2 = 16 x ( 2)

The directrix has equation x = − 12 Multiplying (1) by 4 gives

Therefore the x-coordinate of P is
16 x − 36 y + 128 = 0 (3)
x = 28 − 12 = 16

Substituting (2) into (3) gives

When x = 16, y 2 = 48(16) ⇒ y 2 = 3(16) 2
y 2 − 36 y + 128 = 0
As y > 0 then y = 3(16) 2 = 16 3
( y − 4)( y − 32) = 0
Hence the exact coordinates of P are y = 4, 32
(16, 16 3)
When y = 4,
16
42 = 16 x ⇒ x = =1
16
⇒ (1, 4).

When y = 32,
1024
32 2 = 16 x ⇒ x = = 64
16
⇒ (64, 32)

The coordinates of P and Q are (1, 4) and

(64, 32)

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4 b y 2 = 16 x 4 d The normals to C at P and Q are
dy dy 8 x + 2 y − 9 = 0 and 4 x + y − 288 = 0
2y = 16 so =
dx dx y
dy 8 1 N1 : x + 2 y − 9 = 0 (1)
At (4t 2 ,8t ) , = = N 2 : 4 x + y − 288 = 0 (2)
dx 8t t
1
Gradient of tangent at (4t 2 ,8t ) is mT = Multiplying (2) by 2 gives
t
So gradient of normal at
2 × (2) : 8 x + 2 y − 576 = 0 (3)
−1
(4t 2 ,8t ) is mN = 1 = −t (3) − (1) : 7 x − 567 = 0
(t)
Normal is the line 7 x = 567
y − 8t = −t ( x − 4t 2 ) 567
x== 81
7
y − 8t = −tx + 4t 3
(2) ⇒ y = 288 − 4(81) = 288 − 324 = −36
xt + y = 4t 3 + 8t
The coordinates of R are (81, − 36)
The equation of the normal to C at
The equation of C is y 2 = 16 x
(4t 2 ,8t ) is xt + y = 4t 3 + 8t

c From part a When y = −36, LHS = y 2 = (−36)2 = 1296

1
P has coordinates (1, 4) when t = and When x = 81, RHS = 16 x = 16(81) = 1296
2
Q has coordinates (64, 32) when t = 4
As LHS = RHS, R lies on C
Using equation for the normal found in
e The coordinates of O and R are
1
part c (with t = ), normal at P is (0, 0) and (81, − 36) respectively.
2
3 OR = (81 − 0) 2 + ( −36 − 0) 2
1 1 1
x   + y = 4  + 8 
2 2 2 = 812 + 362
1 1
x+ y = +4 = 7857
2 2 = (81)(97)
x + 2y = 1+ 8
= 81 97
x + 2y − 9 = 0
= 9 97
Using equation for the normal found in Hence the exact distance OR is
part c (with t = 4 ), normal at Q is 9 97 and k = 9

x (4) + y = 4(4)3 + 8(4) 5 The focus and directrix of a parabola with

4 x + y = 256 + 32 equation y 2 = 4ax, are (a,0)and x + a = 0
4 x + y − 288 = 0 respectively.

a Hence the coordinates of the focus of C

are (a, 0)

As Q lies on the x-axis then y = 0 , and

since Q lies on directrix then x = − a so
Q has coordinates ( − a, 0)

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5 b y 2 = 4ax 6 a H : xy = c 2 ⇒ y = c 2 x −1
dy dy 2a dy c2
2 y = 4a so = = − c 2 x −2 = − 2
dx dx y dx x
dy 2a 1
At P(at 2 , 2at ) , = =
dx 2at t  c  dy c2 c2 1
At P  ct ,  , =− = − =− 2
Tangent is:  t  dx (ct ) 2 2 2
ct t
1
y − 2at = ( x − at 2 )
t Gradient of tangent at
ty − 2at = x − at 2
2
 c 1
P  ct ,  is mT = − 2
ty = x − at 2 + 2at 2  t t
ty = x + at 2
So gradient of normal at
 c −1
The equation of the tangent to C at P is P  ct,  is mT = = t2
ty = x + at 2 and passes through Q  t ( − t2 )
1

Sub coordinates of Q into the equation for Normal is the line:

the tangent: c
y − = t 2 ( x − ct )
t (0) = −a + at 2 t
0 = −a + at 2 ty − c = t 3 ( x − ct )

