Ilkhanate

The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate (Persian: ‫اﯾﻠﺨﺎﻧﺎن‬,

Ilxānān), known to the Mongols as Hülegü Ulus (Mongolian: Ilkhanate
Хүлэгийн улс, Hu’legīn Uls)[5] was a khanate established ‫اﯾﻠﺨﺎﻧﺎن‬
from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire, ruled by
1256–1335/1353
the Mongol House of Hulagu. Hulagu Khan, the son of Tolui
and grandson of Genghis Khan, inherited the Middle Eastern
part of the Mongol Empire after his brother Möngke Khan
died in 1260. Its core territory lies in what is now part of the
countries of Iran, Azerbaijan, and Turkey. At its greatest
extent, the Ilkhanate also included parts of modern Iraq,
Armenia, Georgia, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, part
of modern Dagestan, part of modern Tajikistan. Later
Ilkhanate rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295, converted to
Islam. In the 1330s, the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the Black
Death. Its last khan Abu Sa'id died in 1335, after which the The Ilkhanate at its greatest extent
khanate disintegrated.
Status Nomadic empire
Division of the
Mongol Empire
Contents Capital Maragheh (1256–
1265)
Definition
Tabriz (1265–
History 1306)
Origin Soltaniyeh (1306–
Hulagu Khan 1335)
Middle period (1265–1291)
Common languages Persian (official)[1]
Religious shift (1291–1316)
Mongolian[1]
Disintegration (1316–1357)
Arabic[2]
Franco-Mongol alliance
Religion Shamanism,
Government Nestorianism and
Legacy Buddhism (1256–
1295)
Ilkhan as a tribal title in 19th/20th century Iran
Islam (1295–1335)
Ilkhans
House of Hulagu (1256–1335; Ilkhanate Mongol Government Monarchy
kings) Khan
House of Ariq Böke • 1256–1265 Hulagu Khan
• 1316–1335 Abu Sa'id
House of Hulagu (1336–1357)
House of Hasar Legislature Kurultai
History
Family tree (House of Hulagu)
• Established 1256
See also
• Disestablished 1335/1353
Notes Area
References 1310 est.[3][4] 3,750,000 km2
(1,450,000 sq mi)
External links Preceded by Succeeded by
Mongol Jalayirids
Empire Chobanids
Definition Abbasid Muzaffarids
Caliphate Kartids
According to the historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, Kublai Nizari
Sarbadars
Khan granted Hulagu (Hülegü) the title of Ilkhan after his Ismaili
state Injuids
defeat of Ariq Böke. The term ilkhan here means "khan of the Mihrabanids
Sultanate
tribe, khan of the 'ulus'" and this inferior "khanship" refers to of Rum Eretnids
the initial deference to Möngke Khan and his successor Great Kingdom of Kingdom of
Khans of the Mongol empire. The title "Ilkhan", borne by the Georgia Georgia
descendants of Hulagu and later other Borjigin princes in Qutlugh- Ottoman
Persia, does not materialize in the sources until after 1260.[6] Khanids Empire
Ayyubid Mamluks
dynasty Sutayids
History

Origin

When Muhammad II of Khwarazm executed a contingent of merchants dispatched by the Mongols, Genghis
Khan declared war on the Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty in 1219. The Mongols overran the empire, occupying
the major cities and population centers between 1219 and 1221. Iran was ravaged by the Mongol
detachment under Jebe and Subutai, who left the area in ruin. Transoxiana also came under Mongol control
after the invasion.[7]

Muhammad's son Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu returned to Iran in c. 1224 after fleeing to India. The rival Turkic
states, which were all that remained of his father's empire, quickly declared their allegiance to Jalal. He
repulsed the first Mongol attempt to take Central Persia. However, Jalal ad-Din was overwhelmed and
crushed by Chormaqan's army sent by the Great Khan Ögedei in 1231. During the Mongol expedition,
Azerbaijan and the southern Persian dynasties in Fars and Kerman voluntarily submitted to the Mongols and
agreed to pay tribute.[8] To the west, Hamadan and the rest of Persia was secured by Chormaqan. The
Mongols invaded Armenia and Georgia in 1234 or 1236, completing the conquest of the Kingdom of
Georgia in 1238. They began to attack the western parts of Greater Armenia, which was under the Seljuks,
the following year. By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia (including modern-day
Azerbaijan), Armenia, Georgia (excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds), as well as all of
Afghanistan and Kashmir.[9] After the battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, the Mongols under Baiju occupied
Anatolia, while the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and the Empire of Trebizond became vassals of the
Mongols.[10]

