Natural Resources Research ( 2021)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-021-09962-x

Original Paper

Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone

Belt, Central India: A Knowledge-Driven Guide for Target
Delineation in a Region of Low Exploration Maturity

Satyabrata Behera1 and Mruganka K. Panigrahi 1,2

Received 6 July 2021; accepted 26 September 2021

The Sonakhan greenstone belt in Central India is under-explored with respect to gold in
spite of its similarity to auriferous greenstone belts in general, which prompted a prospec-
tivity analysis. The workflow involved adoption of a conceptual mineral systems model,
recognizing indicative spatial proxies, processing exploration datasets, generating evidence
maps and integrating into GIS-based mineral prospectivity mapping. Available geological
information such as key lithologic units and their contacts was combined with geochemical
anomalies of selected pathfinder elements, geophysical data (aeromagnetic anomaly and K/
Th ratio map) and satellite digital image data (ASTER and Landsat 7 ETM +), leading to
generation of 17 evidential layers. The lack of a significant number of known mineral
occurrences in the study area precludes the use of data-driven prospectivity modeling
techniques. Therefore, knowledge-driven approaches such as binary and multiclass index
overlay, fuzzy logic and fuzzy AHP (analytic hierarchy process) were adopted to integrate
the evidential layers resulting in four prospectivity maps. The variation of cumulative
prospectivity with respect to cumulative area in each model was used to determine threshold
to produce binary prospectivity maps separating high and low prospectivity zones. An ap-
proach based on the unique conditions of the binary prospectivity maps was used to illustrate
the combined results of different models. In order to quantify the intuitive uncertainty in
exploration targeting that arose due to different model outputs, a modulated predictive
model was generated taking the mean prospectivity values at each pixel. The pixels having
mean values above 95th percentile were grouped and the area delineated as potential
exploration targets for gold that comprises merely 5% of the study area. The estimated
uncertainty and confidence values for each pixel were used in the risk analysis that returned
1.95% and 3.05% of the study area as low- and high-risk exploration targets, respectively.
KEY WORDS: Mineral prospectivity mapping, Index overlay, Fuzzy logic, Fuzzy AHP, Unique
condition, Risk analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Mineral exploration is a game of probability, or

an organized gambling, in which failure is the norm
1
and success is elusive with a significant factor of
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of
chance (Kesler & Simon, 2015; Woodall, 1984,
Technology, Kharagpur, WB 721302, India.
2
To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: 1988, 1992, 1994). Because a success more than
mkp@gg.iitkgp.ernet.in compensates many failures, mineral exploration

 2021 International Association for Mathematical Geosciences


ventures are sustainable and are likely to continue as
long as there is demand for minerals and materials.
Despite recent advancements in various exploration
techniques and induction of several sophisticated
exploration methodologies, the search for mineral
deposits has become an extremely high-risk enter-
prise whereby the chances of hitting success are very
low because many of the potentially viable mineral
resources have already been discovered in exposed
geological terrains all over the world (Hageman
et al., 2016; Haldar, 2018; Lord et al., 2001). In such
a circumstance, to enhance the probability of suc-
cess, the major challenge in any mineral exploration
program is to design effective exploration strategies
to prioritize or to generate promising target loca-
tions at various scales where exploration efforts
could be focused (Joly et al., 2012; McCuaig et al.,
2010). Therefore, the natural earth processes that
operated in the long geologic past to enrich con-
centrations of metals and produced their signatures
in the observable geological features need to be
analyzed critically to construct predictive models
that can be used in the search for new deposits by
delineating prospective areas in which appropriate
ore-forming processes had probably operated.
Gold, being one of the scarce metals and having
a Clarke value of 2.5 ppb (Laznicka, 1999), has
played a crucial role in the world economy and it is
expected to continue to do so in the foreseeable
future. In spite of the presence of favorable geo-
logical terranes, the gold potential of India so far is
under-explored and its current production is meager
compared to the world. With the current rate of
annual production of 2.5–3.0 thousand tons of gold
ore, the existing reserve of about 54,000 tons is likely
to be exhausted in the coming 20 years (Indian
Minerals Yearbook, 2019). This implies that, in or-
der to keep pace with the economy, gold resources
in India need to be augmented through intense
exploration. While discovery of any new mega-gold
province or giant gold deposits in any segment in the
crust looks remote, the ongoing and future explo-
ration efforts are more likely to be targeted toward
identification of new greenfield areas and resource
augmentation of the existing gold provinces
(brownfield). Exploration for gold is gaining maxi-
mum attention worldwide over the past few decades.
Indeed, this is the reason why despite the high
uncertainty and high cost of modern sophisticated
exploration techniques, the hunt for gold is grabbing
the maximum exploration budget of non-fuel min-
erals globally (Schoenberger, 2011; Wilburn & Karl,
Behera, and Panigrahi
2017). In India, being one of the largest gold markets
in the world, there has always been enormous
responsibility and significant challenge for explo-
ration geoscientists to look out for more gold pro-
spects to meet the growing demand for it in the
country (Behera et al., 2019; World Gold Council,
2017). India is a gold-deficit country and it has been
regarded as a critical mineral, not well explored for
potential resources. Unfortunately, in the last few
decades, no such significant breakthrough has been
made in the discovery of new world-class gold de-
posits apart from a few augmentations of existing
gold resources (Geological Survey of India, 2012;
Ramachandra & Vasudev, 2019). Currently, in In-
dia, the only operating mines are located at Hutti in
Karnataka, which produce about two tons of gold
every year (Indian Minerals Yearbook, 2019). In
addition, other gold outcroppings and near-surface
mines are no longer profitable or are exhausted
(Ramachandra & Vasudev, 2019). In India, a huge
gap exists between consumption and production of
gold, which is made up through substantial import
(Jain & Biswal, 2019; World Gold Council, 2019).
An area of approximately 571,000 km2 has been
identified as OGP (Obvious Geological Potential)
by the Geological Survey of India (GSI), of which
102,809 km2 area is considered to be gold prospec-
tive (Ministry of Mines, 2015). Because a large part
of this gold OGP area has still not been well ex-
plored, there are significant upside opportunities for
discovering new gold deposits (Behera et al., 2019;
Ministry of Mines, 2015).
In central India, the Sonakhan greenstone belt
(SGB) is one such potential geologic domain for
gold deposits, located in the northeastern part of the
Baster Craton (Fig. 1). Due to its similarity in geo-
chemical and geological characteristics with other
auriferous greenstone belts, it is considered metal-
logenically very important for gold exploration
(Venkatesh, 2001). Given these facts, it becomes
imperative to intensify gold exploration efforts with
multidisciplinary geoscientific expertise for which
industry and academia need to work in complete
synergy for achieving the goal. A multidisciplinary
geoscience data integration approach was used in
the present study to delineate gold exploration tar-
gets in parts of SGB. The GSI database and publi-
cations, along with newly produced exploratory
data, were effectively utilized in this study.
Significant advancement in statistical modeling,
GIS technology and GIS-based mineral prospectiv-
ity mapping (MPM) capacitates management and
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Figure 1. (a) Geographical location of the Bastar Craton and location of the Sonakhan greenstone belt. (b) Geology
of the Baster Craton and location of the study area.

synthesis of huge amounts of spatial data more
effectively thereby improves exploration targeting
(Bonham-Carter et al., 1988, 1989; Agterberg et al.,
1990; An et al., 1991; Porwal & Carranza, 2015;
Yousefi & Nykänen, 2017). MPM can be conceived
as a computer-aided exploration targeting ap-
proach, more precisely a GIS-based digital way of
mineral resource appraisal that involves the collec-
tion, compilation, analyses and integration of multi-
source geoscience information to map and evaluate
the likelihood of finding mineral deposits of interest
using various predictive geo-mathematical models
with reference to certain mineral deposit types and
geological terranes (Bonham-Carter, 1994; Carran-
za, 2008; Hronsky & Kreuzer, 2019). Evaluation of
likelihood includes quantifying the favorableness of
an area in terms of probability, which can be either
objective or subjective (Carranza, 2008; Harris et al.,
2015; Njafi et al., 2014). Accordingly, MPM is usu-
ally classified into two basic categories, i.e., empiri-
cal (data-driven) or conceptual (knowledge-driven)
(Bonham-Carter, 1994; Parsa & Pour, 2021; Parsa
et al., 2017a). Data-driven MPM models are appli-
cable to areas with a good number of mineral
occurrences where the spatial relation between
mineralization and evidential features can be quan-
tified objectively (Agterberg, 2011; Fu et al., 2021;
Parsa, 2021; Parsa & Carranza, 2021; Porwal et al.,
2010). On the other hand, knowledge-driven MPM
models are usually adopted in areas with few known
mineral occurrences where the spatial relation be-
tween the mineralization and evidential features is
qualitatively assessed based on subjective knowl-
edge (Bai et al., 2021; Najafi et al., 2014; Porwal
et al., 2003; Sadeghi & Khalajmasoumi, 2015). A
recent work by Parsa and Pour (2021) proposed a
Monte Carlo-based fuzzy logic approach and an
uncertainty-based defuzzification process to modu-
late the impact of subjectivity related uncertainties
in knowledge-driven models. They have used a
mineral systems-guided geo-computational frame-
work, which is neither knowledge- nor data-driven,

