Contents

2
Introduction

The aim

The objectives

The following paper consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusion and bibliography

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 Chapter 1
Different ways of developing speaking skills
1.1 Speaking skills in EFL/ESL settings

The four language skills-speaking, listening, reading, and writing—are the learners'
primary goals while they are learning a language. Speaking and writing are productive skills,
whereas listening and reading are receptive skills. Teachers need to concentrate on these
abilities in the classroom since language skills are the foundation of language acquisition. The
development of the learners' oral discourse production skills is the primary goal of all four of
these language skills. First and first, in order to communicate effectively in English, students
must study vocabulary and grammar, which are the two fundamental and significant parts of
the language. After learning a few vocabulary words and fundamental English grammar
structures, students can practice speaking in front of their teachers (Parupalli, 2018:286).
"In some ways speaking can be considered the most difficult skill to acquire as it requires
command of speech production sub-skills like vocabulary retrieval, choice of grammatical
patterns, and sociocultural competence," Celce-Murcia & Olshtain (2000) note in this regard.
Learners are currently having difficulty acquiring speaking skills because of the high demand
for these abilities in the current employment market. Additionally, every corporation is
hiring individuals with strong communication skills because they think these individuals can
help them advance their business. Nearly every industry, including software, business, sales,
education, law, administration, reception, management, marketing, and tourism, need these
abilities. It is important that students develop these speaking abilities since they are needed
in a variety of vocations.
It is good to reference Khamkhien (2010) at this point, who states that speaking ability is
the most crucial component of learning a second language. Most people who study English
have the intention of mastering the objective of becoming proficient speakers, even if this is
a challenging endeavor. Due to English's widespread usage in all disciplines by the majority
of nations in the globe, there is a large demand for the language on the international market.
Everywhere you look, English language study is advertised as EFL and ESL. Both
environments place a greater emphasis on language proficiency during the teaching and
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learning process. Teachers of English utilize a variety of methods and strategies in language
laboratories and classrooms to assist students acquire language skills with the aid of
technology. The four language abilities in English are listening, speaking, reading, and
writing, as was previously established. Among all the talents, listening is one that is used the
most frequently.
According to Underwood (1989:1), listening is the process of focusing on what we hear
and attempting to make sense of it. It entails comprehending the message as well as the
accent, pronunciation, syntax, and vocabulary of the speaker. Students should be taught
listening skills as they are crucial for effective communication. Unquestionably, listening is
the language skill that students employ the most. This indicates that the majority of language
learners focus more on hearing than speaking the target language, indicating that listening is
the primary method of language acquisition. Learning via listening facilitates verbal
communication with others and aids in language learning. As a result, students who have
high listening skills may engage in class activities successfully.In addition, paying close
attention to what others are saying can help students learn how to talk, read, and write.
"Listening is the way of learning a language," claim Nation and Newton (2009:38). In
addition to being crucial for vocal communication, listening affects the growth of writing
and reading skills. As a result, it is essential to academic achievement since language is
acquired and understood through listening.
In order to communicate effectively, learners should focus on improving their speaking
abilities. "So speaking is defined as the oral mode or the productive skill which is more
complicated and which involves more than just pronouncing words," according to Iqbal
(2012). Speaking is a crucial component in learning a second or foreign language. To improve
their pupils' communication skills, teachers typically concentrate on speaking ability.
Speaking enhances a person's connection, character, and personality. Speaking fluently is
essential for both impressing others and conveying one's thoughts and beliefs. With their
captivating, captivating, and focused speeches, gifted orators may win over many hearts. It is
insufficient to meet the demands of today, and educators must acknowledge that this is a
talent that will help students succeed in the workplace, communicate with people, and find
jobs. Reading is a receptive skill that helps students comprehend and evaluate written