In 1236 Ögedei commanded Greater Khorasan to be restored and the city of Herat repopulated. The Mongol
military governors mostly made camp in the Mughan plain in what is now Azerbaijan. Realizing the danger
posed by the Mongols, the rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armenia submitted to the Great Khan. Chormaqan
divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on the Mongol military hierarchy.[11] In Georgia,
the population was temporarily divided into eight tumens.[12] In 1244, Güyük Khan stopped raising of
revenue from districts in Persia as well and offered tax exemptions to others.[13] In accordance with a
complaint by the governor Arghun the Elder (Arghun agha), Möngke Khan prohibited ortog-merchants
(Mongol-contracted Muslim traders)[14][15] and nobles from abusing relay stations and civilians in 1251.[16]
He ordered a new census and decreed that each man in the Mongol-ruled Middle East must pay in
proportion to his property. Persia was divided between four districts under Arghun. Möngke Khan granted
the Kartids authority over Herat, Jam, Pushang (Fushanj), Ghor, Khaysar, Firuz-Kuh, Gharjistan, Farah,
Sistan, Kabul, Tirah, and Afghanistan.[17]
Hulagu Khan

Hulagu Khan, third son of Tolui, grandson of Genghis Khan, and

brother of both Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan, was the first khan
of the Ilkhanate. Immediately after his brother Möngke's accession
as Great Khan in 1251, Hulagu was appointed as administrator of
North China, however in the following year, North China was
assigned to Kublai and Hulagu tasked with conquering the Abbasid
Caliphate. He was given a fifth of the entire Mongol army for the
campaign and he took his sons Abaqa and Yoshmut along with him. Hulagu Khan, founder of the
Hulagu also took with him many Chinese scholars and astronomers, Ilkhanate, with his Christian queen
from whom the famous Persian astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Doquz Khatun
learned about the mode of the Chinese calculating tables.[18] An
observatory was built on a hill of Maragheh. Taking over from Baiju
in 1255, Hulagu established Mongol rule from Transoxiana to Syria.
He destroyed the Nizari Ismaili state and the Abbasid Caliphate in
1256 and 1258 respectively. In 1258, Hulagu proclaimed himself
Ilkhan (subordinate khan). After that he advanced as far as Gaza,
briefly conquering Ayyubid Syria and Aleppo in 1260. Möngke's
death forced Hulagu to return to Mongolia to attend the kuriltai for
the next Great Khan. He left a small force of around 10,000 behind
in Palestine that was defeated at the battle of Ain Jalut by the
Mamluks of Egypt.[19]
A Mongol horse archer in the 13th
Due to the suspicious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's
century.
service, Berke of the Golden Horde declared war on Hulagu in 1262.
According to Mamluk historians, Hulagu might have massacred
Berke's troops and refused to share his war booty with Berke. Berke
sought a joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden
Horde dispatched the young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The
Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River, capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a
surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek
River.[20][21]

In 1262, Hulagu gave Greater Khorasan and Mazandaran to Abaqa and northern Azerbaijan to Yoshmut.
Hulagu himself spent his time living as a nomad in southern Azerbaijan and Armenia. During his early rule,
the Ilkhanate experienced mass revolts by its subjects, with the exception of the Seljukids and Artuqids in
Anatolia and Mardin. It was not until Shams al-Din Juvayni was appointed as vizier after 1262 that things
started calming down and a more sustainable administration was implemented.[22]

Hulagu fell ill in February 1265 after several days of banquets and hunting. He died on 8 February and his
son Abaqa succeeded him in the summer.[22]

Middle period (1265–1291)