to delineate low-risk exploration targets character-
ized by high prospectivity, low uncertainty and high
confidence values. Previous works on simulation-
based approaches to quantify uncertainties in
knowledge-driven prospectivity models can be
found in Lisitsin et al., (2013, 2014) and Burkin et al.
(2019). Hybrid approaches that combine both data-
and knowledge-driven MPM models are often em-
ployed in areas wherever feasible, because hybrid
models consider both existing mineral occurrences
and knowledge on mineralization (Cheng & Agter-
berg, 1999; Parsa et al., 2017a; Porwal et al., 2003,
2004, 2006; Sun et al., 2019; Zuo et al., 2009).
There are numerous previous studies on
prospectivity mapping for orogenic gold deposits
that have incorporated the mineral systems ap-
proach and various predictive mathematical models
for targeting promising locations for further explo-
ration (Almasi et al., 2017; Carranza et al., 2015;
Chudasama et al., 2016; Groves et al., 2020; Joly
et al., 2012; Sanusi & Amigun, 2020). Wyman et al.
(2016) and Davies et al. (2020) provided exhaustive
review on orogenic gold mineral systems in the
context of prospectivity analysis. The mineral sys-
tems concept defines ore bodies as local scale
expressions representing the focal point of mass and
energy flux caused by various multiscale earth pro-
cesses in space and time (Knox-Robinson & Wy-
born, 1997; Wyborn et al., 1994). The inclusion of
mineral systems approach in prospectivity analysis
with the source–pathways–trap paradigm provides
an organized framework and a holistic approach in
translating scientific understanding of mineralization
process into an effective exploration targeting sys-
tem (Hronsky & Groves, 2008; McCuaig et al., 2010;
Wyman et al., 2016). This can be achieved by iden-
tifying mappable foot prints of processes at a range
of scales that may result in economic mineralization
(Hagemann et al., 2016; McCuaig & Hronsky, 2014).
Previous studies have highlighted the importance of
conceptual models in the search of new prospects
within regions of low exploration maturity (D’ercole
et al., 2000; Kohanpour et al., 2020; Occhipinti et al.,
2016). No such attempt has been made on the Son-
akhan greenstone belt so far for gold prospectivity.
The GSI had previously identified the Baghmara
Block as a gold-enriched region within the study
area. It is believed that the study area holds poten-
tial to find new gold deposits because it shares
commonalities in geology and geochemistry with
other auriferous greenstone belts. This study seeks
Behera, and Panigrahi
to put forward a conceptual exploration approach
for effective targeting of gold prospects in the study
area using computer-aided spatial data analysis and
integration tools in a GIS environment. The ap-
proach presented in this paper is expected to be
useful for exploration geoscientists in designing an
efficient survey plan for further search of gold min-
eralization in the study area.
STUDY AREA
In central India, the Sonakhan greenstone belt
(SGB) lies on the northeastern fringes of the Baster
Craton (Behera et al., 2019; Shellnutt et al., 2019)
(Fig. 1). The SGB comprises typical granite-green-
stone belt lithology of Neoarchaean to Paleopro-
terozoic age underlying the Mesoproterozoic
Chhattisgarh basin and unconformably overlying the
Baya gneissic complex (Ramakrishnan &
Vaidyanadhan, 2008). The Sonakhan and Bilari
Groups constitute a major part of the SGB. The
Sonakhan Group comprises the Baghmara and Ar-
juni Formations (Das et al., 1990) (Fig. 2). The
Baghmara Formation comprises primarily ultramafic
rocks, metagabbro, massive and schistose metaba-
salts, metarhyolite, tremolite-actinolite schist, fer-
ruginous sulfide-bearing chert and carbonaceous
argillite. The Jonk conglomerate of the Arjuni For-
mation unconformably overlies rocks of the Bagh-
mara Formation. Mostly polymictic conglomerate
and BIF make up the Arjuni Formation. While
Mondal and Raza (2009) proposed a plume–arc
interaction process, Deshmukh et al. (2018) inferred
a supra-subduction zone tectonic process for the
origin of the Sonakhan Group of rocks. Manu
Prasanth et al. (2018) suggested subduction of
oceanic lithosphere and forearc magmatism for the
origin of the SGB. On the basis of Rb–Sr radio-
metric dating of meta-rhyolites, Ghosh et al. (1995)
determined the age of the SGB to be around 2.5 Ga.
Greenschist to lower amphibolite facies metamor-
phism has been reported in the Sonakhan terrane,
which overprinted the primary textural and miner-
alogical characteristics of the rocks (Venkatesh,
2001).
The Sonakhan belt shares certain primary
characteristics that are typical of many other gold
deposits hosted in Archaean greenstone belts
(Deshmukh et al., 2018; Venkatesh, 2001). For gold
mineralization, a mesothermal origin was proposed
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India
Figure 2. Geological map of the study area (digitized from the 1:50,000 geological map published by Geological Survey of
India).
by Venkatesh (2001) from ore mineralogy studies
undertaken in this terrane. Previous works that fo-
cused on gold exploration include those of Mishra
(1996), Ray et al. (2000) and Ray and Rai (2004).
Gold mineralization has been confirmed in the SGB
by the GSI and the Chhattisgarh State Directorate
of Geology and Mining (DGM) based on explo-
ration up to G3 stage of UNFC and a gold-enriched
block, namely the Baghmara Gold Block (BGB),
has been identified. The DGM Chhattisgarh and the
GSI have estimated gold ore resources of 0.9 Mt
(average grade 3 g/t Au) and 1.8 Mt (average grade
0.7 g/t Au), respectively, in the BGB. Mafic and
felsic volcanic rocks have been reported to contain
gold mineralization. In addition, there have been
reports of gold in quartz veins, quartz-carbonate
veins and within ferruginous sulfide bearing cherts
(Venkatesh, 2001). The SGB, especially within the
Baghmara and Sonakhan regions, is very important
for gold mineralization on account of metallogenic
geological conditions similar to other greenstone-
hosted mesothermal gold deposits (Venkatesh,
2001). None of the previous workers attempted to
map prospectivity of gold using multi-source geo-
science data. Therefore, the current work aimed at
delineating exploration targets for gold, which will
serve as guides to the regional scale survey of gold in
the study area.
METHODOLOGY
The study area represents a less explored ter-
rane in terms of mineralization. Gold occurrence is
reported only in the BGB. Hence, knowledge-driven
mapping of mineral prospectivity was chosen
appropriately to delineate promising targets for
exploration. Four knowledge-driven mineral
prospectivity models, viz., binary index overlay
(BIO), multiclass index overlay (MIO), fuzzy logic
(FL) and fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP),
which are suitable for implementation in GIS, were
adopted in the present study to weigh and integrate
both binary and multiclass geospatial predictive
evidential maps. In all these four models, the
assignment of weights to each evidential theme was
a subjective exercise, which is based on qualitative
assessment and propositions. Therefore, it involved
a trial-and-error procedure to some extent. It was
challenging in defining the objectivity behind each
decision, and the biasness in judgements is
unavoidable in such cases. These issues have been
addressed to some extent in Lisitsin et al., (2013,
2014), Burkin et al. (2019) and Parsa and Pour
(2021). Despite these drawbacks, knowledge-based
models remain effective for mapping mineral pro-
spects in geologically promising yet under-explored
greenfield areas without (or with a small number of)

known mineral deposits. Besides, another bright side
is their capability in identifying mineral deposits of
diverse genetic types and discovering previously
unrecognized prospective regions as they emphasize
the understanding of ore-forming processes and
incorporate the knowledge of geoscientists in
exploration of mineral deposits of various genetic
types. A brief description of the basic concepts of
the four knowledge-driven MPM models is fur-
nished in the following section.
Index Overlay
This is an effective index weighting method to
overlay thematic layers that can be applied to both
binary and multiclass evidential maps (Bonham-
Carter, 1994). Accordingly, this is of the following
two types.
Binary Index Overlay
In this case, the spatial information of each
evidential theme is converted into binary form, i.e.,
favorable/unfavorable (1 or 0) based on its efficiency
in recognizing the target element. Resulting binary
index maps are then assigned numerical weights
based on subjective judgement regarding their rela-
tive importance in a set of evidential maps. The
range of weights for every evidential map must be
similar; for example, the weights might range either
from 0 to 1 or 0 to 10 or 0 to 100 (Bonham-Carter,
1994). Weighted binary evidential maps are summed
and then normalized by dividing the sum of the
weights, the (Sadeghi & Khalajmasoumi, 2015):
Pn
W i ðMapÞi
Index OverlayBinary ¼ i¼1Pn ð1Þ
i Wi
where Wi is weight for the ith binary evidential map
(i = 1, 2,…, n). In the resulting mineral prospectivity
map, at any location, the output score will be be-
tween 0 (representing extremely unfavorable) and 1
(representing highly favorable) (Carranza, 2008).
Multiclass Index Overlay
In this method, the spatial information of each
evidential map is transformed into multiple classes,
Behera, and Panigrahi
and each class is assigned a class score as per its
relative importance (Yousefi & Carranza, 2015).
Similar to the BIO method, here, a numerical weight
was assigned to each evidential map. The only dif-
ference, in this case, is that each evidential map is
associated with a list of class scores, unlike the bin-
ary evidential maps as before. The ranges of map
weights and class scores for every evidential map
have been kept identical. The advantage of this
method over the previous one is that it allows more
flexibility in combining evidential maps, thus:
Pn
i¼1 W i ðClassÞij
Index OverlayMultiClass ¼ Pn ð2Þ
i Wi
where Wi is weight for the ith evidential map and
(Class)ij is class score for jth class of the ith evi-
dential map.
Fuzzy Logic
This is the most popular and widely used
knowledge-driven MPM model, and its concept is
based on fuzzy sets (Zadeh, 1965). A fuzzy set rep-
resents a continuum grade of membership with val-
ues ranging from 1 (for complete membership) to 0
(for full non-membership) (Zimmerman, 1991). If
X is a collection of objects denoted by x, then a
fuzzy set A in X is a set of ordered pairs of objects
and their grades of membership in A(x, lA(x)). This
is represented as follows.
A ¼ fð x; lA ð xÞÞjx 2 X g ð3Þ
flA ð xÞj x 2 X g ! ½0; 1 ð4Þ
Its application to knowledge-driven MPM in-
volves three stages, viz., encoder (fuzzifier), proces-
sor (inference engine) and decoder (defuzzifier)
Porwal et al. (2003). Fuzzy operators are used for
combining fuzzy sets. Zadeh (1965) and Zimmer-
mann (1991) defined several operators based on
fuzzy mathematics. For combining exploration da-
tasets, An et al. (1991) suggested five useful opera-
tors, viz., fuzzy AND, fuzzy OR, fuzzy algebraic
product, fuzzy algebraic sum and fuzzy gamma (c)
operator. In this study, a suitable logistic sigmoid
function was used to estimate fuzzy membership
values, thus (Behera & Panigrahi, 2021; Cox & Snell,
1989; Parsa et al., 2016; Porwal et al., 2003, 2006;
Yousefi et al., 2012):
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India
1 world (Behera et al., 2019; Kahraman et al., 2004;
F X ij ¼ ð5Þ
1þ emðX ij cÞ
where Fxij is a fuzzy membership function and c
and m represent the inflection point and slope of
the function, respectively. The class score of the jth
class of the ith evidential map is represented by Xij,
which is evaluated from class weights and map
weights as:
X ij ¼ W i  W j ð6Þ
where Wi is map weight of the ith evidential map
and Wj is class weight of the jth evidential class. The
logistic function, Eq. 5, not only transforms contin-
uous class scores (Xij) of evidential maps into fuzzy
scores ranging from 0 to 1, but it also modulates the
problem of subjective biasness in discretization of
continuous spatial evidence values (Yousefi & Ny-
känen, 2016). The shape of the logistic function and
the resulting fuzzy membership values are deter-
mined by its slope (m) and inflection point (c). In
our case study, rather than using map-wise ’m’ and
’c’ values (Parsa & Pour, 2021; Parsa et al., 2016),
constant ’m’ and ’c’ values were used for all the
evidential maps (Porwal et al., 2003, 2006). Map
weights (Wi) and class weights (Wj) were assigned to
the evidence maps in this study based on subjective
assessment of their favorability on a scale of 1 to 10
in a reverse direction, with 10 being the most
favorable and 1 being the least favorable. This re-
sults in a continuous class score (Xij) values ranging
from 1 to 100 using Eq. 6. The middle-class score
(Xij) of 50 was chosen as the inflection point (c) of
the logistic function that, with slope (m) of 0.1, gives
a symmetrical distribution of fuzzy scores around the
inflection point at (50, 0.5), where 50 represents the
class score and 0.5 represents the respective knowl-
edge-driven fuzzy membership value (Porwal et al.,
2003, 2006). Instead of calculating ’m’ and ’c’ values
for individual evidential map, constant ’m’ and ’c’
values chosen in our study enable the logistic func-
tion to incorporate the relative representativeness of
evidential map classes.
Fuzzy AHP
Fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP) is the
fuzzy extension of classical AHP (analytic hierarchy
process), which is one of the extensively used multi-
criteria decision-making methods throughout the
Mu & Pereyra-Rojas, 2017). Dissection of a problem
into a hierarchical structure of goal–criteria–alter-
native, construction of pairwise comparison matrix
and incorporation of fuzzy set theory are some of
the salient features of FAHP that helps in better
understanding of the targets to be achieved and the
criteria to be used (Brunnelli, 2014; Najafi et al.,
2014; Saaty, 1977). In knowledge-driven MPM,
ambiguity always arises in assigning weights to pre-
dictive maps, particularly in situations where multi-
ple decision-makers are involved. Such situations
are obvious and arise due to the intuitive nature of
human cognition (Kabir & Hasin, 2011; Leung &
Cao, 2000). In addition, uncertainty always lies in
the qualitative/subjective assessment of geospatial
evidence and, hence, decision-makers feel reluctant
to give crisp judgements about relative significance
of multiple geo-evidential data layers (Abedi et al.,
2013; Karimi et al., 2011). In order to address these
issues in knowledge-driven MPM, the fuzzy set
theory could be applied in conjunction with AHP,
which would allow more flexibility in assigning
weights to the multiple data layers by multiple
decision-makers. In this study, a FAHP algorithm
developed by Chang (1996) using triangular fuzzy
numbers and extent analysis was employed. The
detailed workflow of the FAHP can be found in
Chang (1996) and Behera et al. (2019).
EVIDENTIAL DATABASE CREATION
FROM MAPPABLE GEOLOGICAL
FEATURES
The study area in this research represents an
under-explored terrain that lacks in-depth research
works on the genetic aspects of gold mineralization.
In such a case, from the well-studied similar mineral
systems of the world-class deposits of the type
sought, knowledge on empirical relationships be-
tween the mineralizing processes and their signa-
tures in mappable geological features can be
translated in identifying the relevant predictive geo-
evidential maps for effective exploration targeting in
the study area (Hronsky et al., 2012; Joly et al., 2012;
Wyman et al., 2016). Table 1 shows a generalized
framework of the gold mineralization process in the
study area based on knowledge-driven mineral sys-
tem approach. The application of the mineral system
concept facilitates the effective selection of relevant
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Table 1. Conceptual gold mineral systems framework for the SGB viewed from the base to the top and its application in the selection of
mappable criteria for gold prospectivity mapping