0 = −1 + t 2 ty − c = t 3 x − ct 4

t 2 −1 = 0 ct 4 − c = t 3 x − ty
(t − 1)(t + 1) = 0 t 3 x − ty = ct 4 − c
t = 1, − 1 t 3 x − ty = c(t 4 − 1)

The equation of the normal to H at

When t = 1, x = a(1)2 = a, y = 2a(1) = 2a
P is t 3 x − ty = c(t 4 − 1)
⇒ ( a , 2a )
b Comparing xy = 36 with xy = c 2 gives
When t = −1,
c = 6 and comparing the point (12,3) with
x = a( −1)2 = a, y = 2a(−1) = −2a
 c
⇒ (a, − 2a )  ct ,  gives
 t
ct = 12 ⇒ (6)t = 12 ⇒ t = 2.
The possible coordinates of P are
(a, 2a ) or ( a, − 2a ) So n is the line
(2)3 x − (2) y = 6((−2)4 − 1)
8 x − 2 y = 6(15)
8 x − 2 y = 90
4 x − y = 45

An equation for n is 4 x − y = 45

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6 c Normal n: 4 x − y = 45 (1) 7 H : xy = 9 ⇒ y = 9 x −1
dy 9
Hyperbola J: xy = 36 (2) = −9 x −2 = − 2
dx x
Rearranging (2) gives Gradients of tangent lines l1 and l2 are
36 1
y= both − implies
x 4
9 1
Substituting this equation into (1) gives − 2 =−
x 4
 36 
4 x −   = 45 ⇒ x = 36
2

 x 
4 x − 36 = 45 x
2 ⇒ x = ± 36
⇒ x = ±6
4 x 2 − 45 x − 36 = 0
( x − 12)(4 x + 3) = 0 9 3
When x = 6, 6 y = 9 ⇒ y = =
3 6 2
x = 12, −
4  3
Let l1 be the tangent to C at  6, 
 2
You already known that n passes through
the point where x = 12
9 3
3 When x = −6, −6 y = 9 ⇒ y = =−
So at Q, x = − −6 2
4
 3
3 36 Let l2 be the tangent to C at  −6, − 
Substituting x = − into y = gives  2
4 x
36  4
y = 3 = −36   = −48  3 1
(− 4 )  3 At  6,  , mT = − and l1 is the line
 2 4
3 1
Hence the coordinates of Q are y − = − (x − 6)
2 4
 3 
 − , − 48  4 y − 6 = −1 (x − 6)
 4 
4y − 6 = −x + 6
x + 4 y − 12 = 0

 3 1
At  −6, −  , mT = − and l2 is the line
 2 4
3 1
y + = − (x + 6)
2 4
4 y + 6 = −1 (x + 6)
4 y + 6 = −x − 6
x + 4 y + 12 = 0

The equation for l1 and l2 are

x + 4 y − 12 = 0 and
x + 4 y + 12 = 0

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8 a H : xy = c 2 ⇒ y = c 2 x −1 9 a y 2 = 4ax
dy c2 dy dy 2a
= − c 2 x −2 = − 2 2 y = 4a so =
dx x dx dx y
dy 2a 1
At P (4at 2 , 4at ) , = =
 c  dy c2 c2 1 dx 4at 2t
At P  ct ,  , = − 2 = − 2 2 = − 2
 t  dx (ct ) ct t Tangent is:
So tangent at P has equation: 1
y − 4at = ( x − 4at 2 )
c 1 2t
y − = − 2 ( x − ct )
t t 2ty − 8at = x − 4at 2
2

t y − ct = −( x − ct )
2
2ty = x − 4at 2 + 8at 2
t 2 y − ct = − x + ct 2ty = x + 4at 2
x + t 2 y = 2ct
The equation of the tangent to C at
Tangent cuts x-axis P (4at 2 , 4at ) is 2ty = x + 4at 2
⇒ y = 0 ⇒ x + t 2 (0) = 2ct ⇒ x = 2ct
b P has mapped onto Q by replacing t by
Tangent cuts y-axis 2t , i.e. t → 2t
2ct 2c
⇒ x = 0 ⇒ 0 + t 2 y = 2ct ⇒ y = = So, P (4at 2 , 4at ) →
t2 t
Q(16at 2 ,8at ) = Q(4a(2t ) 2 , 4a(2t ))
So the coordinates are
 2c  At Q, tangent becomes
X (2ct ,0) and Y  0, 
 t  2(2t ) y = x + 4a (2t ) 2
4ty = x + 4a (4t 2 )
b
4ty = x + 16at 2