Upon Abaqa's accession, he immediately faced an invasion by Berke of the Golden Horde, which ended
with Berke's death in Tiflis. In 1270, Abaqa defeated an invasion by Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq of the Chagatai
Khanate. Abaqa's brother Tekuder sacked Bukhara in retaliation. In 1277, the Mamluks invaded Anatolia
and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan. Stung by the defeat, Abaqa executed the local regent
Mu'in-ad-Din Pervane and replaced him with the Mongol prince Qongqortai. In 1281, Abaqa sent Mongke
Temur against the Mamluks, but he too was defeated at Homs.[23]
Abaqa's death in 1282 triggered a succession struggle between his son Arghun, supported by the Qara'unas,
and his brother Tekuder, supported by the Chinggisid aristocracy. Tekuder was elected khan by the
Chinggisids. Tekuder was the first Muslim ruler of the Ilkhanate but he made no active attempt to
proselytize or convert his realm. However he did try to replace Mongol political traditions with Islamic
ones, resulting in a loss of support from the army. Arghun used his religion against him by appealing to non-
Muslims for support. When Tekuder realized this, he executed several of Arghun's supporters, and captured
Arghun. Tekuder's foster son, Buaq, freed Arghun and overthrew Tekuder. Arghun was confirmed as Ilkhan
by Kublai Khan in February 1286.[23]

During Arghun's reign, he actively sought to combat Muslim influence, and fought against both the
Mamluks and the Muslim Mongol emir Nawruz in Khorasan. To fund his campaigns, Arghun allowed his
viziers Buqa and Sa'd-ud-dawla to centralize expenditures, but this was highly unpopular and caused his
former supporters to turn against him. Both viziers were killed and Arghun was murdered in 1291.[23]

Religious shift (1291–1316)

The Ilkhanate started crumbling under the reign of Arghun's brother,

Gaykhatu. The majority of Mongols converted to Islam while the
Mongol court remained Buddhist. Gaykhatu had to buy the support
of his followers and as a result, ruined the realm's finances. His vizir
Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani tried to bolster the state finances by adopting
paper money from the Yuan dynasty, which ended horribly.
Gaykhatu also alienated the Mongol old guard with his alleged
sexual relations with a boy. Gaykhatu was overthrown in 1295 and
replaced with his cousin Baydu. Baydu reigned for less than a year
before he was overthrown by Gaykhatu's son, Ghazan.[23]

Hulagu's descendants ruled Persia for the next eighty years,

tolerating multiple religions, including Shamanism, Buddhism, and
Christianity, and ultimately adopting Islam as a state religion in The Mongol ruler, Ghazan, studying
1295. However, despite this conversion, the Ilkhans remained the Qur'an.
opposed to the Mamluks, who had defeated both Mongol invaders
and Crusaders. The Ilkhans launched several invasions of Syria, but
were never able to gain and keep significant ground against the Mamluks, eventually being forced to give up
their plans to conquer Syria, along with their stranglehold over their vassals the Sultanate of Rum and the
Armenian kingdom in Cilicia. This was in large part due to civil war in the Mongol Empire and the hostility
of the khanates to the north and east. The Chagatai Khanate in Moghulistan and the Golden Horde
threatened the Ilkhanate in the Caucasus and Transoxiana, preventing expansion westward. Even under
Hulagu's reign, the Ilkhanate was engaged in open warfare in the Caucasus with the Mongols in the Russian
steppes. On the other hand, the China-based Yuan Dynasty was an ally of the Ikhanate and also held nominal
suzerainty over the latter (the Emperor being also Great Khan) for many decades.[24]

Ghazan converted to Islam under influence of Nawrūz and made Islam the official state religion. Christian
and Jewish subjects lost their equal status and had to pay the jizya protection tax. Ghazan gave Buddhists the
starker choice of conversion or expulsion and ordered their temples to be destroyed; though he later relaxed
this severity.[25] After Nawrūz was deposed and killed in 1297, Ghazan made religious intolerance
punishable and attempted to restore relations with non-Muslims.[26][27]

In terms of foreign relations, the Ilkhanate's conversion to Islam had little to no effect on its hostility
towards other Muslim states, and conflict with the Mamluks for control of Syria continued. The Battle of
Wadi al-Khazandar, the only major victory by the Mongols over the Mamluks, ended the latter's control over
Syria for a few months. For the most part, Ghazan's policies continued under his brother Öljeitü despite
suggestions that he might begin to favor the Shi'a brand of Islam after he came under the influence of Shi'a
theologians Al-Hilli and Maitham Al Bahrani.[28]

Öljeitü, who had been baptised in Christianity as an infant, had flirted with Buddhism, became a Hanafi
Sunni, though he still retained some residual shamanism. In 1309-10, he became a Shi'ite Muslim.[29] An
Armenian scribe in 1304 noted the death of "benevolent and just" Ghazan, who was succeeded by Khar-
Banda Öljeitü "who too, exhibits good will to everyone." A colophon from 1306 reports conversion of
Mongols to Islam and "they coerce everyone into converting to their vain and false hope. They persecute,
they molest, and torment," including "insulting the cross and the church".[30] Some of the Buddhists who
survived Ghazan's assaults made an unsuccessful attempt to bring Öljeitü back into Dharma, showing they
were active in the realm for more than 50 years.[31]