Mineral Possible component processes Mappable criteria used in this study

systems
paradigm

Dispersion Weathering and erosion
Trap Fluid–rock interaction, desulfidation of fluid
Change in redox conditions, f(O2), f(S2) and pH, phase sep-
aration
Fluid nixing
Extreme decrease in pressure and flash vaporization
Cooling of Fluid
Pathway Zones of weakness in the earths crust and structural dis-
continuities. For example—faults (high-angle reverse
faults, low-angle thrust faults, exhumation related normal
faults, transcurrent faults), fractures, joints, foliation, shear
zones, folds (saddle-reef dilatation zone), lithologic dis-
continuities, lithologic contacts, basement terrane bound-
aries, plate sutures and reactivation of pre-existing
extensional structures during orogenesis
Source
Sources of Metamorphic dehydration of sea floor rocks at the transition
Fluid of greenschist to amphibolite facies boundary
Fluid from magma degassing, granitic source for fluid
Sources of Chloride (Cl) is possibly the dominant anionic species at
Ligands temperature higher than 400̊C that form the AuCl2
complex
Hydrogen sulfide (HS) is the dominant anionic species at
lower temperature that form the Au(HS)2 complex
Sources of Mainly from iron rich mafic formations such as basalt, gab-
Gold bro. Less commonly from felsic formations. carbon- and
pyrite-rich sedimentary rocks
Trigger Late Archean to Paleoproterozoic subduction-related tec-
tonic processes in the accretionary orogens along the
margins of Archean nuclei of the present day Bastar craton
Stream sediment geochemical maps of the common gold
pathfinder elements (Au, As, Ag, Hg, Sb, Se)
Hydrothermal alteration zones (maps of iron oxide and clay
alteration minerals obtained from digital image processing
of ASTER images)
K/Th ratio map obtained from airborne gamma-ray spectro-
metric data
Fault map
Lineament map (aeromagnetic lineament
lineament density map obtained from the digital image pro-
cessing of Landsat 7 ETM + imagery)
Quartz veins
Lithocontacts (contact of metabasalts with younger granite
and acidic meta volcanics)
Metamorphosed mafic to ultramafics sequences such as me-
tabasalt, metagabbro, metaultramafites
Dolerite dykes
Metamorphosed felsic sequences such as metarhyolites
Geological map

Table 2. Source of exploration datasets used in this study as inputs to GIS for gold prospectivity mapping

Dataset Source

Geological Lithostratigraphic Data Published geological map by Geological Survey of India (GSI)
data Structural data
Geochemical Stream sediment geochemistry National Geochemical Mapping-India (NGCM) data through GSI
data
Geophysical Aeromagnetic data (magnetic Published research article by Sridhar et al. (2015), a part of airborne geophysical survey
data lineament map) carried out by Atomic Minerals Directorate (AMD) for Exploration and Research of
Radiometric data (K/Th ratio the Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India
map)
Satellite im- Hydrothermal alteration map* ASTER Level 1 Precision Terrain Corrected Registered At-Sensor Radiance
age data (AST_L1T) data from USGS EROS center
Lineament density map* Landsat 7 ETM + collection 1 level-2 imagery from USGS EROS center
*
Maps obtained from Digital Image Processing (DIP) of satellite images
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Figure 3. Geological evidence layers used as inputs to GIS for gold prospectivity mapping: (a) proximity to quartz veins; (b)
proximity to faults; (c) proximity to contact of metabasalts with younger granite and acidic metavolcanics; (d) proximity to
dolerite dykes.

data and their analysis to support exploration tar-
geting.
The database used in this study was created
using various geological, geochemical and geophys-
ical data from the study area together with infor-
mation extracted from digital processing of satellite
image data. The sources of data are furnished in
Table 2. Because the datasets were from different
sources, they were all georeferenced to the same
UTM projection (UTM 44 N) for accurate spatial
overlay. They were digitally processed in GIS to
generate relevant predictor maps to be used as in-
puts in MPM models. The appropriate cell size was
decided by using the formula SN 9 0.0005 as rec-
ommended by Hengl (2006), in reference to geo-
chemical mapping (Najafi et al., 2014). SN is the
scale number, which is equal to A/N 9 102, where
A is total area of the map and N is the number of
observations. In this case study, A was 630.46 9 106
m2 and N for stream sediment geochemical survey
was 728; accordingly, the cell size was 46.53 m (ap-
proximately 50 m). Therefore, the same pixel
dimension of 50 9 50 was used for all the maps in
this study in order to avoid awkward differences in
map overlying. The processing of original data and
the preparation of evidential themes are summa-
rized below.
Geological Data
The geological data used in this study include
lithostratigraphic and structural data. The 1:50,000
scale geological map published by the GIS was used.
The rock types of the SGB as stated before, together
with faults and contacts between lithologic units,
were digitized manually as polygonal and linear
features, respectively. Further, vector data were
converted to rasters, then proximity was applied
wherever necessary, and multiple classes were cre-
ated and weighted according to the MPM models.
Figure 3 represents the derived geological evidence
layers used as inputs to MPM.
Geochemical Data
Stream sediment geochemical data from the
National Geochemical Mapping Program (NGCM)
of the GSI were used in this study (Das et al., 2011;
Sahoo et al., 2018; Behera et al., 2019, 2021). As per
the standard operating procedure of the NGCM, a
Behera, and Panigrahi
drainage map was prepared for the survey of India
toposheet 64 K/11 that comprises the study area and
the toposheet was gridded into small units of 1 km2.
In each 1 km 9 1 km unit cell, stream sediment
samples were carefully collected from 3 to 5 prede-
fined locations essentially on first- and second-order
streams with less than 10 km2 drainage basin at a
suitable site above the confluence point of the main
order channel of the large drainage basin. Accord-
ingly, with an average sampling density of one
sample per 1 km2, 728 samples were collected by
GSI scientists over the entire study area. As per
NGCM norms, each four 1 km2 unit cells were
grouped together forming 182 composite samples
that represent the centers of a 2 km 9 2 km grid
cells. The composite samples were analyzed using
several instrumental techniques as per different
packages under the NGCM. Tight quality-assurance/
quality-control (QA/QC) activities were followed at
every stage of the process in the sampling and
analysis program. The locations of the composite
samples are shown in Behera et al., 2019. In this
study, the concentration of gold (Au) and other
pathfinder elements (Ag, Sb, As, Hg and Se) of close
chemical affinity were used as indicators of gold
mineralization to determine geochemical anomalies
in the study area.
Mapping of geochemical anomalies based on
stream sediment data can be performed using two
approaches, viz., continuous field model and discrete
field model (Carranza, 2010). Continuous filed
model is based on interpolation of geochemical data
(Lima et al., 2003; Parsa et al., 2017b), whereas
discrete filed model is based on sample catchment
basin (SCB) analysis of stream sediments (Parsa
et al., 2016; Yousefi et al., 2013). A critical com-
parison of these two approaches can be found in
Carranza (2010). Both approaches are appropriate
depending on the mapping scale of exploration. As
discussed by Carranza (2010), in regional scale
exploration where the objective is to delineate broad
anomalous zones for further detailed survey, the use
of continuous field modeling is advantageous over
discrete field modeling given that the stream sedi-
ment sampling density must be sufficiently high and
there must be positive spatial autocorrelation
exhibited by uni-element concentration in stream
sediments. Therefore, it is justified to use the con-
tinuous field model in our study considering the facts
that the sampling density was sufficiently high and
all the element concentrations used in this study had
positive Morans index showing positive spatial
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Figure 4. Geochemical evidence layers of gold pathfinder elements (stream

sediment geochemistry) used as inputs to GIS for gold prospectivity mapping: (a)
Au anomaly map; (b) As anomaly map; (c) Ag anomaly map; (d) Hg anomaly map;
(e) Sb anomaly map; (f) Se anomaly map.
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Table 3. Basic statistics of stream sediment geochemical data of selected gold pathfinder elements used in this study for gold prospectivity
mapping

