GS-I History Crux Notes

GS-I CRUX NOTES
ART & CULTURE

AND
HISTORY
[India & World]
By SOMA SEKHAR
(HISTORY OPTIONAL EXPERT)
(5 Mains & 2 Interviews)
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HISTORY OPTIONAL - COURSES
By SOMA SEKHAR [2 UPSC Interviews]
NEW APPROACH TO HISTORY OPTIONALS
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CONTENTS
PART 1: ART & CULTURE ................................................................................................................. 13
UPSC SYLLABUS ........................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 1: Ancient India ................................................................................................................. 13
Topic: Sources for Reconstructing India History ........................................................................... 13
Greeco-Roman Accounts: ........................................................................................................ 13
Chinese Accounts..................................................................................................................... 14
Arab Accounts ......................................................................................................................... 15
Topic: Prehistoric Paintings .......................................................................................................... 17
Topic: Society during Sangam Age ............................................................................................... 18
Topic: Ashoka’s Dhamma ............................................................................................................. 20
What was the impact of Ashoka's Dhamma on Indian society? ................................................ 22
Topic: Schools of Art .................................................................................................................... 24
Differences between the Schools of Art: .................................................................................. 24
Gandhara School of Art: ........................................................................................................... 24
Topic: Literature during Ancient Period........................................................................................ 26
Topic: Art and Architecture during Ancient India.......................................................................... 28
Topic: The rise of Alvars and Nayanars: ........................................................................................ 31
Topic: The nature of the Bhakti Literature in India ....................................................................... 32
Chapter 2: Medieval India............................................................................................................... 34
Topic: How Medieval Temple architecture reflect the contemporary Indian society? ................... 34
Topic: Architecture during the Medieval Period ........................................................................... 35
Topic: Literature during the Medieval Period ............................................................................... 36
Sanskrit Literature during Delhi Sultanate Period: .................................................................... 36
Topic: Painting during Delhi Sultanate Period .............................................................................. 38
Topic: Music in Delhi Sultanate: ................................................................................................... 40
Topic: Vijayanagara Empire.......................................................................................................... 41

Vijayanagara Empire through the eyes of Foreigners: .............................................................. 41
Topic: Akbar ................................................................................................................................ 42
What is the impact of Akbar's policy of 'Sulh-i-Kul' on Indian Society? ...................................... 43
Topic: The Impact of Bhakti and Sufi Movements ........................................................................ 45
Topic: Miniature Painting:............................................................................................................ 47
PART 2: MODERN INDIA ................................................................................................................. 53
UPSC Syllabus: ............................................................................................................................. 53
Chapter 3: The British Conquest ..................................................................................................... 53
Topic: The Expansion of the British Empire: ................................................................................. 53
Topic: Methods and tactics used by the British to conquer: ......................................................... 54
Topic: The Factors behind the success of the British: ................................................................... 55
Chapter 4: Impact of the British Conquest ...................................................................................... 57
Topic: Famines............................................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 5: Freedom Struggle .......................................................................................................... 59
Topic: Stages of Freedom Struggle: .............................................................................................. 59
Topic: The 1857 Revolt ................................................................................................................ 61
Topic: Factors for the Rise of Nationalism .................................................................................... 63
Topic: The Role of Gandhiji .......................................................................................................... 68
The constructive programmes of Mahatma Gandhi during NCM CDM: .................................... 68
Ideologies of Mahatma Gandhiji and Netaji Subash Chandra Bose ........................................... 68
Ideologies of Mahatma Gandhiji and BR Ambedkar.................................................................. 70
Topic: The ideological strands in the Indian national movement: ................................................. 72
PART 3: POST-INDEPENDENCE ........................................................................................................ 74
UPSC Syllabus .............................................................................................................................. 74
Topic: Challenges of India at the Time of Independence .............................................................. 74
Topic: Integration of Princely states after Independence: ............................................................ 75
Topic: Land Reforms .................................................................................................................... 78
The Legacy of the British Imperialism: ...................................................................................... 78

Objectives of land reforms: ...................................................................................................... 78
Land Reforms Measures .......................................................................................................... 78
Topic: Post-Independence Chronology:........................................................................................ 80
Part 4: WORLD HISTORY ................................................................................................................. 81
UPSC Syllabus .............................................................................................................................. 81
Chapter 6: The American and French Revolutions: ......................................................................... 81
Topic: American Revolution ......................................................................................................... 81
Causes for American Revolution: ............................................................................................. 81
Topic: French Revolution ............................................................................................................. 83
Causes for French Revolution:.................................................................................................. 83
Topic: The foundations of the modern world by American and French Revolutions .................. 84
Chapter 7: Industrial Revolution: .................................................................................................... 86
Why did the Industrial Revolution start first of all in England? ..................................................... 86
What are the consequences of industrial revolution in England? ............................................. 88
Chapter 8: Unification of Italy and Germany: ................................................................................. 90
Topic: Italian Unification: ............................................................................................................. 90
Hurdles against the Unification of Italy .................................................................................... 90
Elements Favourable to Unification: ........................................................................................ 90
Topic: Unification of Germany: .................................................................................................... 93
Obstacles in the way of German unification: ............................................................................ 93
Factors Conducive to German Unification ................................................................................ 93
Chapter 9: World between World Wars:......................................................................................... 94
Topic: First World War: ................................................................................................................ 94
What are the Causes for First World War? ............................................................................... 94
Topic: The Great Depression (1929–1939) ................................................................................... 96
What are the causes for Economic depression? ....................................................................... 96
Topic: Second World War: ........................................................................................................... 98
What are the Causes for Second World War?........................................................................... 98

Chapter 10: Post Second World War............................................................................................. 100
Topic: Suez Crisis in 1956: .......................................................................................................... 100
What were the events that led to the Suez Crisis in 1956: ...................................................... 100
Chapter 11: Colonization and Decolonization ............................................................................... 101
Topic: Causes for Colonization ................................................................................................... 101
Topic: Causes for Decolonization ............................................................................................... 102
Topic: Role of Western Educated Middle Class in Africa's Decolonization ................................... 103
Chapter 12: Political Philosophies ................................................................................................. 105
Topic: Communism: ................................................................................................................... 105
Topic: Capitalism ....................................................................................................................... 107
Topic: Socialism: ........................................................................................................................ 108

PART 1: ART & CULTURE
UPSC SYLLABUS
Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient
to modern times.
Chapter 1: Ancient India

Topic: Sources for Reconstructing India History
Greeco-Roman Accounts:
Author Period: References to India
Herodotus (c. Mahajanapada • Often referred to as the "Father of History," Herodotus
484 – 425 Period in his work "Histories" provides one of the earliest
BCE): Greek accounts of India.
• He mentions aspects related to Indian geography,
animals, and some customs.
Ctesias (c. 5th Mahajanapada • A Greek physician at the Persian court, Ctesias wrote
century BCE): Period "Indika", a work on India.
• While he never visited India, his account is based on
stories he heard.
Alexander the Just before the • While Alexander himself didn't leave behind written
Great's Rise of Mauryan records, the accounts of his contemporaries and
Campaign (c. Empire: subsequent historians about his Indian campaign are
326 BCE): invaluable.
• They provide details about the political and
geographical, social, economic conditions of
northwestern India during his invasion.
Megasthenes Mauryan Empire: • Serving as an ambassador of the Seleucid Emperor
(c. 350 – c. 290 Seleucus I to the Mauryan court of Chandragupta
BCE): Maurya, Megasthenes wrote "Indika".
• This work, though now lost, is cited by later writers and
provides valuable details about the Mauryan empire,
including its capital Pataliputra, social customs, flora,
fauna, and more.
Nearchus (c. Mauryan Empire: • An officer and friend of Alexander the Great, Nearchus
360 – 300 documented his naval expedition along the Indus and
BCE): the Persian Gulf.
• His observations provide information about the coastal
regions of Sindh and Baluchistan.
Strabo (c. 64 Post-Mauryan • The Greek geographer, in his work "Geography",
BCE – 24 CE): Period: compiles various accounts about India, including those
of Megasthenes and others, offering insights into the

subcontinent's geography and some aspects of its
society.
Pliny the Elder Post-Mauryan • A Roman author and naval commander, Pliny's "Natural
(c. 24 – 79 CE): Period History" provides a detailed account of the geography,
anthropology, and various products of India.
Ptolemy (c. Post-Mauryan • The Greco-Roman mathematician and geographer
100 – c. 170 Period wrote the "Geographia", which lists various cities,
CE): regions, and peoples of India.
• His work is significant for understanding the
geographical knowledge of India in the Greco-Roman
world.
Arrian (c. 86 – Post-Mauryan • A Greek historian who wrote about the campaigns of
after 146 CE): Period Alexander the Great in "Anabasis Alexandri".
• His other work, "Indika", is based on Megasthenes and
Nearchus' writings, offering a consolidated account of
India known to the Greeks.
Periplus of the Post-Mauryan • An anonymous work, this maritime guide describes
Erythraean Period navigation routes and trading practices between the
Sea (c. 1st Roman Empire and the Indian subcontinent.
century CE):
Chinese Accounts
Introduction:
The Chinese accounts, particularly those by Reference Question:

Buddhist pilgrims, have been instrumental in
shedding light on the religious, cultural, Q. Assess the importance of the accounts of the
political, and social facets of ancient and early
Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction
medieval India.
of the history of India. (GS-1, 2018)
Account Period: References to India

Faxian (Fa- Gupta Period: • He Traveled to India during the 4th-5th century CE,
Hien) (c. 337 especially during the Gupta Empire.
– c. 422 CE): • His travelogue, known as "A Record of Buddhistic
Kingdoms," describes the state of Buddhism, the
monastic community, legends related to important
Buddhist sites, and various customs and practices of the
regions he visited.
Song Yun 6th At the end stage of • Song Yun was a Chinese Buddhist monk who was sent
century CE): Gupta Empire: by the pious Buddhist Empress Hu (528 CE) of the
Northern Wei Dynasty with other monastic

companions, to northwestern India to search for
Buddhist texts.
• They left the Wei capital Luoyang, on foot in 518 and
returned in 522 with 170 Buddhist scriptures.
• Their accounts primarily focus on the religious and
geographical observations they made during their
travels.
Xuanzang Harsh Period: • He visited India during the 7th century CE, traversing
(Hsuan various kingdoms from north to south.
Tsang) (c. • His records, compiled in the " Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist
602 – 664 Records of the Western World”, offer detailed
CE): observations on the political, cultural, linguistic, and
religious landscapes of the regions he visited.
• He provides invaluable insights into the state of
Buddhism, monastic universities like Nalanda, and the
socio-political environment of India during the reigns of
rulers like Harsha.
Yijing (I Post-Harsha • He traveled to India in the 7th century CE, shortly after
tsing) (c. 635 Period: Xuanzang.
– 713 CE): • His work is crucial for understanding the practices,
rituals, and texts associated with Buddhism in India.
• Yijing was more focused on the religious and monastic
practices compared to Xuanzang.
• He was also responsible for the translation of many
Buddhist texts from Sanskrit and Pali into Chinese.
Arab Accounts
Introduction:
Arab travelers and scholars played a significant role in chronicling their observations of India,
particularly during the early medieval and medieval period. Their accounts provide a window into
India's socio-economic, cultural, and political landscape from an external perspective. Here's a
chronologically ordered list of the prominent Arab accounts:
Author Period References to India

Al-Masudi (c. Early • He was known as the "Herodotus of the Arabs," his most
896-956 CE): Medieval famous work "Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems”
Period (750- contains descriptions of the lands he visited, including India.
1200) • He provides information on the geography, customs, and
history of the regions.

• He also travelled to the Indus Valley, and other parts of
India, especially the western coast; and he voyaged more
than once to East Africa.
• He also sailed on the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, the
Mediterranean and the Caspian.
Sulaiman Early • Sulaimān at-Tājir ('Solomon the Merchant') was a 9th-
(850 AD) Medieval century Muslim merchant, traveler and writer initially from
Period (750- Siraf in modern-day Iran.
1200) • He traveled to India, Bengal and China and wrote an account
of his voyages around AD 850.
• He visited Bengal during the time of the Pala Empire, and
referred to a kingdom named 'Ruhma' and attested to their
military power. He has also described Mihira Bhoja, one of
the greatest Gurjara-Pratihara emperors. Mihira Bhoja was a
bitter enemy of "the Muslims" and according to Sulaiman,
maintained a large army and had a fine cavalry.
• The Arab traveler Sulaiman described Amoghavarsha as one
of the "four great kings of the world."
Al-Biruni (c. Early • He came to India accompanying the Ghaznavid ruler
973-1050 Medieval Mahmud of Ghazni.
CE): Period (750- • His seminal work, "Kitab-ul-Hind" or "Alberuni's India," is a
1200) - comprehensive study of India's religion, philosophy, science,
Rajputs culture, and social customs.
Period: • Al-Biruni, with his deep knowledge of various disciplines,
offered a nuanced and often analytical perspective, making
efforts to understand the Indian scientific, mathematical,
and astronomical traditions in particular.

Topic: Prehistoric Paintings
Introduction:
Mesolithic paintings, particularly those found in the rock shelters of Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in
Madhya Pradesh, provide a vital visual documentation of life during the prehistoric period in India.
These paintings, which date back to around 10,000 BCE, depict various aspects of daily life, beliefs,
and activities of the Mesolithic people.
The life of the prehistoric period:
Daily Activities • Hunting: Many paintings depict scenes of hunting. Animals such as bison,
and Lifestyle: deer, and boars are often shown being pursued by groups of hunters
using spears, arrows, and other primitive weapons.
• Gathering: Some paintings illustrate men and women collecting fruits,
roots suggesting that gathering was an essential part of their sustenance.
• Fishing: Some paintings depict scenes of fishing, showcasing another
essential method of food procurement.
• Domestication: The paintings sometimes depict animals with ropes,
suggesting early attempts at domestication.
• Animal Herding: While predominantly hunters and gatherers, some
scenes hint at pastoralist activities, with herds of animals managed by
humans.
Weapons and • Use of Weapons: The frequent portrayal of bows, arrows, spears, and
Tools: shields provides insights into the weapons used by Mesolithic people.
Flora and Fauna: • Depictions of Various Animals: The presence of various animals like
tigers, elephants, antelopes, and even rhinoceros indicates the
biodiversity of the region at the time.
Social Life and • Dancing and Music: Several depictions show groups of people dancing in
Rituals: a circle or line. This suggests the existence of group rituals, celebrations,
or communal activities.
• Initiation and Other Rituals: Some paintings appear to illustrate
ceremonies, possibly related to initiation rites or other significant life
events.
Interactions and • Conflicts: There are depictions of groups of stick-figured people fighting
Conflicts: against each other, indicating conflicts.
• Horse Riders: In some shelters, horse riders are depicted, suggesting
interactions with other communities or long-distance travel.
Beliefs and • Zoomorphic Figures: Some paintings depict figures that are part human
Symbolism: and part animal, suggesting mythological stories or spiritual beliefs.
• Symbols: Various symbols and patterns, whose meanings remain
speculative, indicate a rudimentary form of symbolic communication or
expression of abstract ideas.

Topic: Society during Sangam Age
Introduction:
Sangam literature, composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE, offers a detailed and authentic account
of the socio-cultural, economic, and political life of the deep south (Tamil people) during the early
historic period. These literary works, mainly comprised of poems, were written by numerous poets
and revolve around themes of love and war.
The Sangam age society:
Social Structure • Varna System: Unlike the rigid caste system of northern India, the
and Life: Sangam society had a more flexible occupational classification.
• Status of Women: Women were respected, and many poets of the
Sangam era were women. They were allowed to choose their life
partners, as seen in the concept of 'love marriages' depicted in the
literature.
Economic Agriculture:
Activities: • It was the mainstay, with paddy being the primary crop. Other crops
included sugarcane, cotton, and various fruits and vegetables.
Trade:
• Coastal regions, especially the port of Puhar (Kaveripatnam), saw brisk
maritime trade with Rome, Southeast Asia, and other ancient civilizations.
• There are mentions of Roman gold coins in exchange for Indian spices and
gemstones.
Craftsmanship:
• The literature mentions various crafts and professions, including
carpentry, pottery, weaving, and jewelry making.
Political • Chieftains and Kings: The political landscape was dominated by three
Scenario: major dynasties: the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas, with frequent
references to their valor, conquests, and benevolence.
• Wars and Battles: Sangam poems often celebrate the heroism of warriors
and the lamentations of their beloved or families when they don't return.
Geographical • Tinai Concept: Tinai is the name of each zone. Sangam literature classifies
and Ecological the landscape into five ecological zones (‘Tinai’), each associated with a
Understanding: particular activity and mood.
• These are Kurinji (mountainous regions), Mullai (pastoral lands), Marutam
(agricultural lands), Neital (coastal areas), and Palai (desert regions).
Cultural and • Festivals and Fairs: Various celebrations and events, such as the Indra
Religious Life: Vizha (Festival of Indra), were held in honor of deities.
• Religion: Worship of nature and ancestral spirits was prevalent. Deities
like Murugan and Kotravai were venerated. Elements of early Shaivism
and Vaishnavism are also noticeable.

Arts and • Music and Dance were integral to the socio-cultural fabric.
Entertainment: • Various instruments, song types, and dance forms are mentioned.
• Yaal (Yazh, a musical instrument), Kuravai (a type of dance), and Seer (a
genre of songs) find frequent mentions.
Ethics and • Hospitality: The literature stresses the importance of treating guests with
Values: honor.
• Valor and Honor: Warriors aspired for "Veera Maranam" (heroic death) in
battle. The ethics of warfare, where night-time warfare and attacking the
retreating and injured were frowned upon, highlight a chivalric code.
Conclusion:
Therefore, through the Sangam literature, we gain an invaluable window into the life, ethos, and
spirit of the Sangam age Tamil society.