The conversion of Mongols was initially a fairly superficial affair. The process of establishment of Islam did
not happen suddenly. Öljeitü's historian Qāshāni records that Qutlugh-Shah, after losing patience with a
dispute between Hanafis and Shafi'is, expressed his view that Islam should be abandoned and Mongols
should return to the ways of Genghis Khan. Qāshani also stated that Öljeitü had in fact reverted for a brief
period. As Muslims, Mongols showed a marked preference for Sufism with masters like Safi-ad-din
Ardabili often treated with respect and favour.[32]

Disintegration (1316–1357)

Öljaitü's son, the last Ilkhan Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, was
enthroned in 1316. He was faced with rebellion in 1318 by the
Chagatayids and Qara'unas in Khorasan, and an invasion by the
Golden Horde at the same time. An Anatolian emir, Irenchin, also
rebelled. Irenchin was crushed by Chupan of the Taichiud in the
Battle of Zanjan-Rud on 13 July 1319. Under the influence of
Chupan, the Ilkhanate made peace with the Chagatais, who helped
The Middle East in 1345, ten years
them crush the Chagatayid revolt, and the Mamluks. In 1327, Abu- after the death of Abu Sa'id. The
Sai'd replaced Chupan with "Big" Hasan.[33] Hasan was accused of Jalayirids, Chobanids, Muzaffarids,
attempting to assassinate the khan and exiled to Anatolia in 1332. Injuids, Sarbadars, and Kartids took
The non-Mongol emirs Sharaf-ud-Din Mahmud-Shah and Ghiyas- the Ilkhanate's place as the major
ud-Din Muhammad were given unprecedented military authority, powers in Iran.
which irked the Mongol emirs. In the 1330s, outbreaks of the Black
Death ravaged the Ilkhanate and both Abu-Sai'd and his sons were
killed by 1335 by the plague.[34] Ghiyas-ud-Din put a descendant of Ariq Böke, Arpa Ke'un, on the throne,
triggering a succession of short-lived khans until "Little" Hasan took Azerbaijan in 1338. In 1357, Jani Beg
of the Golden Horde conquered Chupanid-held Tabriz for a year, putting an end to the Ilkhanate remnant.[35]

Franco-Mongol alliance
The courts of Western Europe made many attempts to form an alliance with the Mongols, primarily with the
Ilkhanate, in the 13th and 14th centuries, starting from around the time of the Seventh Crusade (West
Europeans were collectively called Franks by Muslims and Asians in the era of the Crusades). United in
their opposition to the Muslims (primarily the Mamluks), the Ilkhanate and the Europeans were nevertheless
unable to satisfactorily combine their forces against their common enemy.[36]

Government
The Ilkhanate Mongols remained nomadic in their way of life until the end of the dynasty. Their nomadic
routes covered central Iraq, northwest Iran, Azerbaijan, and Armenia. The Mongols administered Iraq, the
Caucasus, and western and southern Iran directly with the exception of Georgia, the Artuqid sultan of
Mardin, and Kufa and Luristan. The Qara'unas Mongols ruled Khorasan as an autonomous realm and did not
pay taxes. Herat's local Kart dynasty also remained autonomous. Anatolia was the richest province of the
Ilkhanate, supplying a quarter of its revenue while Iraq and Diyarbakir together supplied about 35 percent of
its revenue.[37]

In 1330, the annexation of Abkhazia resulted in the reunification of the Kingdom of Georgia. However,
tribute received by the Il-Khans from Georgia sank by about three-quarters between 1336 and 1350 because
of wars and famines.[38]

Legacy
The emergence of the Ilkhanate had an important historical impact in the Middle Eastern region. The
establishment of the unified Mongol Empire had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia. The
communications between the Ilkhanate and the Yuan Dynasty headquartered in China encouraged this
development.[39][40] The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi
(Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of
politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they
received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.[41]

The Ilkhanate also helped to pave the way for the later Safavid dynastic state, and ultimately the modern
country of Iran. Hulagu's conquests had also opened Iran to Chinese influence from the east. This, combined
with patronage from his successors, would develop Iran's distinctive excellence in architecture. Under the
Ilkhans, Iranian historians also moved from writing in Arabic to writing in their native Persian tongue.[42]

The rudiments of double-entry accounting were practiced in the Ilkhanate; merdiban was then adopted by
the Ottoman Empire. These developments were independent from the accounting practices used in
Europe.[43] This accounting system was adopted primarily as the result of socio-economic necessities
created by the agricultural and fiscal reforms of Ghazan Khan in 1295-1304.