Element Minimum concentration *First threshold *Second threshold Maximum concentration Mean Standard deviation

Au (ppb) 2 13.80 38.01 58 4.16 7.06

As (ppm) 1 25.12 70.79 80 11.83 13.08
Ag (ppb) 18 79.43 141.25 180 30.42 26.73
Hg (ppb) 4 15.14 23.99 40 12.95 7.18
Sb (ppm) 0.1 1.32 2.51 3.16 0.79 0.70
Se (ppm) 0.06 0.30 0.55 0.82 0.27 0.16

*The first and second threshold values were obtained by concentration–area (C–A) fractal method (see Behera et al., 2019 for details of
applying this method)

Figure 5. Geophysical evidence layers used as inputs to GIS for gold prospectivity mapping: (a) proximity to the aero-
magnetic lineaments, (b) K/Th ratio map derived from airborne gamma-ray spectrometric data.

autocorrelation. The point geochemical concentra-
tions of the elements were then transformed into
continuous field using inverse distance weighting
(IDW) interpolation technique. The performance of
IDW is satisfactory in interpolating the stream sed-
iment data because it returns estimated values for all
the elements nearly identical to measured values
(Carranza, 2010; Lima et al., 2008). The continuous
rasters of the interpolated element concentration
values are shown in Figure 4. The minimum, maxi-
mum and the mean concentration of each element
are given in Table 3. The element concentration
data used in our study follow neither a normal nor a
log-normal distribution, rather positively skewed
with upper value tails following a power-law distri-
bution. Therefore, the concentration–area (C–A)
multifractal method was used to determine thresh-
olds for separating highly anomalous zones from
moderately anomalous zones and the moderately
anomalous zones from background (see Behera
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Figure 6. Satellite imagery of the study area used for digital image processing: (a) ASTER false color composite (R: Band 3,
G: Band 2, B: Band 1) image of the study area; (b) Landsat 7 ETM + true color composite (R: Band 3, G: Band 2, B: Band 1)
image of the study area.

et al. (2019) for details of analyzing stream sediment
geochemical data and application of C–A fractal).
The threshold values obtained from C–A fractal
analysis (Table 3) were used to classify the spatial
dispersion of element concentration and generate
multiclass geochemical evidential layers.
Geophysical Data
Aeromagnetic and airborne gamma-ray spec-
trometric surveys have been successfully applied in
the delineation of gold and other metalliferous
mineralized zones of hydrothermal origin in many
parts of the world (Chiozzi et al., 2007; Ercan et al.,
2014; Wemegah et al., 2015). Crustal breaks such as,
among others, shear zones and faults, which form
pathways for mineralizing fluids, are often associ-
ated with linear negative magnetic anomalies be-
cause hydrothermal alteration processes readily
destroy magnetic minerals (mainly magnetite and
pyrrhotite), thereby creating magnetic quiet zones
(Ercan et al., 2014; Haidarian et al., 2010; Weme-
gah et al., 2015). In contrast, hydrothermal alter-
ation processes often elevate significantly the
concentration of potassium in rocks by forming
minerals such as, among others, muscovite, biotite,
illite and adularia (Chiozzi et al., 2007; Ercan et al.,
2014). Therefore, gamma rays produced by the
decay of naturally occurring radioactive elements
(principally K, U and Th) in the surface and shal-
low rock/soil profile can be used to map variations
in potassium (K) distribution. The ratio of K to Th
(or U sometimes) is often used to map K-enriched
zones rather than taking K count alone because it
is assumed that U and Th are not strongly affected
by alteration.
The geophysical maps used in this study were
obtained from Sridhar et al. (2015). The reduced-to-
pole (RTP) of total magnetic intensity (TMI) map
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Figure 7. Reference spectral reflectance curves of selected minerals from USGS spectral library: (a) iron oxide/hydroxide
minerals with absorption feature resulted from Fe(2+)–Fe(3+) charge-transfer transition; (b) hydrothermal alteration
minerals with Al–O–H characteristic absorption; (c) hydrothermal alteration minerals with Fe, Mg–O–H and CO3
characteristic absorption. (d) Slope map (pixel values > 10̊) produced from ASTER DEM (digital elevation model) data.

with magnetic lineaments and a composite (K–Th– Satellite Image Processing

U) ternary map overlaid by K/Th ratio map (with
ratios above 3000) were published in Sridhar et al.
(2015). The average K/Th ratio in the upper crust is
(1900–2000); therefore, values above this are pre-
sumed to indicate hydrothermal alteration zones
enriched in K (Sridhar et al., 2015). The published
maps were georeferenced to UTM projection 44 N,
and the magnetic lineaments and the K-enriched
zones (K/Th ratio > 3000) were digitized as lines
and polygons, respectively, on a GIS platform. The
vector files were further transformed into raster and
applied with classes based on proximity (Fig. 5) and
used as evidential maps in MPM models.
Mapping Hydrothermal Alteration Zones
Mapping of hydrothermal alteration zones is
used effectively and widely in mineral exploration
(Carranza & Hale, 2002; Sabins, 1999). Satellite
images, because of their extensive spatial coverage,
allow remote mapping of key alteration minerals on
a regional scale based on their spectral characteris-
tics (Gabr et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2007). In the
current study, a cloud-free ASTER Level 1 Preci-
sion Terrain Corrected Registered At-Sensor
Radiance (AST_L1T) data product
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Table 4. Principal components analysis and eigenvector statistics for ASTER bands (VNIR + SWIR) for mapping possible hydrothermal
alteration zones by Crosta technique

Analysis Bands PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4

Mapping iron oxide/hydroxide mineral zones using characteristic absorption feature in AST_B1 0.273  0.034 0.514 0.812
the VNIR region (0.35–1.4 lm) resulted from Fe(2+)–Fe(3+) charge transfer transi- AST_B2 0.441 0.082 0.683  0.577
tion, viz., hematite, goethite and limonite with significant reflectance in AST_B2 AST_B3 0.396  0.897  0.191  0.050
(0.63–0.69 lm) and characteristic absorption in AST_B1 (0.52–0.60 lm) AST_B4 0.758 0.433  0.483 0.069
Mapping of hydrothermal alteration mineral zones using Al–O–H fundamental AST_B2  0.375  0.059  0.908  0.179
absorption feature in SWIR region (1.4–3 lm), viz., kaolinite, montmorillonite, AST_B3  0.318  0.914 0.151 0.202
muscovite and illite with significant reflectance in AST_B4 (1.60–1.70 lm) and AST_B4  0.663 0.157 0.387  0.621
characteristic absorption in AST_B6 (2.185–2.225 lm) AST_B6  0.564 0.369 0.064 0.736
Mapping of hydrothermal alteration mineral zones using Fe, Mg–O–H and CO3fun- AST_B1  0.259  0.137  0.954  0.062
damental absorption feature in SWIR region (1.4–3 lm), viz., biotite, chlorite, epi- AST_B3  0.340  0.912 0.219 0.066
dote and calcite with significant reflectance in AST_B6 (2.185–2.225 lm) and AST_B6  0.645 0.235 0.187  0.702
characteristic absorption in AST_B8 (2.295–2.365 lm) AST_B8  0.633 0.307 0.082 0.706

Values in bold represent the presence of target hydrothermal alteration minerals

(AST_L1- epidote (Pour et al., 2012; Sheikhrahimi et al., 2019).