The equation of the tangent to C at

Q (16at 2 ,8at ) is 4ty = x + 16at 2

c T : 2ty = x + 4at 2 (1)

P

TQ : 4ty = x + 16at 2 (2)

Using the sketch, (2) – (1) gives 2ty = 12at 2

 2c  4c t
2
1 12at 2
Area ∆ OXY = (2ct )   = = 2c 2 Hence, y = = 6at
2  t  2t 2t
Now ∆ OXY = 144 Substituting this into (1) gives,
so 2c 2 = 144 ⇒ c2 = 72 2t (6at ) = x + 4at 2
As c > 0, c = 72 = 36 2 = 6 2 12at 2 = x + 4at 2
12at 2 − 4at 2 = x
Hence the exact value of c is 6 2 Hence, x = 8at 2

The coordinates of R are (8at 2 , 6at ).

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10 a H : xy = c 2 ⇒ y = c 2 x −1 10 c Substituting x = 2 a into the curve H gives
dy c2 c2
= −c 2 x−2 = − 2 (2a ) y = c 2 ⇒ y =
dx x 2a
c2
The y-coordinate of Q is y =
 c  dy c2 c2 1 2a
At  ct ,  , = − 2
=− 2 2 =− 2
 t  dx (ct ) ct t
d The coordinates of O and Q are
Tangent is the line:
c 1  c2 
y − = − 2 ( x − ct ) (0, 0) and  2a, 
t t  2a 
t y − ct = −( x − ct )
2

t 2 y − ct = − x + ct −0
c2
c2 c2
mOQ = 2a
= =
2a − 0 2a (2a ) 4a 2
x + t y = 2ct
2

c2
OQ : y − 0 = 2 ( x − 0)
An equation a tangent to H at 4a
2
 c c x
OQ : y = 2 (1)
 ct ,  , is x + t y = 2ct
2

 t  4a

b Let T be the tangent to H at P. c2 x

The equation of OQ is y =
4a 2
T passes through X (2a,0), so substitute
x = 2a, y = 0 into equation of a general 10 e The coordinates of X and P are
tangent (found in part a) to find the value  c2 
of t for T: (2a, 0) and  a , 
 a
(2a) + t 2 (0) = 2ct
2a −0
c2 c 2
c2
=t mXP = a
= a =− 2
2c a − 2a − a a
a
t= c 2

c XP : y − 0 = − 2 ( x − 2a)
a
2
Now P lies on H, so its coordinates are of c
XP : y = − 2 ( x − 2a ) (2)
 c a a
the form  ct ,  where t =
 t c
Equating (1) and (2) gives
a  c
Substituting t = into  ct ,  gives c2 x c2
c  t = − ( x − 2a )
4a 2 a2
x
 a c   c2  = −( x − 2 a )
P  c   , a  = P  a,  4
  c  (c)  a  x
= − x + 2a
 c2  4
Hence P has coordinates P  a , 
 a 5x
= 2a
4
4(2a) 8a
x= =
5 5
8a
The x-coordinate of R is
5

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 c2 11 a 2 x − y − 12 = 0 , so y = 2 x − 12
10 f From part d, mOQ = 2 and
4a Solving y = 2 x − 12 and y 2 = 12 x
c2 simultaneously gives:
from part e, mXP = − 2
( 2 x − 12 ) = 12 x
2
a
4 x 2 − 48 x + 144 = 12 x
OQ is perpendicular to XP, so
4 x 2 − 60 x + 144 = 0
−1 = mOQ × mXP
x 2 − 15 x + 36 = 0
 c 2   c2 
−1 =  2   − 2  ( x − 3)( x − 12) = 0
 4a   a 
−c4 So x = 3 ⇒ y 2 = 36 ⇒ y = −6 (point P)
−1 = 4
4a and x = 12 ⇒ y 2 = 144 ⇒ y = 12
−4a = −c 4
4 (point Q)
c 4 = 4a 4 Therefore the coordinates are
(c ) = 4a P ( 3, −6 ) and Q (12,12 )
2 2 4

c 2 = 4a 4 = 4 a 4 = 2a 2
b The shaded area R is given by
12
Hence, c 2 = 2a 2 , as required.
12 x 2 dx − (12 − 3) × 6
1