Ilkhan as a tribal title in 19th/20th century Iran

The title Ilkhan resurfaced among the Qashqai nomads of Southern Iran in the 19th century. Jan Mohammad
Khan started using it from 1818/19 and this was continued by all the following Qashqai leaders. The last
Ilkhan was Naser Khan, who in 1954 was pushed into exile after his support of Mossadeq. When he returned
during the Islamic Revolution in 1979, he could not regain his previous position and died in 1984 as the last
Ilkhan of the Qashqai. [44]
 Ilkhanate, Lampas Ilkhanate, Lampas 1305 letter of the Seal of Ghazan
with phoenix, silk textile, silk and gold; Ilkhan Mongol
and gold, Iran or second half of 14th Öljaitü (official
Iraq, 14th century. century. square red stamp of
the Ilkhanate).

Ilkhans

House of Hulagu (1256–1335; Ilkhanate Mongol kings)

Hulagu Khan (1256–1265)
Abaqa Khan (1265–1282)
Ahmad Tegüder (1282–1284)
Arghun (1284–1291)
Gaykhatu (1291–1295)
Baydu (1295)
Mahmud Ghazan (1295–1304)
Muhammad Khodabandeh (Oljeitu or Öljaitü) (1304–1316)
Abu Sa'id Bahadur (1316–1335)

After the Ilkhanate, the regional states established during the disintegration of the Ilkhanate raised their own
candidates as claimants.

House of Ariq Böke

Arpa Ke'ün (1335–1336)

House of Hulagu (1336–1357)

Musa (1336–1337) (puppet of 'Ali Padshah of Baghdad)
Muhammad (1336–1338) (Jalayirid puppet)
Sati Beg (1338–1339) (Chobanid puppet)
Sulayman (1339–1343) (Chobanid puppet, recognized by the Sarbadars 1341–1343)
Jahan Temür (1339–1340) (Jalayirid puppet)
Anushirwan (1343–1356) (Chobanid puppet)
Ghazan II (1356–1357) (known only from coinage)
House of Hasar

Claimants from eastern Persia (Khurasan):

Togha Temür (c. 1338–1353) (recognized by the Kartids 1338–1349; by the Jalayirids 1338–
1339, 1340–1344; by the Sarbadars 1338–1341, 1344, 1353)
Luqman (1353–1388) (son of Togha Temür and the protege of Timur)

Family tree (House of Hulagu)

See also
Division of the Mongol Empire
List of Mongol states
List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans
Full list of Iranian Kingdoms
Sarbadars, the famous political movement of the Ilkhanid era of Persia.
Hazaras