T_00304072007051355_20150519001240_42569) ac-
quired on April 7, 2007, taken from WRS path 142
and row 045 was obtained from USGS EROS cen-
ter. Data from AST_L1T have been geometrically
corrected, rotated to a north-up UTM projection,
and calibrated at-sensor radiance that corresponds
to ASTER Level 1B (AST_L1B). ASTER false
color composite (R: Band 3, G: Band 2, B: Band 1)
image of the study area is shown in Figure 6a. Be-
cause vegetation has higher reflectance in the near
infrared (NIR) region (Band 3 of ASTER), red
pixels in Figure 6a represent healthy vegetation.
ASTER spectral bands in the VNIR (visible and
near-infrared) region (0.52 to 0.86 lm) are capable
of mapping iron oxides/hydroxide minerals, viz.,
hematite, goethite and limonite, due to their char-
acteristic absorption features resulting from
Fe(2 +)–Fe(3 +) charge transfer transition (Porwal
& González-Álvarez, 2019; Sheikhrahimi et al.,
2019). These minerals have high reflectance in AS-
TER band 2 (red band) and absorption in band 1
(green band) (which is equivalent to 3:1 in Landsat
ETM +) (Rowan & Mars, 2003) (Fig. 7a). The
SWIR (short-wavelength infrared) region (1.6 to
2.43 lm) of ASTER has great potential to map
hydrothermal alteration zones because of the
greater availability of spectral information in this
region. Based on the characteristic spectral signa-
ture, the target alteration minerals can be grouped
into two classes. One group is minerals with Al–O–
H fundamental absorption features such as kaolin-
ite, montmorillonite, muscovite and illite. Another
group is minerals having Fe, Mg–O–H fundamental
absorption features such as biotite, chlorite and
Al–OH bearing minerals have high reflectance in
ASTER band 4 and significant absorption in band 6
(Fig. 7b). On the other hand, Fe, Mg–OH bearing
minerals have high reflectance in band 6 and strong
absorption in band 8 (Fig. 7c).
The image used in this study was pre-georefer-
enced to UTM zone 44 North projection with WGS-
84 datum. Atmospheric correction was applied to
the input ASTER radiance image to convert it into a
surface reflectance image. The fast line-of-sight
atmospheric analysis of hypercubes (FLAASH)
algorithm of ENVI (Environment for Visualizing
Images) version 5.3 was used for this purpose. The
SWIR bands with 30-m spatial resolution were layer
stacked and resampled to match with the VNIR
bands with 15-m spatial resolution. The nearest
neighbor resampling method was applied because it
uses the value of the closest input pixel for the
output pixel value without any interpolation and it
preserves the pixel values similar to its original value
in the resampled images (Bhatta, 2008). The result-
ing reflectance values were rescaled to the 0–1 range
using band math in ENVI so that the resulting re-
flectance spectra of the image can be compared di-
rectly with the reference spectra of the end member
minerals. A subscene of 1901 9 2016 pixels covering
the study area was extracted for analysis. A spatial
subset of the image comprising the Survey of India
(SOI) toposheet no. 64 K/11 was used in this study,
which represents the area of interest within
2113¢51.53¢¢–2130¢24.4¢¢ N latitudes and
8230¢2.17¢¢–8246¢42.37¢¢ E longitudes.
The Crosta technique (Loughlin, 1991) was
adopted to map iron oxide and key alteration min-
Behera, and Panigrahi
 Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India
b Figure 8. Evidence layers derived from digital image processing
of satellite images: (a) map showing iron oxide/hydroxide mineral
zones (hematite, goethite, limonite) produced using PCA of
ASTER bands (1, 2, 3 and 4); (b) map showing hydrothermal
alteration mineral zones (kaolinite, montmorillonite, muscovite,
illite) with Al–O–H characteristic absorption produced using
PCA of ASTER bands (2, 3, 4 and 6); (c) map showing
hydrothermal alteration mineral zones (biotite, chlorite, epidote,
calcite) with Fe, Mg–O–H and CO3 characteristic absorption
produced using PCA of ASTER bands (1, 3, 6 and 8); (d) regional
lineament density map generated from the first PC of Landsat
ETM + pan-sharpened VNIR and SWIR bands (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and
7).
eral end members by applying principal components
(PC) analysis to subsets of ASTER bands. Three
spectral subsets with each subset comprising four
bands were selected based on the position of char-
acteristic spectral features of the target mineral end
members in the VNIR and SWIR portions of the
spectrum (Table 4). The Crosta technique allows the
selection of PCs that concentrate spectral informa-
tion associated with a specific surficial target by
examining the eigenvector loadings and relating
each PC to original spectral bands that contribute
most of the data to it (Carranza & Hale, 2001;
Crosta et al., 2003). For enhancing a particular
mineral, PC image that has high eigenvector load-
ings with opposite signs for diagnostic absorption
reflectance spectral features of target mineral is se-
lected. The PC image that has strong eigenvector
loading with opposite signs for diagnostic absorption
and reflectance bands of target mineral is selected to
enhance that target mineral. The positive and neg-
ative signs of eigenvectors represent targets as bright
and dark pixels, respectively, and can be inverted by
multiplication to  1. Table 4 represents PC eigen-
vector statistics of the ASTER band set (1, 2, 3 and
4) for mapping iron oxide. The eigenvector matrix
shows that the PC2 has high negative loading on
band 3, and it represents vegetation in dark pixels.
PC4 has a high negative loading on band 2
( 0.577238) and high positive loading on band 1
(0.812108), indicating that pixels are likely to con-
tain iron oxide/hydroxide minerals will be repre-
sented as dark or low values in PC4. All pixels in the
PC4 image were multiplied by  1 to facilitate
visualization. In ASTER data, minerals such as
biotite, epidote and chlorite containing Fe, Mg–OH
can be distinguished by high reflectivity in band 6
and distinctive absorption in band 8 (Amer et al.,
2016; Rowan & Mars, 2003). Therefore, PC4*( 1)
was chosen to indicate pixels likely to contain target
minerals based on eigenvector loadings on bands 1,
3, 6 and 8. Similarly, minerals containing Al–OH,
such as muscovite, kaolinite, montmorillonite and
illite exhibit significant absorption in band 6 and
high reflection in band 4 (Mars & Rowan, 2006).
Therefore, after analyzing the eigenvector loadings
on bands 2, 3, 4 and 6, the PC4*( 1) was chosen to
map the target minerals.
The alteration zones obtained by ASTER im-
age processing were present sporadically throughout
the study area and were expected to comprise a re-
gional feature. Therefore, the resulting zones were
classified into transported and in situ using a slope
map obtained from ASTER DEM. Pixels with
slopes of > 10 were taken as erosion surfaces, and it
was assumed that no transported soil is present in
these locales (Fig. 7d). The alteration zones were
overlaid on the zones of erosion surfaces (pix-
els > 10 in the slope map), and the intersecting
pixels were treated as in-situ alteration zones
(Fig. 8a, b and c). Pixel values of in situ alteration
zones were reclassified subsequently into four clas-
ses with 0, Mean + 1Stdv and Mean + 2Stdv as
thresholds, and the respective classes were assigned
with weights (Tables 5 and 6).
Lineament Density Map
The study of regional to local scale lineament
patterns has important implications to ore deposits
and mineral exploration, as successfully applied in
many situations (e.g., Ananaba & Ajakaiye, 1987;
Austin & Blenkinsop, 2009; Masoud & Koike, 2011;
Rowan & Wetlaufer, 1981). From the geological
point of view, lineaments are linear features on the
earths surface that correspond to underlying geo-
logical structures such as faults, fractures, joints,
shear zones, boundaries between lithostratigraphic
formations, igneous intrusions and all other linear to
curvilinear geomorphic features (Kocal et al., 2004;
Thannoun, 2013). It is generally observed that min-
ing districts usually tend to occur at intersections of
lineaments and in regions with high density of lin-
eaments because several geological structures are
often associated with phenomena responsible for ore
mineralization (Rowan & Bowers, 1995; Sabins,
1999; Sedrette & Rebai, 2016). In this study, a
semiautomatic lineament extraction approach was
applied to a Landsat ETM + mosaic of the SGB to
interpret regional lineaments. The wide spatial
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Table 5. List of binary evidential maps, binary classes and their corresponding weights for gold prospectivity mapping using BIO

Data Binary evidential maps Map Binary classes Binary

weights for class
BIO weights

Geological Metabasalts 8 Present 1

Absent 0
Metagabbro 6 Present 1
Absent 0
Metaultramafites 6 Present 1
Absent 0
Metarhyolites 4 Present 1
Absent 0
Banded iron formation 4 Present 1
Absent 0
Proximity to dolerite dyke 4 Present 1
Absent 0
Proximity to faults 8 Present 1
Absent 0
Proximity to quartz veins 8 Present 1
Absent 0
Proximity to contact of metabasalts with younger granite 9 Present 1
and acidic metavolcanics Absent 0
Geochemical Au (in ppb) 9 13.81–58.00 1
(stream sedi- 02.00–13.80 0
ment) As (in ppm) 6 25.13–80.00 1
01.00–25.12 0
Ag (in ppb) 6 079.44–180.00 1
018.00–079.43 0
Hg (in ppb) 7 24.00–40.00 1
04.00–23.99 0
Sb (in ppm) 6 2.52–3.16 1
0.10–2.51 0
Se (in ppm) 7 0.56–0.82 1
0.06–0.55 0
Geophysical Aeromagnetic lineament 5 Distance < 250 m 1
Distance > 250 m 0
K/Th ratio map 6 K/Th ratio > 3000 1
K/Th ratio < 3000 0
Satellite image Map of iron oxide/hydroxide mineral zones 9 Pixel values of PC im- 1
age > (M + 1STDV)
Pixel values of PC im- 0
age < (M + 1STDV)
Map of hydrothermal alteration mineral zones with Al–O–H 9 Pixel values of PC im- 1
characteristic absorption age > (M + 1STDV)
Pixel values of PC im- 0
age < (M + 1STDV)
Map of hydrothermal alteration mineral zones with Fe, Mg– 9 Pixel values of PC im- 1
O–H and CO3 characteristic absorption age > (M + 1STDV)
Pixel values of PC im- 0
age < (M + 1STDV)
Regional lineament density map 5 Pixel values (0.007– 1
0.014)
Pixel values (0.000– 0
0.007)

M mean, STDV standard deviation

Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Table 6. List of multiclass evidential maps, map classes and their corresponding weights for gold prospectivity mapping using MIO and FL
modeling

Data Evidential maps Map Map classes Class Class score Fuzzy member-
Weights weights (Xij = Wi 9 Wj) ship (FXij),
(Wi) (Wj) Eq. (5)

Geological Favorable lithology 7 Metabasalts 8 56 0.65

Metagabbro 6 42 0.31
Metaultramafites 6 42 0.31
Metarhyolites 4 28 0.10
Banded iron for- 4 28 0.10
mation
Rest of litholo- 1 7 0.01
gies
Proximity to dolerite dykes 4 Distance classes (in meters)
< 50 8 32 0.14
50–100 6 24 0.07
100–200 5 20 0.05
> 200 1 4 0.01
Proximity to faults 8 Distance classes (in meters)
< 250 9 72 0.90
250–500 8 64 0.80
500–1000 7 56 0.65
> 1000 1 8 0.01
Proximity to quartz veins 8 Distance classes (in meters)
< 100 9 72 0.90
100–250 7 56 0.65
250–500 6 48 0.45
> 500 1 8 0.01
Proximity to contact of metabasalts with 9 Distance classes (in meters)
younger granite and acidic metavol- < 250 9 81 0.96
canics 250–500 7 63 0.79
500–1000 5 45 0.38
> 1000 1 9 0.02
Geochemical Au 9 Chemical concentration in stream sediments (in ppb)
02.00–13.80 1 9 0.02
13.81–38.01 9 81 0.96
38.02–58.00 9 81 0.96
As 6 Chemical concentration in stream sediments (in ppm)
01.00–25.12 1 6 0.01
25.13–70.79 7 42 0.31
70.80–80.00 9 54 0.60
Ag 6 Chemical concentration in stream sediments (in ppb)
018.00–079.43 1 6 0.01
079.44–141.25 7 42 0.31
141.26–180.00 9 54 0.60
Hg 7 Chemical concentration in stream sediments (in ppb)
04.00–15.14 1 7 0.01
15.15–23.99 7 49 0.48
24.00–40.00 9 63 0.79
Sb 6 Chemical concentration in stream sediments (in ppm)
0.10–1.32 1 6 0.01
1.33–2.51 7 42 0.31
2.52–3.16 9 54 0.60
Se 7 Chemical concentration in stream sediments (in ppm)
0.06–0.30 1 7 0.01
0.31–0.55 7 49 0.48
0.56–0.82 9 63 0.79
Geophysical Aeromagnetic lineament 5 Distance classes (in meters)
< 100 7 35 0.18
100–250 5 25 0.08
250–500 4 20 0.05
> 500 1 5 0.01
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Table 6. continued

Data Evidential maps Map Map classes Class Class score Fuzzy mem-
Weights weights (Xij = Wi 9 Wj) bership (FXij),
(Wi) (Wj) Eq. (5)

K/Th ratio map 6 K/Th ratio > 7 42 0.31

3000
K/Th ratio < 1 6 0.01
3000
Satellite Map of iron oxide/hydroxide mineral zones 9 Classes based on pixel values of PC image
image <0 1 9 0.02
0–(M + 1STDV) 7 63 0.79
(M + 1STDV)– 8 72 0.90
(M + 2STDV)
> (M + 2STDV) 9 81 0.96
Map of hydrothermal alteration mineral zones 9 Classes based on pixel values of PC image
with Al–O–H characteristic absorption <0 1 9 0.02
0–(M + 1STDV) 7 63 0.79
(M + 1STDV)– 8 72 0.90
(M + 2STDV)
> (M + 2STDV) 9 81 0.96
Map of hydrothermal alteration mineral zones 9 Classes based on pixel values of PC image
with Fe, Mg–O–H and CO3 characteristic <0 1 9 0.02
absorption 0–(M + 1STDV) 7 63 0.79
(M + 1STDV)– 8 72 0.90
(M + 2STDV)
> (M + 2STDV) 9 81 0.96
Regional lineament density map 5 Classes with pixel values divided into four equal intervals
High density 7 35 0.18
Moderate density 6 30 0.12
Low density 4 20 0.05
Weak density 1 5 0.01