Topic: Ashoka’s Dhamma
What was the reason for promulgating Dhamma by Ashoka?
Introduction:
Ashoka, one of India's most renowned emperors, promulgated the concept of Dhamma after he
embraced Buddhism. The reasons for Ashoka's propagation of Dhamma are multi-faceted:
Transformation • The brutal Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE), which resulted in the death of a
after the Kalinga vast number of people, deeply troubled Ashoka.
War: • The remorse and sorrow he felt after witnessing the war's devastating
consequences played a significant role in his conversion to Buddhism
and his commitment to non-violence and righteousness.
Universal Welfare: • Ashoka envisioned Dhamma as a tool for the moral and spiritual
upliftment of his subjects.
• He believed that by adhering to Dhamma, there would be harmony,
peace, and justice in the empire.
Administrative • From an administrative standpoint, Dhamma served as a set of ethical
Tool: guidelines that held the vast and diverse Mauryan Empire together.
• By promoting a uniform moral code, Ashoka aimed to ensure a cohesive
bond among his subjects from various ethnic, cultural, and religious
backgrounds.
Public Welfare: • Ashoka’s Dhamma also emphasized the welfare of both humans and
animals.
• He established hospitals, rest houses, and water reservoirs, and also
laid out rules against animal sacrifices and hunting for sport.
Spread of • While Dhamma was not strictly a religious doctrine and had elements
Buddhism: that were secular, its promotion also served to spread the teachings of
Buddhism both within the Mauryan Empire and outside its boundaries.
Personal • Ashoka's personal belief in the teachings of the Buddha, particularly the
Conviction: principles of non-violence, compassion, and truth, influenced his
decision to integrate these tenets into the governance and
administration of the empire.
Conclusion:
In essence, Dhamma was a reflection of Ashoka's desire to establish a reign marked by moral
righteousness, welfare, non-violence, and tolerance. Through its promulgation, Ashoka sought to
create a harmonious society and a stable, prosperous, and just empire.
What are the methods used by Ashoka to propagate Dhamma?

Ashoka used a variety of methods to propagate his Dhamma across the vast Mauryan Empire and
even beyond its borders.

Rock and • Ashoka had numerous inscriptions carved on rocks and pillars throughout the
Pillar Edicts: empire.
• These edicts, written in Prakrit using the Brahmi script (and Kharosthi script in
the northwest), communicated the principles of Dhamma and highlighted
Ashoka’s efforts to promote welfare, non-violence, and respect for all living
beings.
Appointment • Ashoka appointed special officers known as Dhamma Mahamattas, who had
of Dhamma the responsibility of supervising and ensuring the practice of Dhamma in
Mahamattas: various parts of the empire.
• They were tasked with the moral and spiritual welfare of both the laity and
the clergy, and they also looked after charitable institutions and ensured
proper justice.
Royal Tours: • Ashoka undertook frequent tours of his empire, which allowed him to
interact with his subjects, listen to their grievances, and spread the word of
Dhamma directly.
Public • Demonstrating Dhamma in action, Ashoka commissioned various public
Welfare welfare projects, such as the construction of roads, hospitals for humans and
Works: animals, rest houses (viharas and stupas), and wells.
• These projects signified the practical application of Dhamma’s principles in
the everyday lives of the people.
3rd Buddhist • Ashoka held 3rd Buddhist council to bring unity among the Buddhist followers.
Council: • It was also part of his broader principle of promoting Dhamma.
Sending of • Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to various parts of the Indian subcontinent
Buddhist and even to foreign lands like Western world and Sri Lanka.
Missions: • These missions aimed at both spreading Buddhism and the principles of
Dhamma.
• Notably, his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta were sent to Sri Lanka to
spread Buddhism.
Banning • In line with the principles of non-violence, Ashoka banned animal sacrifices
Animal and also limited the slaughter of animals for the royal kitchen. This act was
Sacrifices: not just a personal choice but a way to encourage non-violence among his
subjects.
Promotion of • Ashoka stressed the importance of moral virtues such as obedience to
Morality: parents, respect for elders, kindness to animals, and generosity to priests and
ascetics.
• He believed these values were universal and transcended religious
boundaries.

What was the impact of Ashoka's Dhamma on Indian society?
Introduction:
Ashoka Dhamma concept was based on the teachings of Buddhism but also incorporated various
tenets suited to the diverse subjects of his vast empire.
The impact of Ashoka's Dhamma on Indian society:
Spread of • Ashoka’s patronage and his efforts to propagate Dhamma led to a surge in
Buddhism: the popularity of Buddhism.
• He sent missionaries both within the subcontinent and beyond (like Syria,
Egypt and Sri Lanka) to spread the teachings of the Buddha.
Moral and • Ashoka's edicts laid down guidelines for righteous living.
Ethical • These edicts, inscribed on pillars and rocks throughout his empire, provided
Foundation: advice on living in harmony, respecting elders, treating servants kindly, and
being generous to monks and Brahmins.
Tolerance: • One of the significant principles of Dhamma was religious tolerance.
• Ashoka advocated respect for all religious sects and promoted dialogue and
understanding between different communities.
Administrative • Ashoka's Dhamma was not merely a personal belief but was deeply
Reforms: integrated into his administrative policies.
• He appointed officials known as Dhamma Mahamatras to oversee the moral
well-being of his subjects and to propagate the principles of Dhamma.
Animal • The influence of Dhamma and the respect for all forms of life resulted in
Welfare and Ashoka implementing policies on animal welfare.
Conservation: • He restricted the slaughter of certain animals and birds, and there's
evidence suggesting he established some of the earliest wildlife
conservation reserves.
Promotion of • Inspired by the teachings of Buddhism and the tenets of Dhamma, Ashoka is
Vegetarianism: said to have reduced his meat consumption and promoted vegetarianism.
Emphasis on • Following the brutal Kalinga War, Ashoka deeply regretted the loss of life
Non-Violence: and turned towards Dhamma, which placed a significant emphasis on non-
violence (Ahimsa).
• This resulted in a shift from aggressive imperial expansion to a more pacifist
foreign policy.
Cultural • As Ashoka's Dhamma absorbed various regional beliefs and practices, it
Integration: played a role in culturally integrating the vast and diverse Mauryan Empire.
Influence on • Ashoka commissioned numerous stupas, pillars, and other structures,
Art and reflecting both the aesthetics of Mauryan art and the ideals of Dhamma.
Architecture: • The famous Ashokan Pillars with their polished finish and the lion capital
(which is now the national emblem of India) are testimony to this period of
artistic flourish.
Conclusion:

In conclusion, Ashoka's Dhamma was a transformative socio-political and religious initiative that
sought to guide the morality and behavior of both the ruler and the ruled. Its impact can be
observed in multiple facets of Mauryan society, from administrative reforms to cultural synthesis.

Topic: Schools of Art
Differences between the Schools of Art:
Dimension: Gandhara School Mathura School Amaravati School of Art
Geographical At the junction of Iran, In Gangetic Plain In Krishna valley
Location: Central Asia and India
along the Silk Road.
Evolutionary Period Post-Mauryan Period Post-Mauryan Period Post-Mauryan Period
Material Used Red schist stone, Red sandstone White Marble
Stucco
Religious Theme Major theme is about Theme is not Like Gandhara largely
Life of Buddha, confined to Buddhist focused on Buddhism.
Bodhisattvas. art, also found Hindu
and Jain traditions.
Non-Religious Royal court life also Royal court life and Daily life like maritime
Theme depicted. theme of common trade also depicted
people and Folk
themes
Royal Patronage Indo-Greeks and Kushanas Patronaged Satavahanas Patronaged
Kushanas patronaged
Gandhara School of Art:

The Greco-Roman elements in Gandhara Buddhist Art:
Physical • Gandhara art incorporated the wavy hair, the aquiline nose (Sharp nose), and
features: the muscular, anatomically accurate physical structures characteristic of
Greco-Roman depictions.
• This influence is especially evident in the figures of the Buddha and
Bodhisattvas.
Drapery and • The portrayal of clothing in Gandhara sculptures, especially the heavy, folded
Clothing: robes with realistic drapery resembling Greek togas (ancient roman garment),
is a clear influence from the Greco-Roman tradition.
Halo: • The halo seen behind the head of the Buddha and other divinities in Gandhara
art is believed to have been influenced by Greco-Bactrian traditions, where
rulers and deities were often depicted with a halo, symbolizing divinity or
royal power.
Architectural • The pilasters and capitals, a signature Greek architectural element, find their
Motifs: way into Gandhara art, especially in the design of monastic structures and
stupas.
Narrative • The method of portraying stories, especially those from the Buddha's life,
Techniques: using multiple episodes within a single panel, draws parallels with similar
narrative techniques seen in Hellenistic art.

Iconographic • Some Gandharan depictions of deities with weapons uded by Greeco-Roman
Elements: gods.
Realistic • The realistic and individualized facial features seen in Gandhara sculptures,
Portraiture: especially in depictions of donors or prominent individuals, are reminiscent of
Greco-Roman portraiture techniques.
Presence of • The depictions of cupids (god of love) and flying figures in some Gandhara
Cupids: artworks reflect a Hellenistic influence.
Central Asian Influence on Gandhara Buddhist Art:
Use of Stucco: • The widespread use of gray-blue stucco (a fine plaster) for sculptures in
Gandhara is a technique that was prevalent in Central Asia.
• Stucco, being malleable (change shape without breakage), allowed for
intricate detailing and was extensively used in the Gandhara Buddhas, one
of the significant artifacts of Central Asian Buddhism.
Facial Features • Many figures in Gandhara art, especially the non-religious ones like donors
and Costumes: or attendants, sport Central Asian features and wear costumes typical of
regions to the north of Gandhara.
• The heavy, layered clothing and the distinct headgear or boots visible in
some sculptures indicate a non-local, Central Asian influence.
Iconographic • Certain elements in Gandhara art, like the 'flaming pearl' or specific
Elements: gestures and postures, have roots in Central Asian and even Chinese
Buddhist iconography.
Influence on • The layout and architectural elements of Buddhist monastic complexes in
Monastic Gandhara show affinities with similar structures in Central Asia.
Architecture:
Use of Gold: • While most Gandhara sculptures are in stone or stucco, there is evidence
to suggest the use of gold for decorations, a practice more common in
Central Asian regions.
Influence of • Some symbols and motifs like fire altars and Pomegranate in Gandhara art,
Zoroastrian are believed to be influenced by Zoroastrian practices, a major religion in
Symbols: parts of Central Asia.

Topic: Literature during Ancient Period
Vedic Period • Rigveda: The oldest of the Vedas, it is a collection of hymns praising the
(1500 BCE – 600 various deities of the Vedic pantheon.
BCE): • Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda: These are the other three Vedas,
each with its own distinct focus.
• Brahmanas: Prose texts that explain the Vedic rituals.
• Aranyakas: Transitional texts between the Brahmanas and the
Upanishads, focusing on meditation.
• Upanishads: Philosophical texts that explore the concepts found in the
Vedas in greater depth.
Mahajanapada Brahmanical Texts:
Period (600 – • Dharmasutras (600-200 BCE): These are prose texts that specify the duties
300 BCE) and responsibilities of individuals in society. It is a texton law and conduct.
They are precursors to the later Dharmashastras. Examples include the
Gautama Dharmasutra and Baudhayana Dharmasutra.
• Srautasutras and Grhyasutras: These texts deal with major public rituals
and domestic rites, respectively. They provide a detailed account of the
various ceremonies, rites, and rituals that were prevalent during that
period.
• Panin’s grammar Ashtadhyayi.
Buddhist Texts:
• Sutta Pitaka: Collection of discourses delivered by the Buddha and his
close disciples.
• Vinaya Pitaka: Contains rules and regulations for monastic discipline.
Jain Texts:
• Acaranga Sutra (5th–4th century BCE) : One of the earliest Jain scriptures
that describes the conduct and behavior of monks.
• Kalpa Sutra (4th century BCE): Contains biographies of the Jain
Tirthankaras, especially Mahavira ascribed to Bhadrabahu.
Mauryan Brahmanical Texts:
Period: (321- • Kautilya’s Arthasastra
185 BCE) Edicts:
• Ashokan Edicts
Buddhist Texts:
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and doctrinal analysis and
interpretations.
Foreign Accounts:
• Megasthenese Indica
Post-Mauryan Buddhist Texts:

Period( 2nd • Jataka Tales: The collection continued to grow, offering moral tales of
century BCE to Buddha's previous births.
3rd century BCE)

• Milindapanha (Questions of Milinda): A dialogue between the Indo-Greek
king Menander I (Milinda) and the Buddhist monk Nagasena.
• Nagarjuna’s Mulamadhyamakakarika
Sanskrit Texts:
• Bhasa’s Svapnavasavadattam
• Patanjai Mahabhashya (Commentary of Panini’s Ashtadhyayi)
Scientific Texts:
• "Charaka Samhita" by Charaka.
Gupta Period Brahmanical Texts:
(275-550) • Kalidasa works –
o Meghaduta
o Raghuvamsa
o Kumarasambhava
o Malavikagnimitra
o Vikramorvasiya
o Abhijnanasakuntalam
• Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma
Scientific Texts
• Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata
• Varahamihira’s "Brihat Samhita" and "Panchasiddhantika”
• Susruta Samhita on Medicine
Post-Gupta Harshvardhana:
(600-1200) • Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarsika by Harshavardhana
• Harshacharita by Banabhatta.
Yashovarman of Kannauj:
• Bhavabhuti: Malati Madhava, Uttararamacharita
Pallavas:
• Mattavilasa Prahasana in Sanskrit by Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE)
Rashtrakutas:
• Kavirajamarga, Pampa Bharata
Gurjara Pratihara:
• Rajashekhara’s Karpuramanjari
Western Chalukyas:
• Bilhana’s Vikramankadeva charita
Kashmir:
• Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
Solankis:
• Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra
Chauhans:
• Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai
Pala Empire:
• Ramacharitam by Sandhyakar Nandi (1084 - 1155 CE)

Topic: Art and Architecture during Ancient India
Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE):
Urban • The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro showcased advanced urban

Architecture: planning with a grid system, advanced drainage, and multi-storied houses
made of burnt bricks.
• Dholavira gave the evidence of water reservoirs.
Pillars: • Dholavira gave the evidence of Pillars along with water reservoirs.
Sculpture: • Notable pieces include the dancing girl made of bronze and various seals
depicting animals and possibly mythological figures.
Maurya Empire (c. 322–185 BCE):
Ashokan Pillars: • These monolithic, polished sandstone pillars with edicts inscribed on
them were spread across the empire.
• The Lion Capital of Sarnath, which is now India's national emblem, is a
significant example.
Palaces and • Remains of wooden palaces and fortifications in the capital city of
Fortifications: Pataliputra (Kumrahar) provide evidence of architectural grandeur.
Sculpture • Didarganj Yakshani (near Patna) is a significant example for Mauryan

sculpture.
• Dhauli Elephants.
Shunga and Satavahana Empires (c. 185 BCE–3rd century CE):
Stupas: • The Bharhut and Sanchi stupas are notable examples, adorned with
intricate gateways that narrate various Jataka tales and episodes from
the life of Buddha.
Post – Mauryan Period (2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE):
Gandhara, • The Gandhara school displays Greco-Buddhist art influences, creating

Mathura and Buddha images reminiscent of Greeco-Roman sculptures, while the
Amaravati Mathura school has a more indigenous style.
Schools:

• Amaravati school of art
Architecture: • Great Stupa at Purushapura.
Sculpture: • Kanishka statue from Mathura.
Cave Structures • Ajanta Caves.

• Near Pune caves like Karla, Kanheri, Bhaja Caves.
Paintings • Ajanta Caves
Gupta Empire (4th–6th century CE):
Temples • The Gupta period witnessed the emergence of temple architecture.

• Bhitargaon Brick Temple near Kanpur (400s)
• Vishnu Temple, Tigawa (MP) (400-425 CE)
• Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh. (500s)
• Parvati Temple, Nachna (400s or 500s)
Stupa • Dhamekha Stupa
Sculpture: • Saranath school of sculpture
Caves • Bagh Caves in Madhya Pradesh
Paintings • Bagh Caves
Pallava Dynasty (3rd–9th century CE):
Rock-cut • The temples at Mahabalipuram

Temples
Structural • Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram
Temples • Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram is a fine example of early structural
temples.
Chalukya Dynasty (6th–12th century CE):
Cave Temples: • The Badami cave temples are renowned for their intricate sculptures and
carvings.
Temple: • Aihole Temples

• Temples located in Pattadakal showcases a blend of northern (Nagara)
and southern (Dravidian) architectural styles.

Chola Dynasty (9th–13th century CE):
Temples: • Brihadeeswarar Temple, GangaikondaCholapuram and Airavateshvara

Temple.
• All the above were recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Site as “Great
Living Chola temples”.
Bronze • The Chola period is also known for its exquisite bronze sculptures, the
Sculptures: most famous being the Nataraja (dancing Shiva) statue.
Hoysala Empire (10th–14th century CE):
Hoysala Temples: • The temples at Belur, Halebidu, and Somnathpura, with their intricate
soapstone carvings and star-shaped platforms, are iconic.