5
material. At every learning level, it need to be fostered in the students. One of the healthy
habits that teachers should instill in their students in the classroom is reading.
"Reading as practice, product, or process with regard to the field of study" is how C.
Wallace (2001:21-27) defines it. Reading increases students' capacity for comprehension,
which enables them to evaluate texts for their intended purposes. As a result, teachers
concentrate on reading comprehension in the classroom to help students grasp the material
better. Writing is a productive talent that helps English language learners convey their ideas,
thoughts, feelings, and sentiments in writing, making it one of the most significant language
skills in the language. It makes communication between people easier in a variety of
contexts, including business, science, technology, and education. As a result, it is regarded as
a crucial instrument for communication. Additionally, Nunan (1989:36) said that "writing is
an extremely complex, cognitive skill for everyone because the writer must demonstrate
control of some variables simultaneously in this activity."
In today's technologically sophisticated world, effective speaking is a necessary talent for
students to possess as it allows them to succeed in any sector. Speaking abilities are now
essential for students due to changes in the workforce, increased competition in schools and
universities, advancements in electronic and digital media, and shifting job paths.
Conversation is one of the most basic and important components of communication. It
allows students to give and receive ideas, thoughts, and opinions from one another. Though
it may appear fairly straightforward at first, good discussions include a give-and-take
interchange of aspects including body language, eye contact, reacting, paraphrasing, and
summarizing. Speaking appears to be the most significant of the four language skills and is an
essential component of teaching and learning a second or foreign language.
Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and
non-verbal symbols in a variety of contexts," according to Chaney (1998). Speaking skills
have been neglected for a long time, even though they are very important. EFL and ESL
teachers have been teaching speaking skills in ways similar to memorizing of dialogues,
repetition of drills, and reciting dialogues from textbooks. However, in order for students to
succeed in their professional careers, today's modern culture necessitates that they
strengthen their speaking abilities. It takes a lot of classroom practice, drive to talk, and

6
involvement in many activities to improve speaking abilities. Speaking is acquired in two
contexts: circumstances involving foreign languages and situations involving second
languages. Studying German in the United States or learning Arabic in Canada are examples
of situations where the target language in a foreign language environment is not the language
of communication in the community.
For students, developing speaking abilities is a difficult endeavor as they seldom get the
chance to utilize the language outside of the classroom. The target language in a second
language setting is the language used for communication in the society, such as Spanish in
Mexico or English in the UK. Here, refugees, foreign students, and immigrants are learning
English as a second language. Even young children learning a second language can develop
extremely high speaking abilities, whereas the majority of others only reach a certain level of
competency before giving up on improving their speaking abilities. They thus frequently
make errors in syntax, vocabulary, pronunciation, and other areas, which are evident when
they speak the target language. The students in a foreign language or second language course
have to possess a few key components. They should be able to employ efficient oral
communication techniques and have a clear understanding of the material when speaking.
Additionally, they require real-time exposure, which is provided by the teachers through a
series of activities designed in a dynamic, interactive learning environment in which
students and teachers work together to create a welcoming, stress-free, and secure
environment conducive to productive classroom discussions.
The acquisition and utilization of English speaking abilities are intimately intertwined
processes. Because this method helps students make the connection between what they study
and what they use in the classroom when they talk. In order to accomplish this, teachers of
foreign languages or second languages should foster their students' communicative
competence through a variety of in-class activities. These activities should cover a range of
expression styles and types, as well as situational and contextualized expressions (such as
jargon, business English, airport, train station, etc.). Additionally, students should be
introduced to a variety of language discourses and native speaker accents and dialects. In
order to satisfy the requirements, objectives, and interests of the students, it is the duty of the
instructor to choose and implement the appropriate activity and approach.

7
 The most extensively used activities should, according to Harmer (2001:271) in the oral
expression course, "fall at or near the communicative end of the communication continuum."
In order to convey a meaningful speech that sounds like a native speaker's, the teacher
should foster interaction by having students exchange information and express ideas with
the utmost care about correct grammar (accuracy), adequate vocabulary, good pronunciation,
and acceptable fluency. This can be done by having students participate in role-pays,
simulations, talking circles, discussions, debates, role-cards, information-gap activities,
storytelling-based activities, and more.
Thus, to conclude it's worth mentioning that speaking fluently aids students in
succeeding in all facets of life. Proficiency in vocabulary and a broad variety of English
language abilities enable learners to take advantage of greater job options. When students
have a firm grasp of grammar and vocabulary, they will be able to communicate effectively.
A person's ticket to success in life is their ability to articulate their own thoughts clearly and
persuasively through speech. Proficiency in speaking might further expand your alternatives
when it comes to choosing a career. In the areas of business, sales, communications,
computers, teaching, information technology, law, administration, management, marketing,
reception, software industry, pharmaceutical industry, hospitality industry, tourism,
government jobs, doctorates, and customer service, individuals possessing exceptional
speaking abilities can progress in their careers.
1.2 Using classroom in teaching and learning processes

What connection exists between student learning results and classroom procedures?
Classroom procedures play a major role in the teaching and learning process worldwide.
They have an impact on students' academic achievement, learning outcomes, and ability
development. Students' learning results are impacted by the teacher's vocal and nonverbal
interactions with them.
A broad range of research on language learning basis study in classrooms can be
categorized under the terms "classroom-centered research" or "classroom base research."
The classroom-centered research of Allwright, Woodley, and Allwright (1988) is predicated
on observation, introspection, and triangulation (Allwright, 2014). Classroom Process
Research, or classroom-centered research, is a new dimension introduced by Gaies (1983).