M Mean, STDV standard deviation

coverage of satellite images encourages their
extensive use in the extraction and analysis of lin-
eaments.
A cloud-free Landsat 7 ETM + collection 1 le-
vel-2 imagery (LANDSAT_PRODUCT_ID = ‘‘
LE07_L1TP_142045_20030412_20170125_01_T1’’)
acquired on April 12, 2003, taken from WRS path
142 and row 045 was obtained from the USGS
EROS center (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov). A
subscene of 950 pixels by 1008 pixels covering the
Survey of India (SOI) toposheet no. 64 K/11 was
used in this study; it represents part of the SGB
within 2113¢51.53¢¢–2130¢24.4¢¢ N latitudes and
8230¢2.17¢¢–8246¢42.37¢¢ E longitudes. The L1TP
processing correction level and tier-1 (T1) represent
the highest available data quality. L1TP data are
radiometrically corrected and orthorectified using
ground control points (GCPs) and a digital elevation
model (DEM) to correct for relief displacement (h
ttps://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/lands
at-collection-1?qt-science_support_page_related_co
n=1#qt-science_support_page_related_con). Land-
sat level-2 science products derived from level-1
data were available through Earth Explorer, which
include atmospherically corrected surface re-
flectance data (https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/
nli/landsat/landsat-science-products). The surface
reflectance image used in this study was pre-geo-
referenced to UTM zone 44 North projection with
WGS-84 datum, and it consisted of six spectral
bands in VNIR and SWIR region, i.e., bands 1–5 and
7. Gram-Schmidt pan sharpening was applied to
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Figure 9. Two-stage fuzzy inference network for gold prospectivity mapping.

Figure 10. Analytical hierarchy for gold prospectivity mapping using FAHP.
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Figure 11. Gold prospectivity maps generated using various knowledge-driven geo-mathematical models: (a) BIO; (b) MIO;
(c) FL; (d) FAHP. Polygons in grey outlines are lithologic units.
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India
these six bands, and the pixel values were rescaled
from 0 to 1. Figure 6b represents Landsat ETM +
true color composite (R: Band 3, G: Band 2, B: Band
1) image of the study area.
In the first step, the PC transformation was
applied to the six pan-sharpened spectral bands of
Landsat ETM + in VNIR and SWIR region, i.e.,
bands 1–5 and 7. The first PC (PC1) was used for
lineament analysis because it carried the maximum
information and, hence, suitable for lineament
extraction. In the second step, 3 9 3 convolution of
Sobel-Kernel directional filters were applied to the
PC1 image in the four principal directions N–S, E–
W, NE–SW and NW–SE. Using ENVI software,
four filtered images with enhanced edge corre-
sponding to four principal directions were produced.
In the third step, the LINE module of PCI Geo-
matica software, which consists of a three-staged
algorithm (i.e., edge detection, thresholding and
curve extraction), was used for autoextraction of
lineaments. Four lineament maps in vector format
with four principal trends were extracted subse-
quently using this approach. In the fourth step, the
automatically extracted lineament maps were ex-
ported to ArcGIS 10.5.1 software and merged into a
single map. The geologically nonsignificant linea-
ments such as those caused by human constructions
and hydrographic lineaments were eliminated man-
ually. A lineament density map (i.e., frequency of
lineaments per unit area) was produced (Fig. 8d).
The pixels in the lineament density map were then
reclassified into classes and subjective weights were
assigned to them (Tables 5 and 6).
INTEGRATION OF EVIDENTIAL LAYERS
FOR GOLD PROSPECTIVITY MAPPING
In total, 17 evidential layers were produced and
integrated using four different knowledge-driven
MPM models, viz., BIO, MIO, FL and FAHP. A
two-stage inference network for FL and a three-level
hierarchical structure for FAHP are shown in Fig-
ures 9 and 10, respectively. In the BIO method,
pixels of each evidential layer were first assigned
either 1 or 0 based on knowledge on the presence or
absence of the favorable spatial features associated
with mineralization. The resulting binary maps were
then each assigned a weight in the ranging of 0–10.
Table 5 shows the list of binary evidential layers with
the assigned weights. Binary maps were multiplied
with respective weights, summed and normalized by
the sum of weights as per Eq. (1). The resulting gold
prospectivity map is shown in Figure 11a. This fig-
ure shows gold prospectivity in a continuous color
bar from the least prospective (lowest prospectivity
value of 0.000) to the most prospective (highest
prospectivity value of 0.389). The higher values
(regions with red and yellow colors) denote the
promising exploration targets in the study area.
However, in the case of MIO method, the input
maps were divided into multiple classes and each
class was assigned a class weight along with the maps
themselves carrying different weights as before. The
multiple classes and the assigned map weights and
class weighs are listed in Table 6. The multiclass
evidence layers were then integrated using Eq. (2)
and the resulting gold prospectivity map is shown in
Figure 11b. This figure shows the gold prospectivity
in a continuous color bar from the least prospectivity
value (1.000) to the highest prospectivity value
(5.599).
For applying the FL model, the Spatial Data
Modeler (Arc SDM) was used as an extension with
ArcGIS to fuzzify the input evidence maps. Fuzzy
membership values (0 to 1) for multiclass evidence
layers were calculated using Eq. (5). The distance
classes close to the favorable linear geological fea-
tures, geochemically anomalous regions, zones of
high lineament density and hydrothermal alteration
were assigned with the highest fuzzy membership
value in respective evidence layers followed by
gradually decreasing fuzzy membership values (Ta-
ble 6). The produced fuzzy evidential maps could be
integrated using one or various combinations of
fuzzy operators. Figure 9 represents the two-stage
inference engine used in this study. In the first stage,
the 17 fuzzy predictor maps were integrated through
fuzzy SUM and fuzzy OR operators and yielded four
intermediate fuzzy maps that represent the signifi-
cance of the input evidence layers for the occurrence
of gold mineralization. In the second stage, the four
intermediate fuzzy predictor maps were combined
using fuzzy gamma operator (c = 0.9) to produce the
gold prospectivity map (Fig. 11c). Figure 11c shows
prospectivity in a continuous color bar from the
lowest fuzzy membership value (prospectivity value
0.042) to the highest fuzzy membership value
(prospectivity value 0.976).
For applying FAHP, a three-level hierarchical
structure (goal–criteria–alternative) was first con-
structed (Fig. 10) and pairwise comparison was
performed. At least three different sets of judge-
ments about the relative importance of each input
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Table 7. List of criteria and alternatives used in FAHP and their corresponding weights for gold prospectivity mapping

Criteria Weight Alternative Local Final

weight weight

Geological 0.261 Quartz veins 0.229 0.060

Faults 0.202 0.052
Younger granite and acidic metavolcanics contact with metabasalts 0.234 0.061
Dolerite dykes 0.167 0.044
Favorable lithology 0.168 0.044
Geochemical 0.267 Au 0.210 0.056
As 0.158 0.042
Ag 0.146 0.039
Hg 0.176 0.047
Sb 0.140 0.037
Se 0.170 0.045
Geophysical 0.179 Aeromagnetic lineament 0.47 0.084
K/Th ratio map 0.53 0.095
Satellite image pro- 0.293 Iron oxide/hydroxide mineral zones 0.265 0.078
cessing Hydrothermal alteration mineral zones with Al–O–H characteristic absorption 0.265 0.078
Hydrothermal alteration mineral zones with Fe, Mg–O–H and CO3 charac- 0.265 0.078
teristic absorption
Regional lineament density map 0.204 0.060

evidence layer were incorporated in the analysis. For
pairwise comparison matrices (PCMs), Saaty’s nine-
point scale was employed to quantify relative pref-
erences among alternatives. The PCMs for geologi-
cal, geochemical and geophysical and satellite image
processing results are presented separately in ‘‘Ap-
pendix A’’. The consistency ratios (CRs) for the
PCMs were calculated using Super Decisions V3, an
open-source software developed by the Creative
Decisions Foundation, and it was ensured that all
the CRs were less than 0.10, which approves the
plausibility of the quantified subjective judgements
used in this study. The FAHP algorithm developed
by Chang (1996) using triangular fuzzy numbers
(TFNs) followed by extent analysis was employed in
this study. The detailed step by step application of
the FAHP is described by Behera et al. (2019). In
the next step, values in the PCMs were converted to
TFNs, and fuzzy evaluation matrices were con-
structed for each set of alternatives. The fuzzy syn-
thetic extents, priority vectors and normalized
weight vectors were calculated using respective
equations. Finally, the weights of the alternatives
called the local weights were derived and the final
weights were calculated by multiplying the weights
of the alternatives with their respective criterion
weight (Table 7). All the evidential maps were
integrated using the final weights producing the gold
prospectivity map (Fig. 11d). Figure 11d shows gold
prospectivity in a continuous color bar from the least
prospective (prospectivity value 0.005) to the most
prospective (prospectivity value 0.083).
EXPLORATION TARGETING AND RISK
ANALYSIS
The prospectivity maps produced (Fig. 11)
show gold prospectivity in continuous color scales;
therefore, it is difficult to interpret the maps objec-
tively for precise delineation of exploration targets.
In addition, in practical geological application of the
prospectivity models, it is usually avoided to use
prospectivity values in an absolute sense, rather they
are used in a relative manner (Agterberg & Cheng,
2002; Lindsay et al., 2014; Porwal et al., 2003). In this
study, the values of prospectivity were used in a
relative term by generating binary prospectivity
maps for each model. The binary prospectivity maps
indicate relative prospectivity for gold occurrence by
differentiating regions with high prospectivity values
from regions with low prospectivity values. The
graphical procedure suggested by Porwal et al.,
(2003, 2006) was used to determine the threshold
prospectivity values for separating prospective and
unprospective areas for gold exploration. Prior to it,
the prospectivity values returned by each knowl-
edge-driven model were normalized to a common
scale in the 0–1 range, thus:
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Table 8. Normalized prospectivity values and their respective areal coverage in knowledge-driven prospectivity maps in Fig. 11

Knowledge-driven prospec- Normalized prospectivity values Cumulative normalized Area (sq. Cumulative area
tivity model (equal intervals) prospectivity values km) (sq. km)