Topic: The rise of Alvars and Nayanars:
Introduction:
The Alvars and Nayanars were devoted to Vishnu and Shiva, respectively, and hailed from the Tamil
region of South India between the 6th and 9th centuries CE. Their devotional hymns, known as the
"Divya Prabandham" for Alvars and "Tevaram" for Nayanars, played a foundational role in shaping
the Bhakti traditions of the region:
Factors for the rise of Alvars and Nayanars were:
Reaction Against • One of the fundamental reasons behind the rise of the Alvars and
Brahminical Nayanars was their discontent with the ritualistic and orthodox
Orthodoxy: Brahminical practices.
• They advocated for a more personal connection with the deity, as
opposed to ritualistic worship.
Caste Fluidity: • The Alvars and Nayanars hailed from various caste backgrounds.
• Their teachings emphasized that devotion transcended caste barriers,
making spirituality more accessible to a wider range of people.
Syncretism: • The Tamil region, being a hub of trade and commerce, witnessed
interactions between multiple cultures and faiths.
• The influx of ideas and the syncretic environment might have facilitated
the emergence of a distinct devotional tradition.
Emphasis on • Tamil pride and the richness of the Tamil literary tradition played a crucial
Tamil Language: role.
• The Alvars and Nayanars composed their hymns in Tamil, bolstering the
significance of the language and making their teachings accessible to the
common people.
Socio-Political • The period witnessed the decline of Buddhism and Jainism in the region
Context: and the rise of the Pallavas and Cholas, who were patrons of Vaishnavism
and Shaivism.
• The political climate was conducive to the growth of these devotional
movements.
Spiritual • The emphasis of the Alvars and Nayanars was on a personal, emotional,
Experience: and intimate connection with the divine.
• Their hymns often conveyed deep personal experiences, resonating with
people's innate desire for a direct bond with the divine.
Appeal to • The hymns and teachings often revolved around universal values such as
Universal love, compassion, and morality.
Values: • These tenets had a broad appeal, attracting a diverse audience.
Opposition to • While the Brahminical tradition emphasized rituals and asceticism, the
Ascetic Practices: Alvars and Nayanars propounded that one could attain salvation without
renouncing the world, emphasizing devotion as the primary path.

Temples as • The growth of temple architecture and the establishment of temples as
Centers of community centers during this period played a significant role.
Worship: • These temples became focal points of religious, cultural, and social life,
providing platforms for the Alvars and Nayanars to spread their messages.
Royal Patronage: • Many Chola and Pallava kings were patrons of Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
• This royal patronage ensured the support, propagation, and
institutionalization of the teachings of the Alvars and Nayanars.
Topic: The nature of the Bhakti Literature in India

Introduction:
The Bhakti literature in India is characterized by its deeply devotional, emotive, and personal
approach to spirituality.
Some of the features of Bhakti literature:
Devotional • Bhakti literature expresses an intense personal devotion to a personal

Intensity: god.
• It emphasizes a direct and personal relationship between the devotee and
the deity, bypassing rituals and intermediaries.
• Example: The passionate outpourings of Mirabai for Lord Krishna, where
she expresses her deep longing and unwavering devotion to Him.
Vernacular • One of the most distinguishing features of Bhakti literature is that it was
Language: predominantly written in regional languages, making it accessible to the
common people.
• This was a departure from the use of Sanskrit, which was reserved for the
elite.
• Example: Kabir's dohas (couplets) in the vernacular Hindi, Sant Eknath's
literary works in Marathi, or the Tamil hymns of the Alvars and Nayanars.
Social Reform: • Many Bhakti poets were also social reformers. They criticized caste
distinctions, rituals, and other social dogmas.
• Their emphasis was on a personal relationship with God that transcended
caste and creed.
• It was reflected in the Bhakti literature.
• Example: Ramananda, a North Indian saint, took disciples from various
castes, challenging the prevailing caste norms. Kabir, too, consistently
criticized ritualistic practices and social distinctions based on birth.
Universal • Bhakti literature propounded the idea that everyone, irrespective of caste,
Access to the gender, or social status, had equal access to God.
Divine: • This belief was revolutionary in a deeply stratified society.
• Example: Dnyaneshwar's commentary on the Bhagavad Gita,
"Dnyaneshwari," written in Marathi, emphasized that all have access to
spiritual wisdom, irrespective of their social standing.
Symbolism and • The poems are rich in symbols and imagery.
Imagery: • Often, the relationship between the devotee and the deity is depicted
using the metaphor of love, as seen between a lover and the beloved.

• Example: Jayadeva's "Gita Govinda" uses romantic allegories and symbols
to describe the love between Radha and Krishna, representing the soul's
longing for the divine.
Diverse • Bhakti literature isn't monolithic. It represents a range of traditions, sects,
Traditions: and regional flavors.
• For instance, the Alvar and Nayanar traditions of Tamil Nadu, the Varkari
tradition of Maharashtra, the Sant tradition of North India, etc.
• Example: The "Thiruppavai" of Andal from the Alvar tradition and the
"Abhanga" devotional songs of Sant Namdev from the Varkari tradition.
Personal • Many Bhakti poems are deeply personal narratives where poets express
Narratives: their struggles, doubts, and spiritual ecstasies.
• They often discuss the challenges of worldly life and the solace they find in
their deity.
• Example: The poetry of Surdas which portrays his deep love for Lord
Krishna and the challenges he faced being blind.
Inclusive of All: • Bhakti literature includes works from diverse sections of society, including
women, Dalits, and other marginalized groups. This inclusiveness is a
testament to its universal appeal.
• Example: Ravidas, a prominent North Indian Sant who hailed from a lower
caste, composed hymns that are also included in the Guru Granth Sahib,
the central religious scripture of Sikhism.
Musical Quality: • Much of the Bhakti literature was intended to be sung.
• It has a lyrical and musical quality to it, making it an integral part of
devotional music traditions across the country.
• Example: The compositions of Sant Eknath and Sant Tukaram were set to
music and are still sung today as "Bhavageets" or devotional songs in
Maharashtra.
Focus on a • While the Bhakti movement recognized the underlying unity of the divine,
Personal Deity: devotees often had a personal deity (Ishhta Devata) to whom they were
devoted.
• This deity could be Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Rama, Durga, or any other god
or goddess.
• Example: While Sankardev in Assam focused on the worship of Vishnu,
the Shaiva saints of Tamil Nadu sang praises of Shiva.
Role of the • In many Bhakti traditions, especially in Sikhism and the Sant tradition,
Guru: there's an emphasis on the role of the Guru as a spiritual guide and bridge
to the divine.
• Example: Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, played a pivotal role as a
spiritual guide. His hymns and teachings emphasized the central role of the
Guru in one's spiritual journey. ‘Guru Granth Sahib’ contains the
teachings of various Gurus.
Conclusion:
Therefore, in essence, Bhakti literature is characterized by its heartfelt devotion, simplicity,

inclusivity, and its challenge to established societal norms. It's a vast and rich corpus of work that has
played a significant role in shaping the socio-religious landscape of India.

Chapter 2: Medieval India
Topic: How Medieval Temple architecture reflect the contemporary Indian
society?
Medieval temple architecture in India is not just a reflection of the religious and spiritual beliefs of
the time, but it also mirrors various aspects of contemporary society, politics, culture, and economic
conditions.
Religious • Temples often incorporated elements from different religious traditions.

Syncretism: • For example, in areas with significant Jain and Hindu populations, temple
motifs could reflect influences from both religions.
• Similarly, temple architecture, especially in regions where Hinduism and
Islam intersected, sometimes reflected a syncretic mix of both
traditions, indicating religious interchanges.
Political • Temple complexes often signified the power and piety of the ruling
Patronage and dynasty.
Power: • Many rulers showcased their might, wealth, and divine backing by
commissioning grand temples.
• Temples also acted as centers of administration and were endowed with
lands and wealth, making them significant players in the economic and
political landscapes.
Socio-economic • Temples were not just places of worship but also hubs of economic
Landscape: activity.
• The inscriptions on temple walls often mention grants, donations, and
endowments given to temples, shedding light on the economy of the
period.
• Temples also sponsored various cultural activities like music, dance, and
art, fostering the local artistic community.
• The grand temples of Tanjore, Khajuraho, and Konark, for example, were
centers for various cultural festivities and activities.
Regional • Distinct regional architectural styles emerged, each reflecting the local
Variations: socio-cultural milieu.
• For instance, the Nagara style in North India, the Dravida style in South
India, and the Vesara style in parts of Deccan indicate regional
preferences, materials available, and local innovations.
Artistic • Temple walls and pillars were often adorned with intricate carvings that
Narratives: told stories from epics like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and local
legends.
• These narrations reflect the popular religious and cultural tales of the
times.
• Depictions of dancers, musicians, and other performers on temple walls
shed light on the entertainment forms prevalent in those times.

Social Structures • While temples celebrated divine figures and epic narratives, they also
and Hierarchies: showcased everyday life. Carvings could depict traders, farmers, hunters,
and various artisans, providing insights into daily life and occupations.
• Some temples also depicted the varna (caste) system and societal
hierarchies.
• For instance, different community groups might be depicted in various
forms or positions, indicating their social status.
Gender and • Temples like those at Khajuraho have intricate carvings that illustrate
Sexuality: various facets of human relationships and sexuality, providing an
understanding of societal attitudes and norms related to gender and
sexuality.
Topic: Architecture during the Medieval Period
Delhi Sultanate: Salve Dynasty:

• Qutub Minar by Qutb-ud-din Aibak
• Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutub Minar premises
• Arhai-din-ka-Jhopra in Ajmer
Khilji Dynasty:
• Alai Darwaza by Ala-ud-din Khilji, Siri Fort, etc.
Tughlaq Dynasty:
• Cities of Tughlaqabaad, Jahanpanah and Ferozabad
Lodis:
• Lodi Gardens, the city of Agra was established by Sikandar Lodi, etc.
Mughal Period Humayun:
• A city named Dinpanah
Sher Shah Suri:
• Sher Shah Suri’s tomb was built at his birthplace Sasaram
Akbar:
• Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri ,Buland Darwaza
• Salim Chishti’s tomb
Jahangir:
• Moti Masjid at Lahore, Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir
• Tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah
Shah Jahan:
• Taj Mahal at Agra, Red Fort in Delhi
• Jama Masjid in Delhi
• City of Shahjahanabad
Aurangabad:
• Bibi-ka-Maqbara
Regional Kingdoms: • Vijayanagara Empire: Hampi city, Hazara Rama Temple at Hampi
• Mewar Kingdom: Rajasthan Forts like Kumbhalgarh

Topic: Literature during the Medieval Period
Persian: Delhi Sulatanate:
• Amir Khusrau: Nuh Sipihr, Duval Rani-Khizr Khan
• Minhaj-i-Siraj: Tabaqat-i Nasiri (1260 CE)
• Ziauddin Barani: Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi
• Ibn Battuta (Moroccan traveller): Rihla
Mughals:
• Babur: Baburnama
• Gulbadan Begum: Humayun-namah
• Abul Fazl: Ain-e Akbari and Akbarnama;
• During Akbar:
o Several translations of Sanskrit texts like Ramayana,
Bhagvata Gita and several Upanishads into Persian.
o Razmnama, Hamzanama
• Jahangir: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography of Jahangir
• Shah Jahan: Shahjahannama of Inayat Khan
Sher Shah:
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi: Padmavat in 1540.
Urdu: Developed more in Modern Period:

• Mirza Ghalib (1797–1869) composed Diwan (collection of poetry) in
Urdu.
• Sauda, Dard and Mir Taqi Mir are some Urdu writers.
• Iqbal wrote Bang-e- Dara, ‘Saare jahan se achcha’.
Hindi: • Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai was probably the first Hindi book.
• Tulsidas Ramcharitmanas.
• Surdas wrote Sur Sagar.
Sanskrit Literature during Delhi Sultanate Period:

Introduction:
While it is true that Persian replaced Sanskrit as the official language, there was no quantitative
decline in the production of Sanskrit literary works as such.
Type of • Kavya (poetical narrative), grammar, drama, stories

Literature: • religion and philosophy
• medicine, astronomy,
• commentaries and digests on the Law Books (Dharamashastras) and other
classical Sanskrit works.
• Nor was the loss of
• But* while Sanskrit works sustained to be produced in big number, there
appears to be a marked decline in the excellence of these works. This decline
had set in before the establishment of the Sultanate and became more
pronounced throughout the Sultanate era.

Patronage • South India and Rajasthan patronized Sanskrit poets.
Features: • There was not much originality in mainly of the Sanskrit works that appeared
throughout this era. Much of the Sanskrit writing was repetitive of ancient
themes.
• Biographical works were mainly in the form of heroic ballads which
contained hagiographical details and stories of romance.
• The introduction of paper throughout the Sultanate era gave an
• impetus to the literary action of reproduction and dissemination of already
existing Sanskrit texts such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Regional • South India, Bengal, Mithila and Western India played the leading role in
distribution: the manufacture of Sanskrit literary works.
• The Vijaynagar kings patronized Sanskrit poets.
• The Jain scholars in Western India also contributed to the growth of Sanskrit
literature. The mainly well-known Jain scholars of Sanskrit literature in
Western India were Hemachandra Suri who belonged to the 12th century.
• Mithila in northern Bihar urbanized into yet another centre of Sanskrit.
• Later, towards the end of the Sultanate era and throughout the Mughal era,
the Chaitanya movement in Bengal and Orissa contributed to the
manufacture of Sanskrit works in many meadows — drama, champu (a
mixed form of verse and prose), grammar, etc.
• Several Rajput rulers patronized Sanskrit poets.
• These poets wrote the family histories of their patrons in the classical form
of a Sanskrit eulogy.
• Some of these Sanskrit works such as Prithvirajavtyaya and
Hammirmahakavya are well recognized.
• A number of historical poems are on Muslim rulers, e.g., Rajavinoda — a
biography of Sultan Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat written through his court
poet, Udayaraja.
• Kalhan’s Rajatarangini (12th century), which presents the history of Kashmir
kings, was followed in the Sultanate era through a second Rajatarangini
through Jonaraja who wrote the history of Kashmir kings from Jayasimha
to Sultan Zainul Abedin (1420-1470).
• A third Rajatarangini was written through Srivara who took the history of
Kashmir down to A.D. 1486.
• In addition to these historical kavyas, a big number of semi-historical texts
described prabandhas were also written. Merutunga’s Orabandhakasha
Chintamani and Rajashekhar’s Prabandhakosha contain material of historical
significance.
Conclusion:
On the whole, it must be pointed out that despite voluminous production, the Sanskrit literature of
the Sultanate period had lost much of its original vitality and creativity, and the bulk of this literature
remained unaffected by the intellectual developments of the age.

Topic: Painting during Delhi Sultanate Period
Introduction:
The age-old custom of painting in India sustained in the regional states in the medieval era despite
having suffered a setback in its growth in the Delhi Sultanate. Superior documentary material in the
form of paintings survives for the regional states.
Jain Paintings:
Western • The Western Indian approach is usually measured to have originated in the
India: 12th century since the earliest surviving illustrated manuscripts in this
approach date from the early era of this century.
• They were exposed in Jain bhandars (libraries) principally in Gujarat and
Rajasthan.
• The early specimens of the Western Indian approach are palm-leaf
manuscripts. They follow the pothi format with two or three columns of text
depending on the width of the leaf and the number of necessary string holes
to hold the leaves jointly.
• In the 13th century, the material was slowly changed from palm-leaf to
paper. This opened up great possibilities of illumination in the margins. The
format of the new paper manuscripts was at first kept to the proportions of
the palm-leaf, before slowly rising the height of the folio. No effort was
made, though, to abandon the pothi format.
Features: • Painting in these manuscripts is in a single plane, contained within a
sometimes brilliant but always brittle row. The figures have been drawn on a
red or ultramarine background.
• Paper is seen as a surface to be decorated with colors in patterns, yielding in
the best examples a brilliant jewel-like surface. The number of pigments
used has increased—costly pigments such as ultramarine, crimson, gold and
silver are used in rising quantities.
• Architectural elements are reduced to essentials. The hieratic little figures,
and sometimes animals as well as household furniture, are little more than
pictograms occupying boxes in a geometrical composition.
• Mannerisms contain the extension of the further eye, the swelling torso, and
a particularly tortuous arrangement of legs in seated figures. Men and
women are often practically indistinguishable.

Caurapancasika Style
Bilhana: • The Caurapancasika is a manuscript written through a Kashmiri poet Bilhana

who, awaiting execution for having been the lover of the king"s daughter,
sings of his unrepentant passion in lyrical stanzas.
• Paintings designated as Caurapancasika are only occasionally directly related
to the text.
Features: The distinctive characteristics of Caurapancasika approach may be described as
below:
• Approximately all the paintings in this approach are in an oblong format with
the text written on the reverse. They are, in information, successors to the
pothi format of the Western Indian approach.
• The protruding further eye of the Western Indian approach provides method
to an uncompromising face view and a single very big eye.
• The paintings are still in a single plane, with backgrounds in brilliant primary
colors.
The Deccani Painting:
Deccan • A separate approach of painting in the Deccan emerges in the kingdoms of

States: Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.
• It certainly predated the Mughal painting and is, in information, recognized
to have influenced its beginnings.
• The use of daring colors—purple and yellow, pink and green, brown and blue
— the sophistication and artistry of their compositions, and the traditional
Deccani costume argue through themselves a pre-subsistence for the
approach.
Features: • The Deccani approach drew on several sources including the Irani custom.
This is clearly reflected when we identify their distinguishing characteristics:
• The faces in this approach are commonly painted in three-quarters.
• The grounds are shown as sprigged, i.e. sprayed with flowers or similar
motifs.
• Another Deccani characteristic is the reduction of structures to totally flat
screen-like panels.
• A typically Irani power in some paintings is the golden sky. And suggestive of
the Chinese power in some paintings are pink and green flowering plants,
lotus and chrysanthemum.