8
This kind of study looks into the various components that go into language learning in
classroom settings. Classroom-process research is a great design, and it may help us improve
our understanding of the engagement guide. Schinke (1981) observed the general structure
of participation in English language education. Alternatives to classroom-process research
include ethnographic, qualitative, and mentalist research (Chaudron, 1977).
In the context of language learning models, teacher discourse is crucial to the acquisition
process as well as to the organization and administration of the classroom settings. Teachers
often use simpler vocabulary and syntax when teaching, giving their lessons a lot of the
characteristics of foreign language communication, such speaking louder and slower than
usual and occasionally covering the same topics again. Students can utilize student speak to
expand their personal ideas or perspectives, start a new topic of study, and communicate
their own thoughts. Following that, their knowledge will grow and produce as the result.
More knowledge and abilities are needed for spoken language than merely crafting
grammatically sound phrases. Speaking a foreign language is more challenging than writing
for a variety of reasons. Teachers must adhere to certain guidelines and provide authentic
learning experiences to foster oral communication in order for pupils to overcome these
challenges and develop communication skills. Speaking and thinking in a foreign language
improves a learner's general education and enhances their cognitive capacities. For this
reason, it is crucial that foreign language instruction be provided in public schools. It should
be highlighted that learning a foreign language helps with communication skills
development, intercultural comprehension, understanding and appreciating other cultures
and values, and realizing, preserving, and passing on more comprehensive universal values
about nature and the contemporary world. Numerous characteristics set apart modern high
school education, which is linked to the necessity of significant adjustments to the structure
and subject matter of education.
Today's high school students must meet a variety of standards and objectives, the primary
one being the acquisition of language linked to certain professional fields in addition to
general English, which serves as the foundation for future specialization. The teaching of
professional vocabulary during the foreign language course in the high schools of the
Republic of Armenia is very required and serves a purpose, since the current English course

9
in high school mostly helps to the development of broad vocabulary. The following abilities
are taught in speaking classes in Armenian high schools:
 It's a frequent misperception that having sufficient vocabulary and knowledge of the
language's syntax is sufficient for effective communication in a foreign language. For
Armenian pupils, oral communication—especially speaking and listening—presents
unique challenges. There are several types of wall speeches.
 In educational institutions, activities aimed at enhancing auditory perception skills
are largely overlooked, while activities focused on improving oral speech
development primarily consist of basic (boring) transformational exercises such as
questions and answers regarding the text read;
 Unlike written speech, real verbal interaction occurs spontaneously, denying the
speaker the chance to deliberate, formulate, rework, or correct;
 It's a frequent misperception that having sufficient vocabulary and knowledge of the
language's syntax is sufficient for effective communication in a foreign language. For
Armenian pupils, oral communication—especially speaking and listening—presents
unique challenges. There are several types of wall speeches.
 In educational institutions, activities aimed at enhancing auditory perception skills
are largely overlooked, while activities focused on improving oral speech
development primarily consist of basic (boring) transformational exercises such as
questions and answers regarding the text read;
 Unlike written speech, real verbal interaction occurs spontaneously, denying the
speaker the chance to deliberate, formulate, rework, or correct;

Developing communication skills may give scope to the talented students to express
their ideas to the world. We may change our ideas, perspectives, opinions, thoughts, and
emotions, get knowledge from others, and find solutions to difficulties and concerns
when we have access to spoken English. For pupils, speaking English is a key to success in
their future careers. English therefore has a significant role in the educational system. In
practically every state in India, it is taught as a mandatory subject so that individuals
from different states and nations may communicate with one another.