Notes
1. Komaroff 2013, p. 78.
2. Badiee 1984, p. 97.
3. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West
Orientation of Historical Empires" (http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381).
Journal of World-systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X (https://www.worldcat.org/is
sn/1076-156X). Retrieved 13 September 2016.
4. Rein Taagepera (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities:
Context for Russia" (http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807). International Studies
Quarterly. 41 (3): 496. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.0
0053). JSTOR 2600793 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793).
5. Biran, Michael (2016). "Il‐Khanate Empire". The Encyclopedia of Empire (eds N. Dalziel and J.
M. MacKenzie). doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe362 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F97811184
55074.wbeoe362).
6. Peter Jackson The Mongols and the West, p.127
7. Jeremiah Curtin The Mongols: A history, p.184
8. Timothy May Chormaqan, p.47
9. Thomas T. Allsen Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p.84
10. George Finlay The history of Greece from its conquest by the Crusaders to its conquest by the
Ottomans, p.384
11. Grigor of Akanc The history of the nation of archers, (tr. R.P.Blake) 303
12. Kalistriat Salia History of the Georgian Nation, p.210
13. C. P. Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, see:Monqe Khan
14. X. Liu.The Silk Road in World History, Oxford University Press, Oxford, ç2010 p.116
15. E. Endicott-West. Merchant Associations in Yuan China: The "Ortoy,"Asia Major, Third Series,
Vol.2 No.2, Academica Sinica, ç1989
16. M. Th. Houtsma E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 1, p.729
17. Ehsan Yar-Shater Encyclopædia Iranica, p.209
18. H. H. Howorth History of the Mongols, vol.IV, p.138
19. Atwood 2004, p. 225.
20. Atwood 2004, p. 480.
21. Vernadsky 1953, p. 161.
22. Atwood 2004, p. 226.
23. Atwood 2004, p. 234.
24. Christopher P. Atwood Ibid
25. David Morgan (2015-06-26). Medieval Persia 1040–1797 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
ubgBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA72). p. 72. ISBN 9781317415671.
26. Timothy May (2016). The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia - Volume I (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=4gB9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA149). ABC-CLIO. p. 141.
ISBN 9781610693400.
27. Angus Donal Stewart (2001-01-01). The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and
Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289-1307) (https://books.google.com/?id=tlgRqLA
0EHsC&pg=PA182&dq=oljeitu+buddhists#v=onepage&f=false). Brill. p. 182. ISBN 978-
9004122925.
28. Ali Al Oraibi, "Rationalism in the school of Bahrain: a historical perspective", in Shīʻite
Heritage: Essays on Classical and Modern Traditions by Lynda Clarke, Global Academic
Publishing 2001 p336
29. Angus Donal Stewart (2001-01-01). The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and
Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289-1307) (https://books.google.com/?id=tlgRqLA
0EHsC&pg=PA181&dq=oljeitu+buddhists#v=onepage&f=false). Brill. p. 181. ISBN 978-
9004122925.
30. Angus Donal Stewart (2001-01-01). The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and
Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289-1307) (https://books.google.com/?id=tlgRqLA
0EHsC&pg=PA182&dq=oljeitu+buddhists#v=onepage&f=false). Brill. p. 182. ISBN 978-
9004122925.
31. Johan Elverskog (2011-06-06). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA141). Harvard University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-
0812205312.
32. David Morgan (2015-06-26). Medieval Persia 1040–1797 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
ubgBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73). p. 73. ISBN 9781317415671.
33. Atwood 2004, p. 235.
34. Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia By Ann K. S. Lambton
35. Atwood 2004, p. 236.
36. "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the
papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam". Atwood,
Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 583, "Western Europe and the Mongol
Empire"
37. Atwood 2004, p. 231.
38. D. M. Lang, Georgia in the Reign of Giorgi the Brilliant (1314-1346). Bulletin of the School of
Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1955), pp. 74-91
39. Gregory G.Guzman - Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval
history?, The historian 50 (1988), 568-70
40. Thomas T.Allsen - Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia, 211
41. Central Asiatic Journal (https://www.academia.edu/3725455). O. Harrassowitz. 2008. p. 46.
42. Francis Robinson, The Mughal Emperors and the Islamic Dynasties of India, Iran and Central
Asia, Pages 19 and 36
43. Cigdem Solas, ACCOUNTING SYSTEM PRACTICED IN THE NEAR EAST DURING THE
PERIOD 1220-1350, based ON THE BOOK RISALE-I FELEKIYYE, The Accounting Historians
Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1 (June 1994), pp. 117-135
44. Pierre Oberling, Qashqai tribal confederacy I History, in Encyclopedia Iranica (2003) (http://ww
w.iranicaonline.org/articles/qasqai-tribal-confederacy-i)

References
Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Facts
on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-4671-9.
C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, New York, 1996.
Kadoi, Yuka. (2009) Islamic Chinoiserie: The Art of Mongol Iran, Edinburgh Studies in Islamic
Art, Edinburgh. ISBN 9780748635825.
May, Timothy (2018), The Mongol Empire
R. Amitai-Preiss: Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War 1260–1281. Cambridge,
1995.
Badiee, Julie (1984). "The Sarre Qazwīnī: An Early Aq Qoyunlu Manuscript?". Ars Orientalis.
University of Michigan. 14.
Komaroff, Linda, ed. (2013). Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan. Brill.

External links
Ilkhanids Dynasty (http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/ilkhanids.html) Mongolian
dynasty
Encyclopedia Iranica. (http://www.iranicaonline.org/) Contains more information on the
Ilkhanate.
Searchable database for Ilkhanid coins (http://tokakte.dk/)

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