Topic: Music in Delhi Sultanate:
Introduction:
Music is the least documented of all the fine arts of medieval India. Whatever little information we
get about the music and its development in the Delhi Sultanate is from the works of Amir Khusrau.
There is not much change in this situation in respect of provincial kingdoms. Historical information is
scanty and at times it becomes difficult to read history from legend.
Sharangdev • The earliest known treatise on music in the medieval period is Sangeet
Ratnakar.
• It was composed by Sharangdev sometime between 1210-47 at the
court of the Yadav ruler of Devagiri.
Kallinath • From the court of Vijaynagar, we get a Sanskrit commentary on
Sharangdev's Sangeet Ratnakar written by Kallinath, a courtier under
king Mallikarjun (1446-65).
• There are two other Sanskrit commentaries of the same kind, by
Keshav and & Singhbhoopal, but it is not known as to when and where
they were written.
Gujarat • In the 15th century we come across two interesting musical treatises
from Gujarat. The first one is called Sangeet Sudhakar, and is
attributed to Haripal Dev, the ruler of Saurashtra.
• It is here for the first time that the Indian musical form is divided into
the Hindustani and the Karnatak styles.
• The other text is a Persian work called Ghunyat-ul Munya. literally
'pleasure of desire.
Raag Tarangini • In the 15th century, we come across a text called Raag Tarangini
ascribed popularly to Lochan Kavi.
• It contains illustrations from both Jaidev (of Geet Govind) and Vidyapati
Svaramelakalanidhi • The most significant treatise on the South Indian style is the
Svaramelakalanidhi written by Ramamatya (1550) during Vijayanagara
empire.
Conclusion:
It is evident from the description given above that music in the 13th-15th centuries had grown even
if its development seemed located in specific places and was not indicative of any coordinated
attempt to bring all the various forms at one place. The development of music had attained the take-
off stage when Mughals intervened and gave it greater heights.

Topic: Vijayanagara Empire
Vijayanagara Empire through the eyes of Foreigners:
Politico- • Power and Grandeur of the King: Domingo Paes was particularly struck by
Administration: the respect commanded by Krishnadevaraya, emphasizing both his role as
a great warrior and a fair ruler.
• Administrative Efficiency: Domingo Paes commented on the smooth
administrative setup of Vijayanagara, especially noting the swift
dispensation of justice.
• Military Prowess: Nuniz shed light on the empire's military might, detailing
the composition and strengths of its large standing army.
• Fortifications and Defense: Abdur Razzak and Domingo Paes described the
massive fortifications that protected the city, signifying its strategic
importance.
Economic • Trade: Duarte Barbosa highlighted the empire's extensive trade routes and
Progress: the presence of international merchants, indicating a thriving commerce in
precious stones, pearls, spices, and more.
• Diamond Trade: Abdur Razzak's account underscores the empire's role in
the global diamond trade, with merchants from as far as Persia and
Hormuz involved.
• Organized Markets: Both Barbosa and Paes wrote about the structured
and well-organized markets in the empire, with each trade having its
specific street.
Social and • Religious Harmony: Niccolo de Conti observed religious tolerance within
Cultural set up: the empire, noting the harmonious coexistence of Hindus and Muslims.
• Festivals and Celebrations: Domingo Paes was particularly taken by the
Mahanavami celebrations, which showcased the cultural grandeur of the
empire.
• Grand Architecture: Multiple travelers, including Paes and Razzak,
remarked on the city's architectural marvels, ranging from palaces to
temples.
• Cosmopolitan Atmosphere: The accounts, especially those of Barbosa,
depict a cosmopolitan empire where merchants and travelers from various
parts of the world converged.

Topic: Akbar
Why Akbar followed the policy of 'Sulh-i-Kul' in Mughal administration?
Akbar was not only a successful military leader but also an insightful administrator. One of his
noteworthy policies was that of 'Sulh-i-Kul' (Universal Peace). This policy had its roots in his broader
religious and political vision and had significant implications for Mughal administration.
The following are the factors behind the policy:
Religious • From a religious perspective, Akbar believed in a syncretic approach,

Syncretism: amalgamating the best elements from different religions.
• This culminated in the creation of the Din-i Ilahi (Religion of God) - a
blend of elements from Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and
Christianity.
• Din-i Ilahi was known during its time as Tawhid-i-Ilahi ("Divine
Monotheism", 'Oneness of God') or Divine Faith.
• 'Sulh-i-Kul' was an extension of this belief, emphasizing peace and
harmony among the various religious groups in the empire.
Childhood • Akbar's own experiences, including his upbringing in the multi-religious
impact: environment of the Mughal court and his interactions with scholars from
various faiths, shaped his worldview.
• He was deeply influenced by these interactions and realized the
importance of religious harmony.
Legacy of • Before Akbar, there were instances of religious tensions, especially
Previous during the reigns of his predecessors.
Tensions: • By following 'Sulh-i-Kul', Akbar aimed to mitigate those tensions and
avoid the mistakes of the past.
Strategic • By marrying Rajput princesses and forming alliances with Rajput states,
Alliances: Akbar ensured that these powerful local rulers were integrated into the
Mughal system.
• 'Sulh-i-Kul' ensured that these alliances weren't just strategic but also
harmonious in nature.
Political • Akbar's empire was vast and consisted of a diverse range of religious and
Stability: ethnic groups.
• A policy of universal peace and tolerance ensured that potential religious
strife, which could destabilize his empire, was minimized.
Administrative • By embracing all religious communities and ensuring no discrimination
Cohesion: based on faith, Akbar could pull talent from all sections of his empire.
• This led to a more efficient and cohesive administrative system.
• Notable Hindu chieftains like Raja Todar Mal and Raja Man Singh held
significant positions in his court, exemplifying this inclusive approach.
Economic • Peace and harmony within the empire were conducive to trade and
Prosperity: commerce.

• With reduced internal strife, trade routes were secure, leading to
economic prosperity.
Conclusion:
In essence, Akbar's 'Sulh-i-Kul' was both a reflection of his personal beliefs and a part of
administrative strategy. It ensured the stability and prosperity of the Mughal Empire during his reign
and set a precedent for subsequent rulers.
What is the impact of Akbar's policy of 'Sulh-i-Kul' on Indian Society?

Introduction:
Akbar’s 'Sulh-i-Kul', an Arabic term which translates to 'Peace with All' or 'Universal Peace' was
rooted in Akbar's belief in religious and social tolerance. This had a huge impact on Indian society.
Impact of Akbar's 'Sulh-i-Kul' on Indian Society:
Religious • At the core of 'Sulh-i-Kul' was a belief in religious neutrality and tolerance.
Tolerance: • This approach was revolutionary at the time and went against the grain of
many other contemporary empires that followed a policy of religious
exclusivity.
Promoted • Akbar regularly hosted scholars, theologians, mystics, and philosophers
Interfaith from different religious backgrounds in his court.
Dialogue: • These 'Ibadat Khana' discussions facilitated interfaith dialogues, encouraging
mutual respect and understanding among various religious groups.
Abolition of • As a practical manifestation of his policy, Akbar abolished the Jizya tax in
the Jizya: 1564, which was traditionally levied on non-Muslims, showcasing his intent
of treating all his subjects equally irrespective of their religious affiliations.
Introduction • While not a new religion per se, Din-i Ilahi was more of a syncretic code of
of Din-i Ilahi: ethical conduct that borrowed from various religions.
• It embodied the spirit of 'Sulh-i-Kul' by encouraging harmony between
different religious communities.
Cultural • The policy facilitated a blending of various Indian and Persian arts, culture,
Synthesis: and traditions.
• This is evident in Mughal architecture, painting, music, and literature which
became more inclusive and diverse.
Marriage • Akbar's policy also extended to his personal life.
Alliances: • He married Hindu princesses, most notably the Rajput princess Jodha Bai,
without requiring them to convert to Islam, promoting a form of diplomacy.
Administrative • Akbar included many non-Muslims, especially Rajputs, in important
Reforms: administrative positions, breaking away from the tradition of religious
exclusivity in governance.
• Raja Todar Mal, Man Singh and Birbal are prime examples of such inclusion.

Reduction in • 'Sulh-i-Kul', by promoting universal tolerance, reduced religious tensions
Communal and conflicts in the diverse Mughal empire, leading to a more harmonious
Strife: society.
Influence on • Though later Mughal rulers had varied stances on religious tolerance, the
Later Mughal precedent set by Akbar did influence subsequent reigns.
Rulers: • Jahangir and Shah Jahan, to a certain extent, maintained the ethos of 'Sulh-i-
Kul'.
• However, Aurangzeb's reign marked a departure from this policy.

Topic: The Impact of Bhakti and Sufi Movements
Introduction:
The Bhakti and Sufi movements, which emerged in medieval India, had profound socio-cultural,
religious, and political impacts on the subcontinent. Both movements stressed personal devotion to
the divine, eschewing ritualistic practices and questioning established religious hierarchies.
Their impact:
Socio-Cultural • Promotion of Equality: Both movements transcended traditional caste and

Impact: class distinctions. Their emphasis on personal connection with the divine
meant that anyone, irrespective of their social standing, could seek spiritual
enlightenment.
• Regional Languages Flourished: Bhakti saints, like Kabir, Tulsidas,
Ramananda, Eknath, and Namdev, Tukaram composed their verses in
regional languages, thereby enriching these languages and making spiritual
knowledge more accessible.
• Literary Renaissance: The devotional hymns, poems, and couplets (dohas)
of Bhakti and Sufi poets contributed significantly to the literary traditions of
various Indian languages.
Religious • Syncretism: Both movements fostered a syncretic culture, drawing from

Impact: various religious traditions. This led to a blending of Hindu and Islamic
elements, especially in Sufi traditions.
• Critique of Ritualism: Both movements criticized empty ritualism and
dogma. They emphasized a personal god and inner spirituality over
ritualistic practices.
• Establishment of Religious Centers: Places associated with Bhakti saints and
Sufi mystics became pilgrimage centers. Sufi Khanqahs and Dargahs, as well
as temples associated with Bhakti saints, became centers of religious and
cultural activities.
Political • Interaction with Political Authorities: Sufi saints often interacted with
Impact: rulers and had an influence on their policies. For instance, Mughal rulers,
especially Akbar, were influenced by Sufi ideas.
• Resistance to Orthodoxy: While largely spiritual, both movements
occasionally clashed with orthodox elements within their broader religious
communities. For example, Guru Nanak's teachings laid the foundation for
Sikhism, which eventually took on a significant political dimension in the
Punjab region.
Social Reform: • Anti-Caste Sentiment: Many Bhakti saints vehemently opposed the caste
system. Saints like Ravidas (considered to belong to a lower caste) and Kabir
were particularly vocal about the injustices of the caste hierarchy.

• Empowerment of Marginalized Groups: Both movements empowered
marginalized groups. The inclusivity of these movements gave a voice to
those who had been traditionally silenced or oppressed.
Art and Music: • Devotional Music: The tradition of singing bhajans, kirtans, and qawwalis
became popular and integral to Indian culture.
• Painting: The themes from the lives and teachings of Bhakti and Sufi saints
were frequently depicted in miniature paintings, especially during the
Mughal era.

Topic: Miniature Painting:
The miniature schools of painting flourished during medieval period. It is small in size and scale. It
can be transported from place to place. They can be framed and hung on the wall or kept on the
table.
Technique of Miniature painting
• The technique of Miniature painting is minute and delicate.

• The colours were earthly and concrete, thick.
• Gold and silver foil or liquid was used to bring rich look to paintings.
• Brushes were very important for the artists. Depending on the delicacy of the work, the artists
created their own brushes.
• They painted on cloth, bark of the tree, handmade paper or board.
• We get to see large number paintings on handmade paper.
Themes:
• The miniature paintings are known for varied and interesting themes.
• Personal paintings
• They were like personal paintings. So they show the interests of the persons who commissioned
the pictures. Royal portraits are found in large number.
• The stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata are painted in every school. The stories of the
childhood of Krishna known as Bhagavata and stories on Devi in Devi Mahatmya, the
incarnations of Mahavishnu in Dasavatara are painted.
• The poet Jayadeva composed Gitagovinda, the story of Radha and Krishna. This was a very
favourite theme of all the painters in all the four miniature schools.
• They depict stories from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Devi Mahatmaya (stories of Kali
mata), events like hunting, festival, household, scenes showing seasons, ragas, court.
• The court scenes of emperors like Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir and Shahajahan, and hunting
scenes, procession and festival scenes are beautifully painted by Rajasthani and Mughal artists.
• The Mughal artists painted the life stories of their emperors in Babarnama, Akbarnama,
Humayunnama and Jahangirnama. They also painted animal studies, bird studies and flower
studies.
• In Ragamala paintings they painted in the name of different ragas and depicted their features.
• In the Nayika paintings the poems of Keshavadasa were painted.
• The Pahari painters painted beautiful landscapes, seasons.
• The Rajasthani painters depicted the heroic stories of their prince and princess.
MAJOR SCHOOLS OF MINIATURE PAINTING
Different Schools:
• The miniature paintings have their origin in the illustrated Manuscript Painting tradition.
• During the 10-13 centuries the mural paintings were not considered as part of temple structure
because of high importance to sculptures in the temples.

• But palaces and mansions must have been decorated with paintings. In the western India
commissioning of the manuscript painting was considered as sacred deed. After this phase the
paintings in miniature form were done on wood and cloth.
• Later with the introduction of handmade paper during Mughal period miniature painting were
done on the paper in large numbers. Each region came out with miniature painting tradition of
its own.
• Thus we have four regions, such as
o Mughal school in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
o Pahari school from hill states of north India,
o Rajasthani School from the western region and
o Deccani school from Deccan plateau.
• All these have sub-schools recognised as courts of princely states.
Rajasthani School of Miniature Painting
Mewar • Under Rana Uday Singh and Rana Pratap Mewar court produced heroic
Kalam: paintings in original Rajasthani style.
• When RanaAmar Singh accepted Mughal supremacy the paintings from
Udaipur and Jaipur courts were influenced by Mughal school. The themes
were taken from Hindu epics and texts. The Mewar Ragamala series is very
powerful.
• Ragini Vasanta, Ragini Todi, Ragini Hindola are the masterpieces. In portraits,
shading and costumes were in Mughal style. The whole atmosphere became
polished in the manner of Agra Kalam.
• The most striking features of Mewar kalam is the use of dark colours,
intensity of colours is high, the space in the painting is divided into
compartments or bands where different scenes of the story is pasteurised.
Bundi Kalam: • Bundi, a princely state located near Mewar the splendour of plant life
painted in detail.
• The Hindu and Mughal elements are beautifully blended in this style.
• The local folk style finds great place in these paintings. A superb work is the
'Ladies in the Garden' depict the pleasure scene of princess reminds the
paintings of Ladies sports of Jeanie's time. Vivid colours and a good deal of
gold are used in Bundi paintings.
Kotah Kalam: • Under Raja Umed Singh matured style in Rajasthani Painting developed in
the princely state of Kotah.
• There is a great impact of Mughal style on these paintings. The important
Kotah pictures are mainly portraits of princess and the hunting scenes. The
thick vegetation of forest is treated in greater detail in these paintings along
with tigers and boars in realistic manner.
Bikaner • Bikaner rulers were very close to Mughal emperors.
Kalam: • They patronised Mughal painters and they have created many pictures of
Bikaner court scenes, portraits and some social events.

• Rukn-ud-Din is the famous painter of this style. The portraits of Raja Anup
Singh on horse are one of the fmest pictures in this style. The fine colour
sense and sophistication is felt in the Bikaner paintings
Jodhpur • As in other Rajasthani states the Mughal- Rajput synthesis was seen in
Kalam: Jodhpur also. The pomp and splendour seen in the paintings of this style is
drawn from Mughal school. But the pride and heroic expression are
originally Rajasthani. Direct colours and strength in the figurative drawings
are the salient features of Jodhpur style.
Kishangarh • Kishangarh retained the Hindu spirit in the paintings. It was a small but
Kalam: beautiful princely state. Under Raja Sawant Singh the series of painting done
on Radha and Krishna in great devotion.
• These paintings are mostly the work of the talented artist Nihal Chand. The
models for Krishna was Maharaja Sawant Singh himself and for Radha his
beloved Bani Thani.
• The elegant female forms with lovely eyes, sharp nose and arched lips
brought a new kind of beauty into Rajasthani paintings. Maturity in shading
and lining is the striking features of the Kishangarh miniature paintings.
Jaipur Kalam: • Jaipur was known as Amber in early times. Emperor Akbar married princess
Jadha Bai from the royal family of Amber. Her brother Raja Mansingh was an
important general of Akbar's court. The life-size mural paintings are seen
even now in several palaces here.
• The artists followed Mughal style but painted the story of Radha Krishna.
Many portraits were created in typical Mughal style.
• The Raslila, Krishna dancing with gopis scenes are beautiful and master
pieces of this style. The artists preferred bright colours for painting.
Mughal School of Miniature Painting:
Akbar School: • Akbar, the Mughal emperor was a great patron of art and literature.
• He established a workshop for artists in Fatehpur Sikri, the new capital he
had built. Here artists worked as a team one making the outline, the other
figures, the third landscape and the fourth filled the colours. The two
masters, Mir SyedAli and Khwaja Abdus Samad were the Persian Masters
who taught the artists in Fatehpur Sikri Kutubkhana (Workshop).
• The Hindu and Muslim artists in large number under these masters learnt
and mastered the art and painted hundreds of pictures. In this way the
Persian and Indian styles merged in Akbar's time. Emperors like Akbar,
Jahangir and Shahajahan were so fond of paintings that they always took
some of the artists of their court with them on their journeys, whether it was
a hunt or a march with the army.
• Akbar's court poet Abdul Fazal in the Ain-i- Akbari has written about the
love of Akbar for painting. The works of all painters are weekly laid before
His Majesty by his clerks. He conferred rewards to the artists according to
the excellence of workmanship or increases their salary.