BIO (0.9–1.0) 0.9 0.9 0.078 0.078

(0.8–0.9) 0.8 1.7 0.485 0.563
(0.7–0.8) 0.7 2.4 1.530 2.093
(0.6–0.7) 0.6 3.0 4.403 6.495
(0.5–0.6) 0.5 3.5 10.635 17.130
(0.4–0.5) 0.4 3.9 19.843 36.973
(0.3–0.4) 0.3 4.2 54.523 91.495
(0.2–0.3) 0.2 4.4 76.150 167.645
(0.1–0.2) 0.1 4.5 91.495 259.140
(0.0–0.1) 0.0 4.5 371.320 630.460
MIO (0.9–1.0) 0.9 0.9 0.208 0.208
(0.8–0.9) 0.8 1.7 1.868 2.075
(0.7–0.8) 0.7 2.4 6.378 8.453
(0.6–0.7) 0.6 3.0 14.795 23.248
(0.5–0.6) 0.5 3.5 29.428 52.675
(0.4–0.5) 0.4 3.9 53.483 106.158
(0.3–0.4) 0.3 4.2 80.713 186.870
(0.2–0.3) 0.2 4.4 77.943 264.813
(0.1–0.2) 0.1 4.5 102.453 367.265
(0.0–0.1) 0.0 4.5 263.195 630.460
FL (0.9–1.0) 0.9 0.9 1.878 1.878
(0.8–0.9) 0.8 1.7 4.890 6.768
(0.7–0.8) 0.7 2.4 14.808 21.575
(0.6–0.7) 0.6 3.0 46.640 68.215
(0.5–0.6) 0.5 3.5 35.428 103.643
(0.4–0.5) 0.4 3.9 64.458 168.100
(0.3–0.4) 0.3 4.2 83.360 251.460
(0.2–0.3) 0.2 4.4 68.438 319.898
(0.1–0.2) 0.1 4.5 102.588 422.485
(0.0–0.1) 0.0 4.5 207.975 630.460
FAHP (0.9–1.0) 0.9 0.9 0.120 0.120
(0.8–0.9) 0.8 1.7 0.175 0.295
(0.7–0.8) 0.7 2.4 0.388 0.683
(0.6–0.7) 0.6 3.0 1.188 1.870
(0.5–0.6) 0.5 3.5 2.878 4.748
(0.4–0.5) 0.4 3.9 7.165 11.913
(0.3–0.4) 0.3 4.2 22.483 34.395
(0.2–0.3) 0.2 4.4 60.678 95.073
(0.1–0.2) 0.1 4.5 124.840 219.913
(0.0–0.1) 0.0 4.5 410.548 630.460

Values in bold italics represent threshold values for separating prospective and unprospective areas.

The normalized prospectivity values arranged in

Poriginal  Pmin
Pnormalised ¼ ð7Þ descending order and their respective areal coverage
Pmax  Pmin are given in Table 8. The obtained cumulative
prospectivity (CP) values (normalized) were plotted
where Pnormalized and Poriginal denote, respectively,
against the cumulative areas (CA). The CA–CP
the normalized and original prospectivity values of
plots are shown in Figure 12. It is evident from the
pixels returned by a prospectivity model, and Pmax
CA–CP plots that the variation of CP against CA in
and Pmin are, respectively, the maximum and mini-
each prospectivity model (BIO, MIO, FL, FAHP)
mum prospectivity values returned by the same
yielded a curve with slopes that are steep at the
prospectivity model. Accordingly, using Eq. 7, four
beginning, gentle in the middle, and finally become
normalized prospectivity maps were obtained cor-
flat. This implies that the rate at which the cumula-
responding to the prospectivity maps in Figure 11.
tive membership values increase declined as the area
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Figure 12. Variation of cumulative prospectivity (normalized) with cumulative area in knowledge-driven gold prospectivity
maps: (a) BIO (Fig. 11a); (b) MIO (Fig. 11b); (c) FL (Fig. 11c); (d) FAHP (Fig. 11d). Data points marked by red arrows at
cumulative prospectivity values of (a) 3.9, (b) 3.5, (c) 3.0 and (d) 4.2 correspond to threshold normalized prospectivity values
of (a) 0.4, (b) 0.5, (c) 0.6 and (d) 0.3, respectively, in Table 8.

increased. By visual inspection, the point of inflex-
ion, where the slope of a curve abruptly changed
(marked by red arrows in Fig. 12), was determined.
The cumulative normalized prospectivity values at
the inflection points were 3.9, 3.5, 3.0 and 4.2 for
BIO (Fig. 12a), MIO (Fig. 12b), FL (Fig. 12c) and
FAHP (Fig. 12d), respectively. The normalized
prospectivity values corresponding to cumulative
normalized prospectivity values at the inflection
point were taken as thresholds (denoted as bold
italic in Table 8). Consequently, threshold values of
0.4, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.3 were determined to distinguish
between regions of high and low prospectivity in the
BIO, MIO, FL and FAHP models, respectively.
The binary prospectivity maps obtained using
the thresholds are shown in Figure 13. In this figure,
the black areas were considered high prospectivity
zone while the white areas were regarded low
prospectivity zone in all four binary prospectivity
maps. The binary classifications of the BIO, MIO,
FL and FAHP models using the CA–CP plots
identified areas of 36.973 km2, 52.675 km2, 68.215
km2 and 34.395 km2 to be high prospectivity zones
comprising 5.86%, 8.36%, 10.82% and 5.46% of the
entire study area, respectively. Thus, all the knowl-
edge-driven prospectivity models had significantly
reduced the search space of exploration for gold in
the study area. In order to enhance the reliability of
results, we used an approach based on unique con-
ditions of binary prospectivity maps to classify high
prospectivity zones derived from all four predictive
models used in this study. Dummy codes 1 and 0
were used to represent the presence and absence,
respectively, of the high prospectivity zone shown on
each binary prospectivity map (Fig. 13). Because we
had four binary prospectivity maps, any combination
of these maps will belong to one of 24 (16) possible
unique conditions. Figure 14 illustrates all such un-
ique conditions resulting from the combination of
the four binary prospectivity maps. Each color class
in Figure 14 represents a zone of high prospectivity
manifested by one or more predictive models. The
areas demarcated as high prospectivity zone by all
fours predictive models will supposedly emphasize
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Figure 13. Binary gold prospectivity maps obtained using threshold normalized prospectivity values in Figure 12: (a) 0.4
for BIO; (b) 0.5 for MIO; (c) 0.6 for FL; and (d) 0.3 for (FAHP). Black areas are high prospectivity zone while white areas
are low prospectivity zone. Polygons in gray outlines are lithologic units.
 Behera, and Panigrahi

Figure 14. Combined gold prospectivity map of the study area showing all unique conditions of binary
prospectivity maps in Figure 13, viz., BIO, MIO, FL and FAHP. Dummy codes 1 and 0 represent the
presence and absence, respectively, of prospective areas shown on each binary prospectivity map. Pixels
depicted as dark brown resulted from the presence of high prospectivity zones delineated by all four binary
prospectivity maps and, therefore, viewed as the most promising exploration targets. Polygons in gray
outlines are lithologic units.

the most prospective regions for gold occurrence.
The pixels depicted as dark brown in Figure 14 re-
sulted from the coincidence of high prospectivity
zones delineated by all four binary prospectivity
maps (1, 1, 1, 1) and therefore viewed as the most
promising exploration targets for gold, constituting
16.285 km2 (2.58%) of the total study area.
Based on the unique conditions prospectivity
map (Fig. 14), it is evident that even though a high
prospectivity value is calculated for a unit cell by a
certain predictive model, its reproducibility in terms
of prospectivity is somehow subject to an intuitive
uncertainty associated with collective exploration
targeting models. Owing to this proposition, if the
prospectivity values for a pixel returned by predic-
tive models deviate greatly, the respective unit cell
lacks confidence and is deemed risky to be a good
prospect to target for gold exploration. Such issues
can be addressed by quantifying the measures of
variability in the prospectivity models (Parsa &
Pour, 2021). For this purpose, a modulated predic-
tive model (Fig. 15) was generated by mapping the
arithmetic mean (l) of the normalized prospectivity
values in each unit cell representing the resultant of
collective exploration targeting models. Percentile
values were used to categorize this map (Fig. 15)
into four classes. Areas having l values higher than
95th percentile were regarded as the most prospec-
tive and viewed as exploration targets for gold,
comprising 5% of the study area. Further, this
method generates uncertainty and confidence that is
required in risk analysis of exploration targets. The
uncertainty (U) is represented by standard deviation
of prospectivity values at each unit cell. On the other
hand, based on probability theory, confidence (C) is
defined by the inverse of the coefficient of variation
(CV), which is the ratio of uncertainty to the mean
(Parsa & Pour, 2021). Thus, C can be estimated by 1/
CV or, l/ U. The l values are used in delineating
exploration targets and the values of U and C are
used in risk analysis of the exploration targets. The
low-risk targets are characterized by high l with
high C and low U. On the other hand, high-risk
targets are those with high l and corresponding low
C and high U. In order to label the exploration
targets (l > 90th percentile) as high- and low-risk,
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

Figure 17. Risk analysis results showing low- and high-risk

Figure 15. Modulated predictive model showing the mean of explorations targets delineated in accordance with rectangles 1
normalized prospectivity values derived from the exploration and 2 in Figure 16.
targeting methods used in this study.