∫−
3
8a
g From part e, At R , x =  2 12 x 2 
3 12
5 = −  − 54
Substituting  3 
3
8a c2 x
x= into y = 2 gives,
( ) ( 3)
3 3
5 4a 2 12 12 2 12
=− + − 54
c 2  8a  8ac 2 3 3
y= 2 =
4a  5  20a 2
288 36
and using the c 2 = 2a 2 from f gives, =− + − 54
3 3
8a (2a 2 ) 16a 3 4a 288 36 162
y= = = = − −
20a 2 20a 2 5 3 3 3
90
4a = = 30
The y-coordinate of R is 3
5

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12 a y 2 = 36 x The coordinates of Q are therefore
dy Q (81,54 )
2y = 36
dx
dy 18 d The shaded region is given by
= 81
dx y 1
∫0 2 dx − 2 × (81 − 27 ) × 54
1
6 x
dy 18 1
At P, y = 18 p ⇒ = =
dx 18 p p 81
= 4 x 2  − 1458
3

The gradient of the normal at P is  0

therefore − p = 4 × 9 − 1458
3

The equation for l is therefore = 2916 − 1458

y − 18 p = 1458
= −p
x − 9 p2
y − 18 p = − p ( x − 9 p 2 )
13 a The gradient of PQ is given by
2aq − 2ap 2 q − 2 p
y − 18 p = − px + 9 p 3 =
aq 2 − ap 2 q 2 − p 2
y + px = 18 p + 9 p 3 (1) 2(q − p) 2
= =
( q + p )( q − p ) p + q
b At T ( 27,0 ) ,
The equation of the line joining P and Q
0 + 27 p = 18 p + 9 p3 is therefore:
9 p3 − 9 p = 0 y − 2ap 2
=
x − ap 2
p+q
9 p ( p 2 − 1) = 0
( p + q ) ( y − 2 ap ) = 2 ( x − ap 2 )
9 p ( p + 1)( p − 1) = 0
( p + q ) y − 2ap ( p + q ) = 2 x − 2ap2
p = 0 ⇒ P ( 0,0 ) ( p + q ) y − 2ap 2 − 2apq = 2 x − 2ap 2
p = 1 ⇒ P ( 9,18) ( p + q ) y − 2apq = 2 x
p = −1 ⇒ P ( 9, −18) ( p + q ) y − 2 x = 2apq

12 c l has positive gradient, so P has b The line PQ passes through the focus
coordinates P ( 9, −18) S ( a ,0) , so 0 − 2a = 2apq
So p = −1
Therefore pq = −1
Substituting p = −1 into equation (1)
gives
y − x = −18 − 9
y = x − 27

Now solving y = x − 27 and y 2 = 36 x

simultaneously:
( x − 27 )
2
= 36 x
x 2 − 54 x + 729 = 36 x
x 2 − 90 x + 729 = 0
( x − 9 )( x − 81) = 0
x ≠ 9 (since x = 9 at P), so x = 81 and
y = 81 − 27 = 54

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13 c y 2 = 4ax  c
14 a Suppose P  ct ,  is a general point on
2y
dy
= 4a
 t
dx c2
dy 4a 2a
the hyperbola xy = c2 , or y =
= = x
dx 2 y y dy −c
dy d t 2 1
= dx = t = − 2
dy 2a 1 dx d t c t
At P, y = 2ap ⇒ = =
dx 2ap p The tangent to the hyperbola at P has
The equation of the tangent at point P is equation
y − 2ap 1 y − ct 1
therefore = , =− 2
x − ap 2 p x − ct t
x − ap 2 t ( y − t ) = − ( x − ct )
2 c
or y = + 2ap (1)
p t 2 y − ct = − x + ct
x + t 2 y = 2ct
Similarly, the equation of the tangent at At A , y = 0 , so x = 2ct and the
point Q is
coordinates of A are A ( 2ct ,0 )
x − aq 2
y= + 2aq (2) 2c
q At B , x = 0 , so t 2 y = 2ct and y =
t
Solving equations (1) and (2) The coordinates of B are therefore
simultaneously: B ( 0, 2tc )
2
c 
AP 2 = ( ct − 2ct ) +  − 0  = c 2t 2 + ct2
2 2