• The emperor set up a department for the art materials, and collection of the
art works. Among the many manuscripts which came to be illustrated by the
painters of the court were the Akbarnama, the Razmnama and Anwar-i-
suhayli, a book of fables.
Jahangir • Jahangir was the son of Akbar and took deep interest in painting even as a
School: prince.
• He had his own workshop (Kutubkhana) apart from his father's large studio.
• He patronised Farukh Baig from Central Asia and improvised the portrait
style in Mughal painting.
• Ustad Mansur was the court painter of Jahangir. The style under Jahangir
was called naturalistic. The masterpieces of Mansur are Pheasant, Zebra and
Turkey Cock, exquisite pictures which show the mastery of Mansur's
brushwork.
• Many paintings depict Jahangir and his court. The best pictures of Mughal
period come from Jahangir's time. The floral border around the paintings has
become the main feature of the paintings of this time.
Shahajahan • Prince, Shahajahan also showed interest in painting as an Emperor, he
School: spent a great deal of time in building the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid in
Delhi and Taj Mahal in Agra.
• The painters continued the previous tradition of doing portraits of noble
men, preparing portfolios and illustrating books. But the colours became
more decorative, gold was more frequently used for embellishment,
showiness replaced the feelings in painting.
• An excellent painting of his time is 'the portrait of Shah Jahan'.
Aurangzeb: • In times of the last Emperor Aurangzeb the artistic scene disintegrated due
to discontinuation of patronage. After the fall of Mughal rule the painting as
art lost its place and the artists went in search of provincial courts for
livelihood.
Pahari School of Paintings:
During 17th – 18th centuries a fine style of painting emerged in Kashmir and the adjoining hill areas of
Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. The paintings from these states are collectively called as Pahari paintings,
representing hill area. Here the artists and paintings travelled from one state to another frequently.
Because of this there was mutual influences and also drawn from Mughal school of painting.
Major variants are:
Basohli (J&K): • The earliest Pahari paintings are from the time of Raja Kirpal Singh from
Basohli. After the decline of Mughal empire the artists were given patronage
in Basohli.

• They painted the themes based on the books such as Rasamanjari,
Gitagovinda and Bhagavata Purana.
• Most of the paintings are on Krishna theme and the portraits of the local
kings. Reds, browns, blues, yellows, and greens burst out from these
pictures. The profile of the figures has big eyes as in the Jain pictures.
• The paintings are flat and the jewels are specially treated.
Guler • Under Raja Dalip Singh of Guler, a style similar to that of Basohli emerged.
(Himachal): • The trees and structures of Basohli style are evident here.
• Later a Mughal artist influences the Guler school.
• The artist Nainsukh and his brother created outstanding paintings in Guler.
• The drawing became finer, colouring more sophisticated, graceful
appearance of women and great skill are seen in this style.
• The dominant feature is the painting is the poetry in colour. The themes are
based on Krishna, Ragamala, Nayika and Baramasa paintings.
Kangra: • In Kangra valley under the patronage of Raja Sansar Chand a fresh phase of
art flourished.
• Since childhood he expressed interest in painting. As the ruler he patronised
the painters and acquired a large collection of pictures.
• Like other patrons of Pahari states he believed in Krishna cult and the artists
created new series of paintings depicting Krishnalila and love of Radha and
Krishna.
• The striking feature of this style is the importance given to landscape and
background.
• Lush green trees and bushes, clear sky, flowing river, chirping birds and fresh
flowers are part of these paintings.
• The colours are used symbolically to express moods. With the death of
Sansar Chand in 1823, the Kangra Kalam lost its inspiration.
Jammu: • From 1700 onwards Jammu began to produce beautiful paintings.
• Under Raja Balwant Singh the famous painter Nainsukh created great
pictures.
• He came from Ouler and continued to paint in that style. Thus there is a
great similarity between Jammu and Guler styles. The portrait of Raja
Balwant Singh, Kathak dancer and paintings on Krishna theme are prominent
pictures that Nainsukh created.
• The drawings of Jammu School are more sensitive, dark colours are used
sensibly and the local atmosphere dominates in this mature style.
Chamba: • Chamba is another hilly state ruled by kings like Prithvi Singh and Raj Singh.
• Since the wife of Prithvi Singh was from Basohli, the Basohli Kalam travelled
to Chamba. The early panels of the doors and paintings have high influence
of Basohli.
• But later on this bases the Chamba painters adopted the treatment of wall
paintings in miniatures.
• There are more of interior and narration in Chamba paintings.

Tehri • Anirudh Chand, the son of Sansar Chand from Kangra migrated to Tehri
Garhwal: Garhwal and carried many paintings with him.
• Some of the Kangra painters also moved with him. The paintings are mostly
of Krishna legend and Ramayana. The paintings are beautiful, retained the
grace of Guler and the richness of Kangra.
Deccani School of Miniature Paintings
Mughal • The Deccani school is the off-shoot of the Mughal miniature school. The
miniature and Bahamani states were known as Deccani Sultanates. Bijapur, Ahmednagar,
Vijayanagara Golconda, Bidar and later Hyderabad were politically in confrontation with
the neighbouring Vijayanagar.
• But culturally the artists drew the inspiration, materials and elements from
the mighty empire of Vijayanagar. The early paintings from Deccan are
influenced by Ellora murals, Mewar, Malwa miniature styles.
Persian • The Persian elements are also deep rooted in Deccani kalam. Under Ibrahim
elements: Adil shahi the Bijapur school of painting thrived greatly. The portraiture of
Adil Shahi and the Ragamala series are the best class. In Ahmednagar also
series of paintings depicting the ruler Queen Chand Bibi are found.
• Golkonda and Bidar produced portraits of nawabs and courtiers in miniature
style.
• This style is reinforced by a touch of the Mughal during the declining stage.
• The artists from Mughal court migrated to Deccani states and a new variety
of painting they created with Persian, Mughal and Hindu elements.
• Thus the Deccani School of miniature show their own identity. Apart from
these known schools there are several minor developments in all these four
major schools. The miniature painting as art in demand still flourishes
particularly in the major cities of Rajasthan.

PART 2: MODERN INDIA
UPSC Syllabus:
• Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present-
significant events, personalities, issues.
• The Freedom Struggle — its various stages and important contributors/contributions from
different parts of the country.
Chapter 3: The British Conquest

Topic: The Expansion of the British Empire:
Introduction:
The British conquest of the Indian subcontinent was a prolonged process that spanned nearly
hundred years, during which the British East India Company, and later the British Crown, gradually
extended their control over large parts of India.
The following regions were conquered by the British:
Carnatic Region: • The Carnatic Wars in the mid-18th century were a part of the larger
global conflict involving the British and the French.
• The British victory solidified their presence in South India.
Bengal Conquest: • Battle of Plassey (1757): It was fought between the British East India
Company and the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah. The British victory,
orchestrated through political intrigue and the betrayal of key figures
like Mir Jafar, gave them control over Bengal.
• Battle of Buxar (1764): Consolidated British power in Bengal, Bihar and
Odisha after defeating a coalition of Indian rulers.
Mysore: • Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799): A series of four wars fought between
the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company. The final
war resulted in the death of Tipu Sultan and the complete control of
Mysore by the British.
Marathas: • Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1818): A series of three wars resulted in
the defeat of the Maratha Empire and the establishment of British
supremacy in most parts of India.
Punjab: • Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849): Two wars resulted in the annexation of
the Sikh Empire by the British.

Topic: Methods and tactics used by the British to conquer:
Introduction:
The British conquest was achieved through a combination of political maneuvers, economic
dominance, and military conquests.
Subsidiary • A tactic used by Lord Wellesley, it involved Indian princely states

Alliances: becoming subsidiary states of the British East India Company.
• In return for military protection from the British, these states had to
accept British garrisons and often cede territory.
Doctrine of • Used fully by Lord Dalhousie, this policy stated that if an Indian ruler
Lapse failed to produce a biological heir, their territory would be annexed by the
British East India Company.
Manipulation of • The British would often intervene in matters of royal succession, placing
Successions on the throne individuals who were favorable or indebted to them.
Divide and Rule • The British often exploited existing rivalries and divisions among Indian
rulers. They exacerbated communal, ethnic, and caste differences to
ensure Indians did not unite against them.
Treaties and • The British often made treaties with Indian rulers under terms favorable
Agreements to them. If the terms were violated (often judged unilaterally by the
British), it would result in annexation or direct control. Treaties like Treaty
of Seringapatam (1792), Treaty of Bassein (1802) and Treaty of Amritsar
(1809) are examples in the case.
Military • The British maintained a well-equipped and disciplined army. They also
Superiority employed Indian soldiers, known as sepoys, in large numbers, offering
them steady pay and professional opportunities.
Espionage and • The British developed a vast intelligence network, which helped them
Intelligence preempt potential revolts and keep tabs on dissenting rulers.
Double • Implemented after the Battle of Plassey in Bengal, this meant that while
Government: Indian rulers retained nominal power, actual authority and administration
were exercised by the British.
Control over • By gaining control over land revenue systems, particularly after
Revenue and implementing the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, the British could
Finances economically weaken regional powers.
Conclusion:
Thus, by blending military tactics with shrewd political strategies and socio-economic controls, the
British effectively established and consolidated their rule over the diverse and vast territories of the
Indian subcontinent.

Topic: The Factors behind the success of the British:
Introduction:
The process of British conquest of various parts of India extended over a period of nearly a century.
The English suffered many diplomatic failures and some military reverses but ultimately emerged
victorious.
Internal Divisions in • India, during the 18th century, was not a unified nation. It was a
India: combination of competing kingdoms and principalities. The lack of
unity and common purpose among Indian rulers made it easier for
the British to annex or subordinate states one by one.
Divide and Rule • The British effectively employed a "divide and rule" strategy, taking
Policy: advantage of the deep-seated rivalries among various Indian princes
and chieftains. By providing support to one against the other, they
could play both sides and gradually exert their dominance.
Superior Military • The British had a technological advantage, particularly in terms of
Technology and weaponry, artillery, and naval strength. Their disciplined approach to
Organization: warfare and superior tactics, combined with the use of advanced
weapons, often provided them a decisive edge in battles.
Economic Control: • Through monopolistic practices, manipulative trade agreements, and
the imposition of heavy duties on Indian goods, the British East India
Company weakened the economic foundations of many Indian states,
making them dependent and easier to control.
Administrative • The British introduced an efficient and centralized administrative
Changes: system. The new legal and revenue systems often disenfranchised
traditional elites, making it easier for the British to exert control.
Political Alliances • The policy of "subsidiary alliances" introduced by Lord Wellesley
and Subsidiary meant that Indian rulers could not have their independent armed
Alliances: forces and had to rely on troops supplied and controlled by the
British. This system effectively ensured the dominance of the British
East India Company while keeping the nominal rulers on their
thrones.
Effective Intelligence • The British had an efficient system of gathering intelligence, which
and Espionage: kept them informed about developments in various parts of the
country and about the intentions of different rulers.
Lack of Modern • The modern sense of Indian nationalism, which could unite different
Nationalism: sections of society against a common enemy (in this case, the British),
was not fully developed in the early stages of British expansion in
India.
Collaboration by • Many Indian elites, including landlords, princes, and merchants,
Indian Elites: collaborated with the British either for personal gains or because they
saw benefits in the new order. This collaboration was vital in
establishing and consolidating British rule.
Other Factors: • Military Discipline

• Civil discipline of the Company’s servants
• Brilliant Military Leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, Arthur
Wellesley
• Fighting for the English National glory
Conclusion:
It's worth noting that the British dominance was not just a result of their strategic and military
superiority but also a consequence of the prevailing socio-political conditions in India.

Chapter 4: Impact of the British Conquest
Topic: Famines
What are the causes for Famines?
The frequency and severity of famines in India increased dramatically during the colonial period,
especially from the mid-eighteenth century onwards. Several factors, many of them rooted in British
colonial policies and priorities, contributed to this tragic phenomenon:
Colonial • The British shifted the Indian economy from a self-sustaining one to a
Economic colonial one.
Policies: • This meant prioritizing crops for export (like indigo, opium, and cotton)
over food crops, which reduced the available food in the market.
Land Revenue • The British introduced land revenue systems, such as the Permanent
Systems: Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari.
• These systems often led to heavy taxation, which forced peasants to sell
their grains to meet tax demands, leaving them with insufficient food.
Loss of • The British redefined land rights and ownership.
Traditional • This led to the displacement of many small farmers and rendered
Agrarian Rights: traditional community-based sharing and support systems ineffective
during times of need.
Inadequate • Although the British built some irrigation projects, they were often profit-
Irrigation: driven rather than aimed at ensuring food security.
• Many traditional water management systems were neglected or fell into
disrepair during this period.
Misuse of • While railroads had the potential to alleviate famines by moving grain
Railroads and from surplus to deficit regions, in reality, they often did the opposite.
Grain Trade: • Grains were frequently transported out of famine-stricken areas to more
profitable markets elsewhere, both within and outside India.
Laissez-Faire • The colonial administration's staunch commitment to laissez-faire
Economic Policy: economics meant that they were often reluctant to intervene during food
shortages.
• They hesitated to control grain trade or regulate its price, even during dire
circumstances.
Poor Response • British colonial administrators often failed to respond quickly and
and Apathy: effectively to food shortages.
• When they did respond, the relief measures were often inadequate,
mismanaged, or even punitive towards the affected populace.
Ecological • The rapid exploitation of India's forests for timber without any significant
Degradation: reforestation led to ecological imbalances.
• This contributed to changes in local climates, affecting rainfall and crop
yields.
External Factors: • World economic factors, like the global market demand for particular
crops, often influenced Indian agriculture.

• These external factors occasionally led to an emphasis on non-food crops
at the expense of staples.
De- • The decline of traditional industries under British rule meant that many
industrialization: artisans were forced into agriculture, intensifying the pressure on land
and making many more people vulnerable to its uncertainties.
Conclusion:
These factors, individually and collectively, compromised the resilience of the Indian agricultural
sector and exposed vast numbers of people to the threat of famine. The famines of the colonial
period were not just natural disasters but were manmade disasters due to the socio-economic
policies and priorities of the British Raj.

Chapter 5: Freedom Struggle
Topic: Stages of Freedom Struggle:
The Indian freedom struggle evolved through various stages, marked by different strategies and led
by various leaders and ideologies.
Early Resistance (between 1760s to 1850s)
• This period has witnessed localized rebellions against British rule like the Sannyasi Rebellion
in 1770s, the Paika Rebellion in 1817-1818, and other peasant and tribal uprisings like
Santhal rebellion in 1855.
• These revolts occurred against the economic policies, land revenue system, and the
introduction of English and western ideas.
The Revolt of 1857:
• It was often termed the First War of Indian Independence.

• It Involved sepoys, peasants, and local chieftains. Key figures included Rani Lakshmibai,
Bahadur Shah Zafar, and Kunwar Singh.
• While the revolt was crushed, it marked a significant shift in the way Britain governed India.
The rise of Nationalism in late 19th Century:
• So many pre-INC associations were started to generate awareness about the feeling of
Nationalism.
• Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in 1885.
• Initial phase of INC was dominated by the Moderates who believed in constitutional reform
through petitions and negotiations.
The Rise of Extremism in INC (Early 20th Century)
• Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai and Aurobindo
Ghosh advocated more assertive methods.
• Call for Swaraj (self-rule) and the use of boycotts and Swadeshi movements were their mode
of fighting against the injustice.
Gandhian Era (1919-1947)
• He Introduced Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) and mass movements into the body of
Nationalist movement.
• Major movements include the Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement,
and Quit India Movement.
• Emphasis on self-reliance, village industries, and holistic national development were key
ideas in this era.
Revolutionary Movements (Early 20th Century)
• Secret societies and groups aiming militant action against British rule were formed.
• Prominent groups included the Ghadar Party, Hindustan Socialist Republican Association,
and individuals like Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad and Surya Sen.

Communal Politics and the Demand for Pakistan (1930s-1940s)
• This stage has seen the rise of the Muslim League and the demand for a separate state for
Muslims.
• The Lahore Resolution of 1940 formally proposed the idea of Pakistan.
World War II and the Final Push (1939-1947)
• Cripps Mission, Quit India movement, Subhas Chandra Bose's efforts with the Indian
National Army, Wavell Plan, and the Mountbatten Plan were major developments that lead
to the eventual transfer of power in this period.
Post-War Movements and Independence (1945-1947)
• Naval Mutiny of 1946, INA trials, communist movements are major developments in this
period.
• Finally India attained Independence on 15th August 1947, accompanied by the tragic
Partition.