Figure 16. Plots of mean values of individual unit cells versus (a) uncertainty and (b) confidence.

the U and C values were plotted against the l values.
The graph of mean values vs. the values of uncer-
tainty and confidence is shown in Figure 16. The
threshold values for uncertainty and confidence
were determined using Jenks optimization data
clustering method. Accordingly, uncertainty values
were classified into three classes as high uncertainty
(0.148–0.380), medium uncertainty (0.063–0.148)
and low uncertainty (0.000–0.063). In Figure 16a, the
dotted line represents uncertainty value of 0.148
separating high uncertainty from medium to low
uncertainty. Likewise, confidence values were clas-
sified into three classes as high confidence (3.581–
21.650), medium confidence (1.359–3.581) and low
confidence (0.000–1.359). In Figure 16b, the dotted
line represents confidence value of 3.581 separating
high confidence to the above from medium to low
confidence to the below. In Figure 16b, data values
confined by rectangle-1 represent high l with high C,
therefore, considered as low-risk exploration targets.
On the other hand, data values confined by rectan-
gle-2 represent high l with medium to low C, hence,
regarded as high-risk exploration targets. In Fig-
ure 16a, these high- and low-risk exploration targets
correspond to the high and medium–low U data
values, respectively. The map illustrating high- and
low-risk targets is shown in Figure 17. In our study,
an area of 31.52 km2 (5% of the study area) was
demarcated as potential exploration targets, of
which 12.29 km2 (1.95% of the study area) was
considered to be low-risk exploration targets and
19.23 km2 (3.05% of the study area) regarded as
high-risk exploration targets. The areas demarcated
as low-risk targets coincide with the (1, 1, 1, 1) class
in Figure 14, lending credence to the strategy of
unique conditions.
DISCUSSION
The exploration targets resulting from 17 evi-
dence layers and four different methods were eval-
uated with respect to the geology of the study area.
The delineated high prospective locales were found
to be present mostly in the vicinity of the contact
zones of metavolcanics and granitoid. It is well
known that such greenstone-granitoid contacts play
an important role in remobilizing and concentrating
lode type gold mineralization (McCuaig & Kerrich,
1998; Mishra et al., 2018; Roberts, 1987; Williams &
Currie, 1993). Such high prospectivity zones are
demarcated in the northwestern quadrant of the
Behera, and Panigrahi
study region over metabasalts and their contact with
younger granites and acidic metavolcanics as well as
over basic volcanics and their contact with granitoids
in the eastern part of the study area. In addition, the
mapping of possible hydrothermal alteration
assemblages and their spatial proximity to younger
granitoid-metavolcanic contacts also suggest their
significance as potential sites for detailed explo-
ration. The delineation of exploration targets in this
study serves as a first-level MPM for follow-up de-
tailed surveys. In such an area of low exploration
maturity, first-level MPM is a feasible approach for
integrating metallogenic evidential variables. Be-
cause MPM is a multi-faceted and multi-criteria
decision-making approach, it is prone to high degree
of uncertainties. Therefore, modeling mineral
prospectivity is often considered as a high-risk ven-
ture. The present work attempted to process syner-
gistically a wide variety of spatial data across
multiple geoscience disciplines and their logical
integration to identify potential targets for intense
follow-up ground exploration.
The mineral prospectivity maps generated in
this research should not be treated as treasure maps
to find directly the locations of undiscovered de-
posits. Instead, it should be visualized as a scientific
endeavor to support exploration by synthesizing
data related to ore-forming processes and their
mappable expressions. The evidence layers in a
study area do not always indicate new prospects, as
they may not necessarily be associated with miner-
alization. Many a times, it is also likely that, at
specific locales, a particular set of evidence serves as
a reliable indicator whereas at other places the same
combination fails to do so. Such cases arise because
of the intrinsic complexity of mineralization pro-
cesses. Mineral deposits are end products of rela-
tively rare coincidence of certain metallogenically
favorable earth processes in space and time. There-
fore, the inherent uncertainties are unavoidable in
mineral exploration models. However, precise tar-
geting of favorable locales is essential not only to
reduce exploration expenditure, but also to increase
the probability of hitting success as well. Therefore,
it is very important to incorporate all the possible
predictive indicators of mineralization in MPM,
which has been done in this research to guide further
search of gold in the study area.
As regards the knowledge-driven approach
followed in this study, the mathematical models
applied in a GIS environment for predicting mineral
prospectivity are quite different, and so many dif-
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India
ferent results can be obtained and tested by modi-
fying the model parameters like map weights, class
weights, fuzzy inference engine and relative priori-
ties in FAHP. The adopted models can be viewed
through the ascending flexibility from BIO to MIO
to FL to FAHP. The BIO method uses binary
layers of evidence as inputs carrying only map
weights, whereas the MIO method allows more
flexible integration by incorporating both map and
class weights of multiclass layers of evidence. The
common weakness of both BIO and MIO is their
simple linear additive nature. On the other hand,
the nature of integration in FL and FAHP allows a
more flexible combination of evidence layers and
thereby improves the linear additive nature of the
model. A fuzzy inference network, the think tank
of FL, empowers the model to combine evidential
maps in a series of logical steps using a variety of
fuzzy operators instead of combining them all using
one operation. FAHP is a way forward in terms of
flexibility because it not only incorporates multiple
sets of weights based on different judgements on
the relative importance of each evidential map, but
also the simple hierarchical network structure of
AHP enables to better organize and analyze the
geoscience evidence. However, in this case, it is
difficult to say which knowledge-driven mathemat-
ical models performed better than others in delin-
eating exploration targets. This is due to the
absence of a significant number of known mineral
deposits in the study region. Therefore, an ap-
proach based on unique conditions of prospectivity
maps resulting from different predictive models was
used for highlighting the most prospective locations
for gold exploration in the study area. Further, a
risk analysis was performed using a modulated
predictive model that returned merely 5% of the
study area as exploration targets out of which low-
and high-risk exploration targets comprised 1.95%
and 3.05% of the entire study area, respectively.
Given that the objective of this case study was to
reduce the search space and identify potential
locations for gold exploration, the approach fol-
lowed in this study was deemed justified in fulfilling
the objective.
The adopted approach is believed to be reliable
to locate exploration targets efficiently. A previously
identified gold-enriched area, namely the BGB,
where detailed exploration activity is already
underway falls within the high prospectivity region
in all the prospectivity maps. The BGB was explored
and investigated up to the G3 of UNFC by the
Directorate of Geology and Mining (DGM) Chhat-
tisgarh and Geological Survey of India (GSI). The
total gold resource, based on G3 level of explo-
ration, was estimated to be 0.9 Mt (average grade
3 g/t Au) by DGM and 1.8 Mt (average grade 0.7 g/t
Au) by GSI. Therefore, the coincidence of the gold-
enriched block and the predicted high prospective
zones testifies to some extent the reliability of the
results and the suitability of the adopted knowledge-
driven approach in locating exploration targets.
Therefore, the regions demarcated to have very high
prospectivity are promising targets that need higher-
level detailed exploration. It is also suggested to
implement such knowledge-driven approaches in
well-explored brown field exploration terrains hav-
ing a good number of known mineralization. The
inferences obtained from such research will guide
the regional scale survey in similar geologically
potential areas of low exploration maturity.
CONCLUSIONS
In total, 17 evidential layers across four geo-
science disciplines, viz., geological, geochemical,
geophysical and remote sensing, were analyzed and
integrated on a GIS platform using four different
knowledge-driven prospectivity models, viz., binary
index overlay, multiclass index overlay, fuzzy logic
and fuzzy analytic hierarchy process. Cumulative
Area—Cumulative Prospectivity (CA-CP) graphical
procedure was used to determine the thresholds for
separating areas of high and low prospectivity. The
binary prospectivity maps thus produced were
combined using a unique conditions approach to
locate the most prospective areas for gold mani-
fested by all four predictive models used in this
study. A risk analysis was performed to identify the
low- and high-risk exploration targets in the study
area. The adopted knowledge-driven approach
effectively narrowed down the study area by delin-
eating targets for higher-level exploration. The
prospectivity maps generated in this paper are ex-
pected to serve as a decision-support system for the
exploration geoscientists in designing an efficient
survey plan for further search of gold in the study
area. All of the methodologies and approaches used
in this study may be used to explore for gold in
similar places elsewhere and can be adopted in
search for other types of mineral deposits.
 Behera, and Panigrahi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS See Table 9.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Geo-

logical Survey of India (GSI) for providing access to
Table 9. Pairwise comparison matrices (PCMs) for criteria and
the stream sediment geochemical data required for
alternatives used in this study (refer to the acronyms given at the
this research. We also acknowledge the USGS end of the table)
EROS data center for providing the ASTER and
Landsat ETM+ data used in this research. The au- PCM for input criteria
thors are also thankful to the Atomic Minerals GL GC GP RS
Directorate for Exploration and Research of the J1 (CR: 0.023)
Department of Atomic Energy, Government of In- GL 1 1/2 2 1
dia, and Sridhar et al. (2015) whose airborne geo- GC 2 1 2 1
physical survey results have been used in this study. GP 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
RS 1 1 2 1
ESRI India is also acknowledged for providing the J2 (CR: 0.045)
geospatial software such as ArcGIS, ENVI that are GL 1 1/2 2 1/2
utilized during the preparation of this manuscript. GC 2 1 2 1/2
We gratefully acknowledge Mohammad Parsa and GP 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
an anonymous reviewer for their constructive com- RS 2 2 2 1
J3 (CR: 0.070)
ments which have helped us in improving the quality GL 1 2 2 2
of our work and presentation significantly. GC 1 1 1/2 1
GP 1/2 2 1 1
RS 1/2 1 1 1
PCM for Geological (GL) Alternatives
GL1 GL2 GL3 GL4 GL5
APPENDIX A: PAIRWISE COMPARISON J1 (CR: 0.030)
MATRICES FOR FUZZY AHP GL1 1 2 2 2 2
GL2 1/2 1 2 2 2
A detailed discussion on the steps for applying GL3 1/2 1/2 1 2 2
fuzzy AHP method along with the associated equa- GL4 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 1
GL5 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 1
tions can be found in Behera et al. (2019). Interested J2 (CR: 0.083)
readers are referred to Saaty (1977), Chang (1996), GL1 1 1/2 1/2 1/2 2
Brunnelli (2014) and Enrique Mu (2017). In the fol- GL2 2 1 1/2 1/2 1/2
lowing section, the pairwise comparison matrices GL3 2 2 1 1 2
(PCMs) have been given for geological, geochemical GL4 2 2 1 1 1
GL5 1/2 2 1/2 1 1
and geophysical and satellite image processing results J3 (CR: 0.017)
(Table 8). Three different sets of judgements on the GL1 1 2 1 2 2
relative importance of each input evidence layers GL2 1/2 1 1/2 2 1
were incorporated in the analysis. Saaty’s nine-point GL3 1 2 1 2 2
pairwise comparison scale was used to quantify the GL4 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
GL5 1/2 1 1/2 2 1
relative preferences of the alternatives in pairwise PCM for Geochemical (GC) Alternatives
comparison matrices (PCMs). The consistency ratios GC1 GC2 GC3 GC4 GC5 GC6
(CRs) for the PCMs were calculated using Super J1 (CR: 0.030)
Decisions V3, a freely available software developed GC1 1 2 1 1 2 2
by the Creative Decisions Foundation and it was GC2 1/2 1 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
GC3 1 2 1 1/2 2 2
ensured that all the CRs are less than 0.10 which GC4 1 2 2 1 2 2
approves the plausibility of the quantified subjective GC5 1/2 2 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
judgements used in this study. The triangular fuzzy GC6 1/2 2 1/2 1/2 2 1
numbers (TFN), fuzzy synthetic extents, priority J2 (CR: 0.043)
vectors and normalized weight vectors were calcu- GC1 1 2 2 2 2 2
GC2 1/2 1 2 2 2 2
lated using the respective equations (Behera et al., GC3 1/2 1/2 1 1/2 2 2
2019). Finally, the corresponding weights for criteria GC4 1/2 1/2 2 1 2 2
and alternatives were derived (Table 7 in the manu- GC5 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
script) and used for gold prospectivity mapping. GC6 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 2 1
Gold Prospectivity Mapping in the Sonakhan Greenstone Belt, Central India

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