x − aq 2
x − ap 2
+ 2aq = + 2ap t 
q p 2
 c 2c  c2
p ( x − aq ) + 2apq = q ( x − ap ) + 2ap q BP 2 = ( ct − 0 ) +  −  = c 2 t 2 + 2
2
2 2 2 2
t t  t
px − apq 2 = qx − aqp 2 + 2ap 2 q − 2apq 2 AP 2 = BP 2 , so AP = BP
px − qx = apq 2 − aqp 2 + 2ap 2 q − 2apq 2
px − qx = ap 2 q − apq 2 b The area of triangle AOB is
1 2c
x ( p − q ) = apq ( p − q ) × 2ct × = 2c 2 ,
2 t
p ≠ q , so x = apq so the area is constant as it does not
depend on t.
Substituting in equation (1):
apq − ap 2
y= + 2ap
p
y = aq − ap + 2ap
y = ap + aq
y = a ( p + q)

The point of intersection is therefore

( apq, a ( p + q ) )
d Since pq = −1, x = apq = −a, which is
the equation of the directrix.

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15 a The gradient of PQ is given by px − qx = apq 2 − aqp 2 + 2ap 2 q − 2apq 2
px − qx = ap 2 q − apq 2
2aq − 2ap 2 q − 2 p
= x ( p − q ) = apq ( p − q )
aq 2 − ap 2 q 2 − p 2
2(q − p) p ≠ q , so x = apq
2
= =
( q + p )( q − p ) p + q Since pq = −1 , x = apq = −a ,
The equation of the line joining P and Q is which is the equation of the directrix.
therefore:
y − 2ap 2
= Therefore the two tangents meet
x − ap 2
p+q on the directrix.
( p + q ) ( y − 2 ap ) = 2 ( x − ap 2 )
15 b The midpoint M of PQ has coordinate
( p + q ) y − 2ap ( p + q ) = 2 x − 2ap2  ap 2 + aq 2 2 ap + 2 aq 
( p + q ) y − 2ap 2 − 2apq = 2 x − 2ap 2 M
 2
,
2


( p + q ) y − 2apq = 2 x  a ( p2 + q2 ) 
=M , a ( p + q) 
( p + q ) y − 2 x = 2apq  2 
 
The line PQ passes through the focus
Now y 2 = a 2 ( p + q )
2

S ( a ,0) , so 0 − 2a = 2apq
and
Therefore pq = −1
 a ( p 2 + q2 ) 
y 2 = 4ax 2a ( x − a ) = 2a  −a
 2 
dy  
2y = 4a
dx  p 2 + q2 
= 2a 2  − 1
dy 4a 2 a  2 
= =
dx 2 y y  ( p + q ) 2 − 2 pq 
dy 2a 1 = 2a  2
− 1
At y = 2ap , = =  2 
dx 2ap p  
2 ( p + q) + 2
 2

= 2a  − 1
The equation of the tangent at point P is  2 
y − 2ap 1  
therefore = , since pq = −1
x − ap 2 p
 ( p + q )2 
x − ap 2
= 2a  2
+ 1 − 1
or y = + 2ap (1)  2 
p  
2 ( p + q)
 2

Similarly, the equation of the tangent at = 2a  
 2 
point Q is  
= a2 ( p + q ) = y2
2

x − aq 2
y= + 2aq (2)
q Therefore the locus of the midpoint of
Solving equations (1) and (2) PQ has equation y 2 = 2a ( x − a )
simultaneously:
x − aq 2 x − ap 2
+ 2aq = + 2ap
q p
p ( x − aq 2 ) + 2apq 2 = q ( x − ap 2 ) + 2 ap 2 q
px − apq 2 = qx − aqp 2 + 2ap 2 q − 2apq 2

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Challenge
a For a general point P ( at 2 , 2 at ) on the
dy ddyt 2a 1
parabola, = dx = =
dx dt 2 at t
The gradient of the normal at P is
therefore −t

Since the incoming ray is parallel to the x-

axis, from the following right-angled
triangle, you have that tan α = t .

2 tan α 2t
b tan 2α = =
1 − tan α 1 − t 2
2

From the diagram above, the gradient of

the reflected ray is

tan ( π − 2α ) = − tan 2α
2t
=−
1− t2
2t
= 2
t −1

c The focus of the parabola has

coordinates S ( a ,0)
The gradient of PS is therefore
2at − 0 2t
= 2
at − a t − 1
2

The reflected ray has a common point

(P) and the same gradient as PS. The
ray therefore passes through the point
S.

© Pearson Education Ltd 2018. Copying permitted for purchasing institution only. This material is not copyright free. 13