10
 A process is a series of actions or events done to accomplish a certain goal. There are
several approaches to considering significant classroom procedures. Many of these are
explained by models that are derived from studies that are based on the school learning
model developed by John Carroll in 1963 (Huitt, 2006). The way that students learn in
the classroom and the outcomes they achieve are connected. Ineffective classroom
activities can have a negative impact on students' learning and cause disruptions. The
subject bases learning encounters with the physical world in accordance with their
surroundings, manipulating learning results. Students' learning is influenced by their
prior knowledge, the subject matter, their goals, and their interests, which govern how
the instructor and students interact (Saggaf, Salam, & Rifka, 2017).
English instructors use a variety of strategies and tactics in the classroom today to
help students develop their speaking abilities. They mostly concentrate on collaborative
learning and communicative language teaching (CLT) as these methods are more
effective in helping students improve their communication skills since CLT is grounded
in real-world scenarios. Teachers also promote collaborative learning by getting students
involved in a variety of task-based activities. It works in both EFL and ESL environments.
Teachers must concentrate on speech sounds, sound patterns, stress and intonation
patterns, and the proper word and phrase selection based on the audience, social context,
subject matter, and circumstances while instructing students in speaking abilities.
In order for the students to utilize language to communicate beliefs and opinions, the
teachers assist them in rationally and meaningfully organizing their thoughts and ideas.
According to the speaker's goal, speaking is seen as one of the language production skills.
Brown (2004) has divided speaking into five categories: extensive, interactive, responsive,
imitative, and intense.
In education, teachers have two main roles: administrative and instructional,
according to Vilar (2003). The information that instructors impart in the classroom is the
other, and the latter speaks to the environments that teachers provide for learning to
occur. For effective language education, teachers should do these tasks concurrently since
they cannot be divided. In ELT classrooms, especially in ESL/EFL settings, instructors are
expected to play a critical role in providing high-quality education, particularly in the

11
area of language instruction. Teachers should utilize their abilities, expertise, and a
variety of strategies to inspire students to acquire language skills in order to attain this
attribute. Teachers have a variety of roles to play in this situation, including those of
monitors, players, assessors, motivators, organizers, models, and observers. Teachers play
a crucial role in teaching speaking skills because they may effectively teach speaking
skills through a variety of strategies, including encouragement, incentive, and
engagement. English language instructors must prioritize vocabulary and grammar above
all else when it comes to helping students improve their speaking abilities. After that,
they should concentrate on speech sounds, stress, intonation patterns, and sentence
structure.
Giving instructions and explanations, modeling reading, translating foreign words
into local tongues, and assessing students' language understanding are all crucial for
improving student engagement and maintaining positive classroom dynamics (Chasanah,
2015). According to Pujiastuti (2013), language teachers mostly engaged in conversation
with students in the classroom. Thus, teachers actively participate in their students'
language acquisition. Flanders' method was just monitoring spoken interactions in the
classroom, ignoring nonverbal cues (Lambert, Goodwin, & Roberts, 1965).Using academic
instructional time to the fullest for student participation, success, practical performance
management, and clear goals is behavior management for successful teaching in the
classroom (Pas, Cash, O'Brennan, Debnam, & Bradshaw, 2015).
Using 10-second intervals, the Behavioral Observation System determines the
proportion of class periods that are recorded. The extent of the extensive tool
partitioning, including target language, English and actual language or native language,
instructor speak and student talk, on communication drill language review from the
separate categories. Real language categories, practice, and learning activities serve as the
basis for further classification (Allwright, 1983).
Thus, relationships between classroom interaction and student learning outcomes are
strong. The learning results of the students and classroom management had little impact
on one another.

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 Chapter 2
Developing critical thinking skills in in the ESL classroom through activities