Topic: The 1857 Revolt
The Nature of 1857 Revolt:
A mere Mutiny: • British historians like Kaye, Malleson, Trevelyan, Lawrence, Holmes have
painted it as ‘a mutiny’ confined to the army which did not command the
support of the people at large.
Religious war or • Others described it as a ‘religious war against the Christians’ or ‘ a racial
a Racial Struggle: struggle for supremacy between the Black and the White.’
War between • Still others described ‘a struggled between Oriental and Occidental
Civilizations: civilization and culture’.
Hindu-Muslim • A few described it the result of ‘ Hindu-Muslim conspiracy to overthrow

Conspiracy: the British rule’.
Well Planned • Some Indian nationalists have called it a well-planned national struggle
National and as ‘the first war of Indian independence’.
Struggle: • V. D. Savarkar wrote the book The Indian War of Independence.
More than a • Dr. R. C. Majumdar and Dr. S. N. Sen, have made an exhaustive study of all
Mutiny of available records, official as well as non-official. Both the scholars,
Sepoys and however, agree that the uprising of 1857 was not the result of careful
much less than a planning nor were there any master minds behind it.
National • R. C. Majumdar book The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857.
Rebellion • He writes “It has been said that Julius Caesar dead was more powerful
than when he was alive. The same thing may be said about the Mutiny
of 1857.
Causes for 1857 Revolt
Political Causes • Lapse of all Morals

• British attitude towards Mughal House
• Absentee soverieigntyship
• Pax-Britanncia
Administrative • Effects of Indian States Annexation

Causes • Treatment of Indians under British Rule
• Inefficient Administration and Revolts
Economic Causes • Land Revenue Reforms and Social Impact

• Dispossession of Traditional Landlords
• Detrimental Effects on Aristocracy and Peasantry
• Negative Impact on Indian Trade and Industry
• Destruction of Indian Handloom and Spinning-wheel

• Impoverishment of the Country
Social Causes • Social Discrimination
Religious Causes • Fear of Conversions

• Legislation to facilitate Conversions
Military Causes • Challenges since the setback of Afghan adventure

• Distrust in High caste Soldiers
• Mutinies
• Annexation of States
• Issue over Bhatta
• Removal of Privileges
• Issue over Enfield rifle's greased cartridge
Causes for Failure

• Localized Revolt
• British were Superior in Resources
• Feudal Character
• Poorly Organized
• No common ideal
• Exceptional leaders on British side
Impact of the 1857 Revolt
• Change in the Administration
• Promise of not to conquer
• Opening Civil Services
• Reorganization of the Army
• Realisation of lack of contact with the people
• Racial Bitterness increased

Topic: Factors for the Rise of Nationalism
Introduction:
The rise of Indian nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was the result of a
combination of political, social, economic, and cultural factors.
Some of the important factors behind the rise of nationalism are:
Impact of British • British colonial rulers followed modern methods—political, military,

Rule: economic and intellectual—to establish and continue their stranglehold
over India. It led to the growth of Indian nationalism.
Political Unity of • Imperial Britain conquered the whole of India from the Himalayas in
India: the north to Cape Comorin in the South and from Assam in the east to
the Khyber Pass in the west. They created a larger state than that of the
Mauryas or the great Mughals.
• The establishment of political unity fostered the spirit of one
mindedness.
Establishment of • After the chaotic conditions of 18th century (partly created by the
Peace and aggressive wars waged by European trading companies), the British
Administrative rulers established peace and orderly government in India.
Unification of • British scholars take pride in the fact that Pax Britannica brought
India: prolonged peace and order for the first time in India.
• A highly trained professional, Indian Civil Service managed the district
administration in all parts of India.
• A unified judicial setup, codified civil and criminal law rigorously
enforced throughout the length and breadth of the country imparted a
new dimension of political unity to the hitherto cultural unity that had
existed in India for centuries.
Development of • The necessities of administrative covenience, considerations of military
rapid means of defence and urge for economic penetration and commercial
transport and exploitation were the drives behind planned development of modern
Communications: means of transport.
• A network of roads linked one province with another and the
metropolitan centers with mofussil areas.
• As early as 1865 Edwin Arnold wrote, “Railways may do for India what
dynasties have never done— what the genius of Akbar the
Magnificent could not effect by government, nor the cruelty of Tipu
Saheb by violence, they have made India a nation”.
• The development of the modern postal system and the introduction of
electric telegraph in the 1850s helped to unify the country.
• Thus, the modern means of communications enabled people living in
different parts of India to maintain regular contacts with one another
and thus promoted the cause of nationalism.
• In fact, modern political organisations like the Indian National
Congress, the All-Indian Trade Union Congress, the All-India Kisan
Sabha, the All-India Muslim League could neither have come into
existence nor could function on a national scale without the facilities
provided by modern railways motor buses or the communication
facilities provided by the Post and Telegraph Department.

Introduction of • The introduction of modern system of education afforded opportunities
Modern for assimilation of modern Western ideas which in turn gave a new
Education: direction to Indian political thinking.
Emergence of a • The emergence of the modern press both English and Vernacular was
Modern Press: another offshoot of British rule in India.
• It were the Europeans who set up printing presses in India and
published newspapers and other cheap literature.
• Gradually the Vernacular press came into existence and developed on
the Western pattern.
• Newspapers like the Indian Mirror, the Bengalee, the Amrita Bazar
Patrika, Bombay chronicle, the Hindu Patriot, the Mahratta, Kesari,
Andra Prakasika, The Hindu, Indu Prakash, Kohinur etc. in English and
different Indian languages exposed the excesses of British Indian
administration apart from popularizing among the people the ideas of
representative government, libery, democratic institutions, home rule
and independence.
• It may be no exaggeration to state that the press became the mirror of
Indian nationalism and the primary medium of popular public
education.
Rise of the Middle • British administrative and economic innovations gave rise to a new
Class urban middle class in towns. The new class readily learnt English for it
Intelligentsia: promoted employment and gave a sence of prestige.
• This class, prominent because of its education, new position and its
close ties with the ruling class came to the forefront.
• P. Spear writes, “The new middle class was a well-integrated all-India
class with varied background but a common foreground of knowledge,
ideas and values...It was a minority of Indian society, but a dynamic
minority....It had a sense of unity of purpose and of hope”.
• This middle class proved to be the new soul of modern India and in due
course infused the whole of India with its spirit. This class provided
leadership to the Indian National Congress in all its stages of growth.
Influence of • Historical researches in ancient Indian history conducted mostly by
Historical European scholars like Max Muller, Monier William, Roth, Session etc.
Researches: opened new vistas of India’s rich cultural heritage.
• In particular, the excavations conducted by archaeologists like Marshall
and Conningham created a new picture of India’s past glory and
greatness no less impressive than that of ancient civilisations of Greece
and Rome.
• The scholars praised the Vedas and Upanishads for their literary merit
and excellent analysis of the human mind.
• The theory put forward by European scholars that the Indo-Aryans
belonged to the same ethnic group of mankind from which stemmed all
the nations of Europe gave a psychological boost to educated Indians.
• All these gave a new sense of confidence to the educated Indians and
inspired them with a new spirit of patriotism and nationalism.
Impact of • Contemporary strong currents of nationalist ideas which pervaded the
Contemporary whole of Europe and South America did stimulate Indian nationalism.
European • A number of national states came into existence in south America on
Movements: the ruins of the Spanish and Portuguese empires.

• In Europe the national liberation movements of Greece and Italy in
general and of Ireland in particular deeply stirred the emotions of
Indians.
• Educated Indians touring Europe were greatly impressed by these
nationalist movements.
• We find Surendranath Banerji delivering lectures on Joseph Mazzini and
the “Young Italy” movement organised by him.
• Lajpat Rai very often referred to the campaigns of Garibaldi and the
activities of Carbonaris in his speeches and writings. Thus, European
nationalist movement did Lend strengh to the developing nationalism in
India.
Progressive • In the 19th century educated-Indians began to examine afresh their
Character of Socio- religious beliefs and customs and their social practices in the light of
Religious Reform new knowledge of Western science and philosophy which thay had
Movement: acquired.
• The result was various religious and social reform movements in Hindu
religion like the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarhana Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the
Ramakrishna Mission, the Theosophical Society.
• Similar movements reformed Muslim, Sikh and Parsi societies also.
• In the religious sphere the reform movements combated religious
superstition, attacked idolatry, polytheism and hereditary priesthood.
• In the social sphere, these movements attacked the caste system,
untouchability and other social and legal inequalities, these movements
were progressive in character for they sought recognisation of society
on democratic lines and on the basis of ideas of individual equality,
social equality, reason, enlightenment and liberalism.
• Most of the religious societies had no political mission, all the same
whosoever came under their influence rapidly developed a sence of
self-respect and spirit of patriotism.
• Since many reform movements drew their inspiration from India’s rich
cultural heritage, these promoted pan-Indian feelings and spirit of
nationalism.
Racialism: • One unfortunate legacy of the Rebellion of 1857 was the feeling of
racial bitterness between the rulers and the ruled.
• The Punch cartooned Indians as half-gorilla, half-negroes.
• The Anglo-Indian bureaucracy developed an attitude of arrogance and
contempt towards the Indians.
• They somehow came to the conclusion that the only argument that
worked effectively with the Indians was superior force.
• Thus, Europeans developed their own social code of ethics and worked
out the theory of a superior race.
• The Indians were dubbed as belonging to an inferior race and no longer
worthy of any trust. The Indians were frequently referred to as a nation
of liars, perjurers and forgers.
• The Anglo-Indian lobby produced books, races particularly the English.
• This narrow approach evoked a reaction in the Indian mind and put the
educated-Indians on the defensive.
Economic • The impact of British rule on the Indian economy was disastrous.
Exploitation: • Jawaharlal Nehru has summed up the Indian viewpoint when he writes,
“The economy of India had....advanced to as high a stage as it could

reach prior to the Industrial Revolution” but “foreign political
domination... led to a rapid destruction of the economy she had built
up, without anything positive or constructive taking its place”, the net
result being “poverty and degradation beyond measure”.
• The general object of British policies—even though claimed to be social
welfare by some British scholars—was a systematic destruction of
traditional Indian economy. The sharp reaction to discriminatory British
economic and fiscal policies gave rise to economic nationalism in India.
• In the first half of the nineteenth century Britain was in the vanguard of
Industrial Revolution and needed cheap raw material and a market for
her industrial products.
• Interests of imperial Britain required that Indian economy policies of
India in all fields–agriculture, heavy industry, finance, tariffs, foreign
capital investment, foreign trade, banking etc—were all geared to the
preservation of the colonial economy.
• The extravagant civil and military adminstration, the denial of high
posts to Indians, the evermounting “Home Charges”, the continuous
drain of wealth from India resulted in stagnation of Indian economy.
• The cumulative effect was increasing misery for the people. Periodical
famines became a regular feature of Indian economic life. What is
worse is that even during the famine times, export of foodgrains from
India continued. Indian nationalists developed the “theory of increasing
poverty in India” and attributed it to Britain’s anti-India economic
policies.
• They tagged poverty and foreign rule. This psychology developed a
hatred for foreign rule and love for Swadeshi goods and Swadeshi rule.
• The spirit of nationalism received a powerful stimulus in the process.
Lord Lytton’s • The short-sighted acts and policies of Lord Lytton acted like catalytic
Reactionary agents and accelerated the movement against foreign rule.
Policies: • The maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination was reduced from 21
years to 19 years, thus making it impossible for Indians to compete for
it.
• The grand Delhi Darbar of 1877, when the country was in the severe
grip of famine, solicited the remark from a Calcutta journalist that ‘Nero
was fidding while Rome was burning.’
• Lytton put on the statute book two obnoxious measures—the
Vernacular Press Act and Indian Arms Act (1878).
• Lytton’s unpopular acts provoked a great storm of opposition in the
country and led to the organisation of various political associations for
carrying on anti-Government propaganda in the country.
The Ilbert Bill • The Ilbert Bill controversy raised passions on both sides which did not
Controversy: easily subside.
• Ripon’s Government sought to abolish ‘judicial disqualification based on
race distinctions’ and the Ilbert Bill sought to give Indian members of
the Covenanted civil Service the same powers and rights as their
European colleagues enjoyed.
• The Bill raised a storm of agitation among the members of the
European community and they all stood united against the bill.
• Ripon had to modify the bill which almost defeated the original
purpose.

• Organised agitation: The Ilbert Bill controversy proved an eye-opener
to the Indian intelligentsia. It became clear to them that justice and
fairplay could not be expected where the interests of the European
community were involved. Further, it demonstratred to them the value
of organised agitation.
Conclusion:
Over time, these factors collectively fostered a sense of national identity among Indians and drove
the demand for independence from British imperialist rule.

Topic: The Role of Gandhiji
The constructive programmes of Mahatma Gandhi during NCM CDM:
Introduction:
Mahatma Gandhi emphasized the importance of "constructive work" as a means to make India self-
reliant and to build a strong foundation for Swaraj (self-rule). These constructive programmes were
not just designed for socio-economic development but also for promoting national unity, social
harmony, and individual discipline.
Khadi and Charka • He promoted Charka (hand-spinning) and Khadi (hand-woven cloth)
(Spinning Wheel): to counter the British textile industry.
• He encouraged every Indian household to own a Charka and spin
their own cloth, which would also generate employment.
Boycott of Foreign • Indians were encouraged to shun foreign products, especially cloth,
Goods: and promote indigenous industries.
Hindu-Muslim Unity: • Strengthening communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims,
deemed vital for a united fight against colonial rule.
Upliftment of the • Efforts to abolish untouchability and promote the social, economic,
Harijans and educational upliftment of the Dalits.
(Untouchables):
Women's • Encouraging women's participation in the freedom struggle and
Empowerment: promoting their education and rights.
Education: • Promotion of national education through new schools and colleges as

an alternative to British institutions.
• Focus on Nai Talim or Basic Education, which emphasized hands-on
learning and moral development.
Health and Hygiene: • Promoting sanitation, cleanliness, and basic healthcare as essential
components of a healthy society.
Prohibition: • He advocated for banning the consumption of alcohol, considering
the social problems it generated.
•
Ideologies of Mahatma Gandhiji and Netaji Subash Chandra Bose

Introduction:
Mahatma Gandhi and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose are two of the most iconic figures in India's
struggle for independence from British rule. Both made immense contributions to the freedom
movement, but they had different ideologies and approaches to achieving India's independence.
Ideology: Gandhiji Bose

Philosophy of • Advocated for non-violence • While Bose respected Gandhi's
Resistance: (Ahimsa) and civil disobedience as principles of non-violence, he
the main tools for resistance. He believed that non-violence would

believed in passive resistance or not be sufficient to obtain
non-cooperation to non-violently freedom. He felt the need for an
protest against the British. armed struggle against the British
and hence sought alliances with
Germany and Japan during World
War II to fight the British.
Vision of • Envisioned a decentralized system • Dreamed of a modern, united
Independent of governance with a focus on India with a strong central
India: village self-sufficiency (Gram government. He believed in
Swaraj) and a just society where socialism and aimed for a
every individual's rights would be comprehensive agricultural and
recognized and protected. industrial development program.
Means to • Emphasized on satyagraha • He mobilised the Indian National
Achieve (insistence on truth), boycotts, and Army (INA) with the help of Axis
Independence: non-cooperation movements. He powers to wage an armed struggle
believed that by morally against British forces. He believed
awakening the British conscience, that freedom could be achieved
they could be persuaded to leave through force if necessary.
India.
Views on • Gandhi was deeply involved in • While Bose also believed in social
Social Issues: social reform. He worked towards reforms and was against caste and
the upliftment of the religious prejudices, his primary
downtrodden, eradication of focus was on mobilizing forces for
untouchability, and promotion of an armed struggle against the
Hindu-Muslim unity. British.
Organizational • Played a significant role in the • Although he was once a president

Approach: Indian National Congress (INC) and of the INC, differences with the
believed in working within the Congress led to his resignation.
framework of the organization to • Later, he formed the Forward Bloc
build a mass movement. to continue his political and
revolutionary activities.
International • Gandhi seldom sought • Bose actively sought international
Alliance: international alliances to counter alliances with countries like
British rule. Germany and Japan against the
common enemy, i.e., the British
Empire.
• He believed in the enemy's enemy
principle to drive the British out of
India.
Conclusion:

While both leaders had differing ideologies and strategies, their ultimate goal was the same: to
achieve an independent and prosperous India. They commanded immense respect from the masses,
and both their legacies continue to inspire people across the world.
Ideologies of Mahatma Gandhiji and BR Ambedkar

Introduction:
Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar were two of the most influential figures in modern Indian
history. Both played crucial roles in shaping India's future, but their ideologies and beliefs differed
significantly, particularly in their approach to caste and social justice.
Ideology: Gandhiji Ambedkar

Caste System • Gandhi believed in the varna • Ambedkar, having faced caste
and Social system, which he saw as different discrimination himself, believed in
Reforms: from the caste system. the annihilation of the caste
• He felt that the caste system had system.
degenerated over time and • He saw the system as inherently
advocated for the removal of unjust and advocated for the
untouchability. rights of the Dalits, ensuring they
• He wanted to uplift the Harijans were recognized and protected in
("children of God", as he termed the Indian Constitution.
the Dalits) by integrating them into
society.
Means of • He advocated for a change of heart • He focused on legal and
Achieving among upper-caste Hindus and constitutional measures to ensure
Social Justice: believed in the moral justice for marginalized
transformation of individuals as a communities.
way to achieve social justice. • He believed in structural reforms
and was instrumental in framing
the Indian Constitution that
enshrined rights for the
underprivileged.
Religious • Gandhi's philosophy was deeply • Having faced caste-based
beliefs: rooted in Hinduism, especially the discrimination in Hindu society,
concepts of Ahimsa (non-violence) Ambedkar was critical of many
and Satyagraha. Hindu practices.
• However, he also drew inspiration • Later in his life, he converted to
from various religions and always Buddhism and encouraged his
promoted inter-faith harmony. followers to do the same as a form
of socio-religious emancipation.
Economic • He promoted the idea of self- • He emphasized industrialization
Vision: sufficient village economies with a and modernization of the Indian
economy. He believed in a

focus on hand-spun textiles (Khadi) comprehensive economic
and traditional Indian industries. development approach to uplift
the downtrodden.
Constitution • While Gandhi's influence on the • Often referred to as the "Father of
and Legal Indian Constitution is undeniable, the Indian Constitution,"
Framework: he was primarily a mass movement Ambedkar played a pivotal role in
leader and didn't engage deeply in its framing. He ensured the
the constitutional debates. He is inclusion of provisions for social
regarded as the ‘Father of the justice, affirmative action, and
Nation’. protection of minority rights.
Vision of free • He envisioned a free India based on • He dreamed of a modern,
India: moral values, self-restraint, and democratic India where every
non-violence, where every citizen, regardless of their caste or
community would coexist background, would have equal
peacefully. rights and opportunities.
Conclusion:
Both leaders, despite their differences, contributed immensely to the Indian socio-political
landscape. Gandhi's mass movements and Ambedkar's legal and constitutional acumen were
instrumental in laying the foundations of modern and independent India.

Topic: The ideological strands in the Indian national movement:
The Indian National Movement, which spanned from the latter half of the 19th century to the
middle of the 20th century, was marked by a rich diversity of ideological strands. These ideologies
influenced the strategies, activities, and the nature of the movement against British colonial rule.
Moderate Phase: • Early leaders of the Indian National Congress (INC) like Dadabhai
Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, W.C Bonnerjee, and Gopal Krishna
Gokale believed in constitutional means and petitions to voice their
demands.
• Their main objective was to seek minor reforms in governance and to
secure a greater role for Indians in governance.
Extremist Phase: • Leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal,
and Lala Lajpat Rai were disillusioned with the moderate approach.
• They believed in direct action, mass mobilization, and Swadeshi
(indigenous) movements.
• They also advocated for the boycott of British goods and institutions.
Gandhian Ideology • Mahatma Gandhi introduced ideas of non-violence (Ahimsa),
Satyagraha (truth force), Non-cooperation and civil disobedience to the
freedom struggle.
• His approach combined political action with socio-economic reforms.
He also emphasized moral and ethical dimensions in the struggle for
independence.
Revolutionary • Groups and individuals, often inspired by global anti-colonial
Nationalism movements, sought to challenge the British rule through revolutionary
means, including violence.
• Key figures include Rash Behari Bose, Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat
Singh, Surya Sen.
Socialism and • Influenced by the global socialist and communist movements, leaders
Communism: like Subhas Chandra Bose, and Jawaharlal Nehru emphasized the need
for social and economic reforms.
• They believed in a broader struggle that would not just seek political
freedom but also address socio-economic inequalities.
Dalit Movements: • These movements sought to address the rights of the socially
marginalized and oppressed Dalit community. It was mainly led by Dr.
B.R. Ambedkar.
• Ambedkar emphasized the need for social equality, annihilation of
caste, and sought separate electorates for Dalits, which later led to the
Poona Pact.
Religious and • The demand for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan) by the All India
Communal Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, emerged in the 1940s.
Strands: • The Akali Dal championed the interests of Sikhs in Punjab, while the
Hindu Mahasabha represented Hindu nationalist ideas.

Regional • These movements championed regional concerns and were often
Movements driven by linguistic, cultural, or regional identities. For instance, the
demand for linguistic states or the assertion of regional rights over
resources.
Nationalist • Movements in princely states aimed at democratization and reduction
Movement in of the autocratic rule of the monarchs, often with a vision to integrate
Princely States: with the larger Indian nationalist cause.
Conclusion:
These diverse ideologies, though sometimes conflicting, collectively enriched the Indian National
Movement and provided it with a broad base of support across the Indian subcontinent and helped
in gaining the freedom from the British unjust rule.

PART 3: POST-INDEPENDENCE
UPSC Syllabus
Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country.
Topic: Challenges of India at the Time of Independence

Challenge: Explanation:
Partition and • The immediate aftermath of the partition of British India into India and
Communal Violence Pakistan led to one of the largest mass migrations in human history.
• Millions of Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims were displaced, leading to
widespread violence, atrocities, and immense human suffering.
Integration of • At the time of independence, India was a patchwork of over 560
Princely States princely states.
• Integrating these states into the Indian Union was a significant
challenge. While most acceded peacefully, there were notable
exceptions like Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Kashmir.
Refugee Crisis • The partition led to a massive influx of refugees, particularly in the
border states of Punjab and Bengal.
• Providing shelter, food, and rehabilitation for these millions of
refugees was a herculean task.
Colonial legacy - • India inherited an economy that had been structured to serve the
Economic colonial interests of Britain.
Challenges • There was a need for major structural changes, land reforms, and
development of infrastructure.
Social Reforms • Issues like caste-based discrimination, untouchability, and gender
inequality needed immediate attention.
• The challenge was to introduce reforms without antagonizing
traditional societal structures.
Constitutional and • Framing a constitution for such a diverse country and setting up an
Administrative administrative structure for governance was a significant challenge.
Reforms • The Constituent Assembly took almost three years to draft the Indian
Constitution.
Defense and • With the wounds of partition fresh and the Kashmir issue escalating
Security into a conflict with Pakistan in 1947-48, establishing a robust defense
mechanism was crucial.
Foreign Policy • Carving out a unique non-aligned foreign policy stance, managing
relations with immediate neighbors (especially Pakistan and China),
and establishing India's position in global affairs were significant
challenges.
Linguistic and • Managing the aspirations and demands of various linguistic and
Cultural Diversity cultural groups, especially in the context of forming states, was
another challenge.
• The demand for linguistic states led to the reorganization of states in
1956.
Famine and Food • India faced severe food shortages in the years immediately following
Security independence.
• Ensuring food security for its vast population was a pressing issue.

Education and • Building a robust education system and ensuring healthcare for all,
Health especially in the backdrop of widespread poverty and illiteracy, were
challenges that needed immediate attention.
Conclusion:
While India has made significant strides in addressing many of these challenges over the decades,
some issues, particularly those related to social reforms, economic disparities, and regional
aspirations, continue to be relevant even today.
Topic: Integration of Princely states after Independence:

Introduction:
With great skill and masterful diplomacy and using both persuasion and pressure, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel succeeded in integrating the hundreds of princely states with the Indian Union.
Unifying post-Partition India and the princely states under one administration was perhaps the most
important task facing the political leadership. In colonial India, nearly 40 per cent of the territory was
occupied by princes.
Challenges in integrating princely states:
Sheer Number • There were 562 princely states, each varying in size, population, economic
and Diversity: conditions, and administrative systems.
• Dealing with each and every state individually required time, resources,
and diplomatic efforts.
Ambiguities in • The British left the option to the princely states to join either India or
the British Pakistan or remain independent.
declaration: • This flexibility created confusion and led to aspirations for sovereignty
among some states.
Aspirations of • Certain rulers like the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Maharaja of Kashmir
Local Monarchs harboured hopes of independent sovereignty or had reservations about
joining the Indian Union. These aspirations had to be addressed
diplomatically or, in some cases, with military intervention.
Religious and • The religious and ethnic composition of certain states, with respect to their
Ethnic ruling monarchs, made decisions complex.
Differences • For instance, the Muslim ruler of Hindu-majority Junagadh initially chose
to accede to Pakistan, leading to a crisis.
Geographical • Some states, although geographically surrounded by Indian territory,
Challenges: desired to join Pakistan (like Junagadh) or remain independent (like
Hyderabad), leading to logistical and defense challenges.
States’ Popular • In several princely states, there were ongoing movements and agitations
Movements: by the local populace against their monarchs. Balancing these internal
dynamics while pushing for integration was a delicate task.
External • Foreign powers, especially Pakistan, had interests in the princely states
Influences and and sometimes directly or indirectly influenced the choices of the rulers,
Interference further complicating the integration process.

Assurances and • To convince the monarchs to accede to India, various assurances, including
Guarantees: monetary allowances (Privy Purses) and guarantees about their and their
heirs' dignified status, were provided. These later posed challenges,
especially when the privy purses were abolished in 1971.
Socio-cultural • After the political integration, socio-cultural integration was crucial. There
Integration: were significant cultural differences between the princely states and the
rest of India. Ensuring a smooth cultural transition and amalgamation was
a long-term challenge.
• After independence, these areas aspired to become states. Ex. Telangana.
Under the stewardship of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, with the diplomatic prowess of V.P. Menon and
others, India managed to overcome these challenges and achieve a largely peaceful and negotiated
integration of the princely states into the Indian Union.
Mechanisms through which the princely states were integrated:
Instrument of • The Indian government, led by Home Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Accession: and Secretary of the States Department V.P. Menon, formulated the
Instrument of Accession—a legal document allowing a princely state to
join the Indian Union.
• Rulers of the princely states were asked to sign the Instrument, which
meant they would cede control over defense, foreign affairs, and
communications to India while retaining power over other matters.
Use of • Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon initiated a series of diplomatic meetings and
Diplomacy discussions with the rulers of the princely states. They emphasized the
geopolitical realities and the socio-economic benefits of joining a united
India.
Assurances and • To ease the integration process, the rulers were given certain guarantees.
Privy Purses: • One of these was the privy purse—a fixed sum given to the erstwhile
rulers as a compensation for their loss of ruling rights and as a pension.
• These were later abolished in 1971 by the 26th Amendment to the Indian
Constitution.
Reorganization • Post the initial phase of integration, the Indian government undertook the
of States reorganization of states, mostly on linguistic lines, with the States
Reorganisation Act of 1956.
• This reorganization helped merge the territories of the erstwhile princely
states into the larger states of the Indian Union.
Special Cases of Integration:
Junagadh: • The Nawab wanted to join Pakistan, although the majority Hindu
population desired to be part of India. The situation led to a plebiscite,
where the people overwhelmingly chose India. Subsequently, Junagadh
was integrated into the Indian Union.

Hyderabad: • The Indian Army intervened to integrate the Nizam's princely state of
Hyderabad into India after the Nizam sought to remain independent.
• This operation was known as 'Operation Polo'.
Kashmir • Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of Kashmir, initially sought to remain
independent. However, after tribal militias supported by Pakistan invaded
Kashmir, he signed the Instrument of Accession to India for military
support. This led to the First Indo-Pak war.
Conclusion:
The integration of the princely states into the Indian Union was a complex process that required a
balanced approach of diplomacy, persuasion, and force. The states' integration laid the foundation
for India's federal structure and the diverse, yet united, nature of the Indian Republic.

Topic: Land Reforms
The Legacy of the British Imperialism:
The main characteristics of the agrarian structure which independent India inherited were
• Absentee land ownership

• Exploitation of tenants through high rents and insecurity of tenure
• Unequal distribution of land
• Tiny and fragmented holdings and
• Lack of adequate institutional finance to agriculture.
Objectives of land reforms:

• To change the unequal and unproductive agrarian structure
• To remove exploitative agrarian relations, often known as patron-client relationship in
agriculture,
• To promote agriculture growth with social justice.
Land Reforms Measures

Introduction:
After Independence, the Indian National Congress appointed the Agrarian Reforms Committee under
the Chairmanship of J.C. Kumarapppa, for making an in-depth study of the agrarian relations prevailing
in the country. The committee submitted its report in 1949 which had a considerable impact on the
evolution of agrarian reforms policy in the post-independence period. The committee recommended
that all intermediaries between the state and the tiller should be eliminated and the land must belong
to the tiller subject to certain conditions.
The term ‘land reforms’ refers to reforms undertaken in the land tenure system. The steps include:
Abolition of • Immediately after independence, the Indian government recognized

Intermediaries the need to abolish the Zamindari system.
• The objective of this reform was to bring direct relationships between
the state and the cultivators, eliminating the middle layers.
• By the 1950s, most states passed legislation to end Zamindari,
benefiting millions of peasants who now gained rights to their land and
thereby reducing exploitation.
Tenancy Reforms • The tenancy reforms aimed at conferring rights of ownership or
providing better conditions for tenants. Tenants, before reforms, faced
arbitrary evictions, high rents, and lack of security.
• The tenancy laws sought to regulate rent, provide security of tenure,
and rights of cultivation. Over time, many tenants could acquire the
status of owner-cultivators. However, the effectiveness of these laws
varied from state to state.
Ceilings on Land • The introduction of ceilings on land holdings was to ensure equitable
Holding distribution of land and prevent the accumulation of land by a few.
This was intended to reduce economic disparities and social inequality.

• Excess land, beyond the ceiling, was to be taken by the state and
redistributed among the landless, especially the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes.
• The effectiveness of this measure, however, has been debated, given
the evasion tactics used by large landholders and bureaucratic hurdles.
Consolidation of • Fragmentation of agricultural land was a significant challenge in India.
Holdings Small and scattered plots made cultivation inefficient and reduced
potential yield.
• The consolidation of holdings aimed to bring together these
fragmented pieces, offering farmers a single, consolidated plot in place
of their multiple scattered plots. This improved agricultural
productivity and made the implementation of modern agricultural
practices more feasible.
Bhoodan and • Initiated by Acharya Vinoba Bhave, the Bhoodan movement appealed
Gramdan to landlords to voluntarily donate a portion of their land to the
landless. This was a unique, non-legislative approach to land
redistribution.
• The Gramdan movement took this idea further, advocating for entire
villages to come together and pool their land, which would then be
redistributed based on need. It aimed to create self-sufficient villages
by bringing about collective ownership of land.
• While the movement did see success in some areas, it couldn't make a
pan-India impact due to various socio-political reasons.
Protection of Tribal • Tribal communities in India have historically been marginalized, with
Land their lands often taken away for development projects or by non-tribal
settlers. Recognizing this, the Indian state introduced measures to
protect tribal lands.
• Several states enacted laws restricting the transfer of tribal land to
non-tribals. However, challenges remain due to lack of proper
implementation, leading to continued land alienation in tribal areas.

Topic: Post-Independence Chronology:
Year Development
1947 • Freedom for India.
• Partition of India
1948 • Industrial Policy of 1948
1950 • The Constitution of India comes into effect.
• India becomes a Republic; Dr. Rajendra Prasad is elected as the first President.
1952 • Initiation of Community Development Programme aiming for social and
economic upliftment.
1954 • Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET)
1951-56 • First Five-Year Plan: Primarily focused on agriculture.
1956-61 • Second Five-Year Plan: Stressed rapid industrialization.
1956 • Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956.
1961-66 • The Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966)
1962 • India-China war.
1965 • India-Pakistan war.
1966 • The Tashkent Declaration was signed between India and Pakistan on 10 January
1966 to resolve the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965.
Post 1965 • Launch of the Green Revolution to enhance agricultural productivity.
1969 • Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is established.
1969-74 • The Fourth Five Year Plan (1969–1974)
1970 • Operation Flood is initiated, transforming India into one of the largest producers
of milk.
1971 • India-Pakistan war leading to the creation of Bangladesh.
1972 • The Shimla Agreement was a peace treaty signed between India and Pakistan in
1972.
1974 • India's first successful nuclear test, "Smiling Buddha" is conducted in Pokhran.
1975 • Launch of India's first indigenously made satellite, Aryabhata.
• Emergency is declared by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

Part 4: WORLD HISTORY
UPSC Syllabus
• History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial revolution,
world wars, redrawal of national boundaries, colonization, decolonization, political
philosophies like communism, capitalism, socialism etc.— their forms and effect on the
society.
Chapter 6: The American and French Revolutions:

Topic: American Revolution
Causes for American Revolution:
Introduction:
The American Revolution, which led to the independence of the thirteen American colonies from
Great Britain, was fueled by a combination of economic, political, social, and ideological factors.
Major factors are:
Economic Causes • Navigation Acts: These were a series of laws that restricted colonial trade
by mandating that goods could only be transported on English or colonial
ships, benefiting English merchants at the expense of colonists.
• Sugar Act (1764): This act placed a tax on molasses imported into the
colonies, impacting the rum industry.
• Stamp Act (1765): This was a direct tax imposed on the colonies,
requiring them to pay a fee on every piece of printed paper they used,
from newspapers to playing cards.
• Townshend Acts (1767): These acts imposed duties on various essential
goods, including glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea.
• Tea Act (1773): Allowed the British East India Company to sell tea directly
to the colonies, bypassing colonial merchants and underselling them.
Political Causes • Lack of Colonial Representation: The famous rallying cry "No taxation
without representation" encapsulates the colonists' frustration with being
taxed without having a voice in the British Parliament.
• Royal Vetoes: The British Crown had the power to nullify colonial laws,
limiting colonial self-governance.
• Restrictions on Colonial Autonomy: Over time, the British government
tried to exert more direct control over the colonies, diminishing the
power of local assemblies.
Social and • Spread of Enlightenment Ideas: The Enlightenment emphasized

Ideological individual rights, republicanism, and resistance to tyrannical rule, ideas
Causes that resonated deeply with many colonists.

• Great Awakening: A religious revival in the colonies emphasized
individualism and questioned established authority, paralleling the
growing political dissatisfaction.
Military Causes • British Military Presence: After the French and Indian War, Britain
increased its military presence in the colonies, leading to tensions and
confrontations.
• Quartering Act: It made American colonists to house and provision British
troops, further straining relations.
Incidents • Boston Massacre (1770): British soldiers killed five colonists, an event
Leading to that was widely publicized and inflamed anti-British sentiments.
Tensions: • Boston Tea Party (1773): In response to the Tea Act, colonists dumped an
entire shipment of tea into Boston Harbor. This led to the Intolerable Acts
as a punitive measure from Britain.
Other Causes • Mercantilist System: The British mercantilist approach meant the
colonies were seen primarily as sources of raw materials and markets for
British goods. This restricted economic growth and diversification in the
colonies.
• Frontier Tensions: The Proclamation of 1763, which followed the French
and Indian War, restricted the colonists from settling west of the
Appalachian Mountains, leading to discontent among those looking to
expand.
Conclusion:
Therefore, the American Revolution was a complex event with multifaceted causes, each playing a
role in pushing the colonies towards rebellion and, eventually, independence.