2.1 Critical thinking as a cultural construct

One of the most crucial skills for students to succeed in the globalized world is critical
thinking (Dwyer et al., 2014; Jackson, 2010). Prior studies have demonstrated the vital role
that critical thinking plays and how it improves the caliber of the educational system across a
wide range of subject areas (Halpern, 2014; Paul & Binker, 1990).
There has been significant disagreement about the conceptual definition of critical
thinking throughout its evolution (Facione, 1990). There is a long history of definition and
reinterpretation of critical thinking (Ennis, 2016; Johnson and Hamby, 2015). Many
definitions of "critical thinking" have been developed by academics. These include reflective
thinking (Dewey 1933:12), "a sequence of internal symbolic activities that leads to novel,
productive ideas or conclusions" (Ericson & Hastie, 1994:38), a generic welt of skills (Ennis,
1992), discipline-specific processes (McPeck, 1990), the educational cognate of rationality
(Siegel, 1988), an active and systematic formation of good judgment and evaluation (Mayer &
Goodchild, 1990), thinking that satisfies pertinent standards or criteria of acceptability
(Bailin &Siegel, 2003), an activist engagement with knowledge or an act of self-reflexivity
(Moore, 2013).
Lists of dispositions that control an individual's propensity to apply thinking
techniques in daily life are often included in definitions of critical thinking. Beyer (1985)
contended that in addition to certain mental processes, cultural thinking necessitates a
"frame of mind." This mindset entails being aware of the need to assess the facts, being open
to testing ideas, and wanting to take into account different points of view. Paul and Nosich
(1992:5) emphasized that"critical thinking entails the possession and active use of a set of
traits of mind, including independence of thought, fair mindedness, intellectual humility,
intellectual courage, intellectual perseverance, intellectual integrity, curiosity, confidence in
reason, the willingness to see objections, and to enter sympathetically into another’s point of
view".

13
 Critical thinking abilities that students acquire are closely linked to the kinds of tasks
and inquiries that instructors assign and pose, and hence to Bloom's taxonomy (1956).
Bloom's taxonomy distinguishes between higher- and lower-order cognitive processes.
Knowledge, understanding, and application are components of lower-order cognitive
abilities. The cognitive abilities of analysis, synthesis, and assessment are considered higher-
order. Good teachers provide their pupils the chance to practice both higher- and lower-
order thinking abilities. Students' critical thinking abilities are developed through effective
questioning and the use of inquiry as a teaching strategy (Wang & Seepho, 2017).
Culture is another important component that might impact critical thinking, even if the
enhancement of critical thinking may primarily focus on well-known aspects like individuals,
teaching and learning, or even faculty. It is true that there hasn't been much research done on this
variable. Sternberg (2003) emphasized that cultural investigations of human cognition worldwide
go beyond mere aptitude analysis; a thorough examination of the cultures that influence human
cognition or interaction is necessary for a comprehensive understanding of human cognition.
According to Moore (2011), there is a "multiplicity of practises" across cultures that include
different, even conflicting, conceptions and representations of critical thinking. Beyond the
objective standard of sound reasoning, which is the canon of logical argumentation, critical
thinking as a discipline marks the cultural implications, norms, and practises that influence
human thinking and behaviour.

Generally speaking, when one thinks about culture, they think of the cuisines,
languages, holidays, music, and clothes of various cultures. These elements are undoubtedly a
part of culture, but culture also consists of many other things that are harder to observe.
"Culture encompasses not only tangibles like foods, holidays, clothes, and artistic expression
but also less tangible manifestations like communication style, attitudes, values, and family
relationships," as Sonia Nieto and Patty Bode (2012:171) observe.
It is especially the duty of English teachers to guide their pupils through the cultural
elements that aren't always readily apparent. Many English language learners may eventually
want to travel, study, or work abroad. Some could decide to work in fields where they must
communicate with English speakers from a wide range of backgrounds. Students' ability to
critically reflect about their own experiences and cultural beliefs, as well as those of others
14
and the possible problems such differences may generate, is crucial. They will be better able
to navigate and clear up any possible cultural misconceptions thanks to this critical thinking.
The foundation of the standards of academic evaluation in English-speaking nations is
rooted in centuries of intellectual inquiry that was founded on the ideas that "knowledge
exists in and through critical thought" (Paul, 1992, p. 5) and that developing critical thinking
skills is one of the most important outcomes of higher education (Jones, 2007a). Critical
thinking is regarded as a fundamental skill of academic literacy and intellectual inquiry in
the pursuit of truth and knowledge. It is assumed that deep knowledge is constructed
through connections that go beyond the knowledge learned from textbooks and lectures,
without which learning amounts to little more than surface learning (Van der Wal, 1999;
Neeley, 2005).
Since academic achievement is judged "on the originality and quality of ideas," it may
be difficult for certain international students to integrate into an English-speaking academic
environment and develop critical thinking skills across all disciplines (Stapleton, 2002:187).
These intellectual challenges are in stark contrast to the repression of critical thinking and
the expression of personal opinions and views in the home countries of international
students, such as Iran (Fahim & Sa'eepour, 2011), where rote learning and memorization are
the norm in the classroom. As a result, it is more difficult for these students to adopt the
principles of a critical approach in the academic cultures of English-speaking nations.

2.2 Motivational activities for developing critical thinking

Conclusion

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