Topic: French Revolution
Causes for French Revolution:
The French Revolution, which began in 1789 and dramatically reshaped French society, politics, and
culture, was driven by various factors.
The main causes are:
Economic • Financial Crisis: France's involvement in the American Revolution and

Causes: previous wars had left it in significant debt.
• Bad Harvests: Years of poor harvests leading up to the Revolution caused
food prices to rise, leading to widespread famine and discontent among the
peasantry and urban poor.
Social Causes: • Estates System: French society was divided into three estates –
• the clergy (First Estate),
• the nobility (Second Estate), and
• the commoners (Third Estate).
• The system was inherently unequal, with the Third Estate bearing the
heaviest tax burdens while enjoying the fewest rights.
• Bourgeoisie's Aspirations: The bourgeoisie, or middle class, was growing in
both wealth and education but was politically marginalized, leading to
demands for greater political representation.
Political • Absolutism: The absolute monarchy, epitomized by the reign of Louis XVI,
Causes: was increasingly seen as outdated and out of touch with the needs and
desires of the French people.
• Ineffectual Leadership: Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were perceived as
indifferent to the struggles of the lower classes. Their inability to manage
the country's financial crises and their resistance to reforms exacerbated
tensions.
Intellectual • Enlightenment Ideas: Philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and

Causes: Montesquieu promoted ideas of equality, liberty, and fraternity. Their
critiques of the monarchy and advocacy for republicanism and rights laid
the intellectual groundwork for revolution.
• Spread of Information: The growth of print culture meant that radical
ideas, critiques of the monarchy, and Enlightenment philosophies were
widely disseminated and accessible.
Immediate • Estates-General: In 1789, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to

Causes: address the financial crisis. The Third Estate, feeling underrepresented,
broke away to form the National Assembly, setting the stage for conflict.
• Storming of the Bastille: On July 14, 1789, Parisians stormed the Bastille
prison, a symbol of royal tyranny. This event marked the beginning of the
revolution.

Cultural • Cultural Resentment: There was a growing resentment towards the
Causes: decadence of the aristocracy and the perceived moral corruption of the
Catholic clergy.
External • American Revolution: The success of the American Revolution not only
Influences: ideologically influenced the French Revolution but also strained the French
economy due to the financial and military support France provided to the
American colonies.
Topic: The foundations of the modern world by American and French

Revolutions
Introduction:
The American and French Revolutions were pivotal events in the late 18th century that significantly
shaped the trajectory of modern political, social, and cultural developments.
Rise of • Both revolutions emphasized that power originates from the people, not a
People’s divine right or hereditary privilege.
Sovereignty: • This concept led to the spread of democracy and participatory governance
systems.
Value to • The American Declaration of Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson
Human Rights proclaimed certain unalienable rights including "Life, Liberty, and the
and Liberty Pursuit of Happiness."
• The French Revolution gave rise to the "Declaration of the Rights of Man
and of the Citizen" emphasizing equality, liberty, and fraternity.
Secularism: • The French Revolution challenged the existing religious privileges, leading to
the secularization of society.
• This laid the groundwork for the separation of church and state, a principle
adopted by many countries in subsequent years.
Rise of • These revolutions fostered a sense of national identity and unity.
Nationalism: • The idea of a "nation" bound by shared values, culture, and history, rather
than just monarchic rule, gained prominence.
Social • The revolutions were influenced by Enlightenment philosophers like
Contract: Rousseau, Locke, and Montesquieu, who believed in a social contract
between the rulers and the ruled.
• This concept influenced modern political thought and governance
structures.
Rise of • The American Revolution led to the establishment of a republic, breaking
Republicanism: away from monarchic rule, setting a precedent for other nations.
• France, after a turbulent period, eventually also emerged as a republic.
Legal Reforms: • The French Revolution led to the codification of laws such as Napoleonic
Code, which influenced legal systems in many parts of the world.
• It emphasized equality before the law and introduced civil rights.

End of • The French Revolution marked a definitive end to feudal privileges and the
Feudalism old aristocratic order.
• This set a precedent for the end of feudal systems elsewhere.
Economic • New economic concepts emerged, emphasizing free trade, property rights,
Ideas: and capitalism, especially from the American experience.
Inspired the • Both revolutions inspired other independence and revolutionary
independence movements worldwide.
movements in • The Latin American wars of independence, the subsequent European
other revolutions and independence movements in Asia including India were
countries: influenced by these two seminal events.
Conclusion:
Thus, the American and French Revolutions were not just isolated events in their respective
countries. They were upheavals that reshaped the world's political and ideological landscapes. The
principles they championed — from human rights to democratic governance — became
foundational to the modern world. However, it's also essential to recognize the complexities and
nuances; while they brought progress in many areas, they also had their contradictions and
challenges.

Chapter 7: Industrial Revolution:
Why did the Industrial Revolution start first of all in England?
Introduction:
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century in England, marked a significant
turning point in history. Several factors contributed to England being the birthplace of this massive
economic and technological transformation.
Why did the Revolution start first of all in England?
Geographical Factors: • Availability of Coral and Iron resources: England had abundant
coal and iron ore, which were essential for powering and building
machines.
• Island Nation: Being an island, England was naturally protected
from invasions.
• Rivers: Its navigable rivers facilitated internal transport.
Economic Factors: Agricultural Revolution before Industrial Revolution:

• Improved farming methods and practices meant fewer people
were needed to work the land, leading to a surplus labor force
available for factory work.
• Consolidating small landholdings into larger farms improved
productivity.
Capital:
• The growth of global trade, especially with its colonies, and profits
from the trans-Atlantic slave trade provided the necessary capital
for investment in machinery and technology.
Banking System:
• A developed banking system, including the Bank of England (1694),
provided loans needed for investments.
Infrastructure and Transport:
• Canal systems were developed, and later railways, which
facilitated the movement of raw materials and finished goods.
England known for variety of products.
• France exported superfine articles of luxury but England exported
a variety of things.
• England produced articles which were required in large quantities
and manufactured at a minimum cost.
Social Factors: Abolition of serfdom:

• Unlike France and other countries, serfdom and class system had
already been abolished in England.
• It had an atmosphere conducive to the promotion of trade and
commerce.
Population growth and growing consumer market:

• Colonial markets and an increasing domestic demand due to
population growth created a market for goods.
Social Stability and Mobility:
• England's society was relatively flexible, allowing entrepreneurs
and innovators to change their social status based on their
contributions and wealth.
Migration due to Black death:
• Towards the end of the eighteenth century, a dire epidemic "Black
death" broke out in England and took a toll of lakhs of people.
• Thousands of farmers left their villages and came to cities to seek
jobs.
Political Factors: • Relative political stability in England, when compared to other

nations in Europe like France which had revolutions and
widespread wars, provided a conducive environment for economic
growth.
• Democratic principles were followed for a long time and it laid
foundation for open society.
Religious Freedom: • Most of the early inventions were made in Britain because there
was no political or religious restraint on the scientists.
• The English Royal Society (1660) encouraged new inventions by
rewarding inventors.
Technological Factors: Key innovations:

• Key innovations, such as the spinning, power loom, and the steam
engine, were either invented or improved upon during this period
in England.
The Culture of Knowledge:
• Institutions, societies, and a general intellectual environment that
fostered innovation and scientific advancements played a pivotal
role.
Colonial Empire: • The British Empire provided raw materials, such as cotton from
India, and a vast market for finished goods.
• Control over seas and a dominant navy ensured safe trade routes.
Monopoly over sea- • England enjoyed monopoly over sea-trading.
trading • It had the best ports situated on the key commercial routes.
Conclusion:
Therefore, a combination of geographical, economic, social, political and cultural factors positioned
England at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution. The interplay of these factors ensured that
when technological innovations began, they found fertile ground in England to develop and
transform not just the country but eventually the entire world.

What are the consequences of industrial revolution in England?
Economic • Industrial Growth: The rise of industries, especially in textiles, coal mining,
Consequences and iron.
• Capitalism: The dominance of capitalist modes of production and the rise of
industrial capitalists.
• Banking and Finance: Development of modern banking, stock exchanges,
and investment mechanisms.
• Global Trade: Increase in exports and imports, making Britain the
"workshop of the world."
• Urbanization: A significant migration from rural to urban areas as people
sought jobs in factories, leading to the growth of cities like Manchester and
Birmingham.
Social • Rise of the Working Class: Factory workers and miners became a significant
Consequences: demographic, leading to the working-class consciousness.
• Changes in Living Conditions: Often overcrowded and unsanitary conditions
in urban areas contrasted with improving living standards for some.
• Child Labor: Children were employed in factories under harsh conditions,
leading to eventual reforms.
• Women in Workforce: Increased participation of women in the workforce,
albeit with wage disparities.
• Education: The need for a more educated workforce led to the spread of
elementary education.
Political • Labor Movements: Emergence of labor unions and movements demanding
Consequences: better working conditions and rights. It led to the movements like Chartist
movement in 1830s.
• Reform Acts: Enfranchisement of broader sections of the population in
response to societal changes.
• Regulatory Laws: Laws like the Factory Acts to regulate working conditions.
• Rise of Political Ideologies: Emergence of ideologies like socialism and
Marxism in reaction to capitalist industrialization.
Technological • Innovations: Introduction of machinery like the spinning, power loom, and
and Scientific steam engine.
Consequences • Transportation: Development of railways, steamships, and better road
networks.
• Communication: Introduction of the telegraph and improvements in the
postal system.
Cultural • Literature: Literary works began to reflect industrial society, with authors
Consequences: like Charles Dickens highlighting societal issues.
• Art: Depiction of industrial landscapes and exploration of industrial themes.
Global • Colonialism and Imperialism: The need for raw materials and markets
Consequences: intensified colonial endeavors.
• Global Migration: Many Britons migrated to colonies and other parts of the
world, and conversely, many came to Britain for work.

Environmental • Pollution: Increase in air and water pollution due to industrial processes.
Consequences: • Land Use: Change in land use patterns due to urbanization and
infrastructural developments.
• Resource Depletion: Increased extraction of coal and other resources.
Conclusion:
Therefore, the Industrial Revolution in England brought about multifaceted and interconnected
changes that laid the foundation for the modern industrialized world. While it brought about
significant advancements and improved living standards for many, it also came with challenges and
disparities that societies grappled with till today.

Chapter 8: Unification of Italy and Germany:
Topic: Italian Unification:
Hurdles against the Unification of Italy
There are many hurdles against the unification of Italy:
Geographic • Geographical location of Italy also posed obstructions. It was roughly

Location: divided into three political units - North, Central and South Italy.
• The economic disparity hurdled the path of unification. Southern Italy Was
rural and devoid of development, while North Italy was a semi-industrial
state.
Less national • Italy had not yet developed national consciousness. All its states followed
consciousness: their diverse traditions and customs.
• In the words of Metternich, "In Italy, there stood a state against a state, a
city against a city, a family against other family and a man against a man."
Foreign • The dominance of foreign reactionaries over Italy posed a great hurdle.
Powers: • Italy was dominated by Austria.
Control of • The Pope was determined to hold his reign over his state Rome.
Pope:
No Common • Politicians did not have a harmonious plan about the unification of ltaly.
Political • Mazzini and Garibaldi wanted the unification of ltaly as a republic, but
Ideology: Gioberti stressed upon a federal state.
Rise of Feudal • After Napoleon's decline, the nobility and feudal lords tried to restore
lords again feudalism in Italy.
after Napoleon:
Elements Favourable to Unification:

Despite formidable hurdles which beset the path of unification of Italy, the feelings of liberty,
equality and patriotism could not remain suppressed among Italians for a long time.
Carbonari: • The secret society of charcoal burners which was founded in 1810 in
Naples.
• That society set two goals –
• 1. banishment of foreigners from Italy and
• 2. establishment of legal freedom.
Economic • Before the end of the eighteenth century, certain prominent thinkers, such
Development: as Ferdinando Galiani, Cesare Beccaria, Pietro Verri started drawing Italy's
attention to economic reforms.

• It was the achievement of those reflective economists that Italians started
perceiving the unification of ltaly necessary for economic cooperation and
unity In the beginning of the nineteenth century, the concept of carrying out
agronomical development played a remarkable role in the industrial
development of Italy.
Infrastructure • Railway lines were laid in the North-Western part of Italy and the use of
development: steam engine was introduced. The operation of railway trains not only
influenced the economy of Italy but also aroused political awakenin.
Early Revolts: • Inspired by the revolts of 1820 in Spain, the public of Naples and Piedmont
asked their governments to frame a constitution.
• When there was a revolution in France in 1830, a revolt erupted in Italy.
• The failure of revolts of 1820 and 1830 taught a lesson to Italian leaders that
their efforts for freedom and unity would bear no fruit until Austria's
dominance was over.
Mazzini and • He dreamt of Italy's independence and hoped that he would emancipate
Young Italy: and lead Italy.
• Mazzini declared, "To start revolution in the society, hand over the
leadership to the young. Immense power lies dormant in the heart of young
people."
• He had a definite goal to educate people and convince them that Italy is a
perfect nation.
• In 1835, Mazzini wrote, "We are proud of all those political, scientific and
intellectual traditions of ours which have glorified the history of Europe
....But we have neither a national flag, nor a political name ...We are
scattered among eight states. We do not enjoy freedom and foreigners have
kept us bound in the chains of slavery."
• He inculcated among Italians the thoughts of patriotism, duty and sacrifice
Liberal • Charles Albert implemented various economic, and martial reforms and
Monarchists: declared, "Whenever it becomes imperative, my life, my wealth, all my
assets and belongings will be sacrificed on the altar of Italy.
Pope's Liberal • Pope Pious was kind and liberal and had sympathy for those who wanted
Policy: change in Italy and he himself took initiative.
• Political prisoners were released from Papal states and various reforms were
implemented there. His liberal rule influenced other states.
Revolution of • Italy was naturally influenced by French Revolution (1848). Consequently,

1848 and national movement started there also. The revolution of 1848 in Italy aimed
Italy: at implementing liberal economic reforms, constitutional rule and achieving
unification and independence of Italy by hook or by crook.

Topic: Unification of Germany:
Obstacles in the way of German unification:
Religion: • Religious, political, social and economic disparities among German states.
Foreign • Interest of foreign powers in German affairs.

Intervention: • Austria's interference in German problems.
Military: • Military weakness of most of the German states.
Lack of • Lack of awakening among the masses.

Awakening:
Factors Conducive to German Unification

The following factors proved conducive to the cause of unification:
Intellectual • In the eighteenth century, a few renowned philosophers and scholars

Movement: steered the course of intellectual life to a new direction.
• Through the works of scholars like Fichte and Hegel, Germans became alert
to the truth that cultural background comprising religion, language, and
ancient history is the real bond of their unity.
• In 1815, an intellectual organisation called Burschenchaft was established by
students to counteract the Metternich system.
Zollverein: • For the first time in 1819, Prussia settled a customs pact with a small state
Schworjberg - Soudeur - Schwoshen and inaugurated a customs union called
Zollverein.
• By the end of 1834, allmost all German states joined Zollverein.
• It led to the rise of economic nationalism.
• In the words of historians, "The establishment of Zollverein paved the way
for the political unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia."
French • French Revolution of February, 1848 and Metternich's downfall in Vienna

Revolution of resulted in uprisings in various states of Germany.
1848:
Industrial • Industrial Revolution in Europe also swept Germany.
Development: • Industrialization occurred rapidly because coal and iron were found in
abundance in the Ruhr region of Prussia.
• Prussia was leading in economic development and Germany listed its name
among the industrial states of Europe by the end of 1860.
• This encouraged the Germans to fight for Political unification.

Chapter 9: World between World Wars:
Topic: First World War:
What are the Causes for First World War?
Introduction:
The First World War, which lasted from 1914 to 1918, was a result of a complex interplay of several
factors and events. The principal causes for the war can be categorized as:
Militarism: • European nations built up their armies and navies leading up to the war.
• This arms race was particularly intense between Germany and Great Britain.
• The emphasis on military solutions made diplomatic resolutions more
challenging.
Alliances: • By 1914, two major military alliances had formed in Europe:
o the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and the United Kingdom) and
o the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy).
• These alliances meant that any conflict between one or two countries could
easily escalate, drawing in multiple parties.
Imperialism: • European nations competed fiercely for colonies and influence around the
world, particularly in Africa and Asia. This created tensions and rivalries.
• Economic and imperial rivalries exacerbated diplomatic tensions.
Economic • The struggle for economic dominance also played a role, as countries sought
Factors: to safeguard their economic interests and maintain access to colonial
resources.
Extreme • National pride and a desire for greater prestige or territory led countries to
form of act aggressively.
Nationalism: • Ethnic groups, particularly in the Balkans, sought independence, leading to
conflicts.
Diplomatic • There were various diplomatic crises before 1914, such as the Two Morocco
crises: Crises (1905-1911) and the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), which could have been
opportunities to defuse tensions. However, diplomacy often failed, leaving
unresolved grievances.
• Som historian said 'No other event was so much responsible for the world
war of 1914 as the Balkan Wars.'
International • In the first decade of the twentieth century anxiety and anarchy had engulfed
Anarchy: Europe. The events that occurred after 1900 made the international
atmosphere tense. The events like Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), Morocco
Crises (1905-1911) and the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) could not be resolved as
there was no international institution to resolve the conflicts.
Immediate • On June 28, 1914, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated
Cause - by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo.
Assassination • Austria-Hungary, with Germany's backing, declared war on Serbia. Russia,
of Archduke bound by a treaty to Serbia, began mobilizing its forces, leading Germany to
declare war on Russia.

Franz • The network of alliances quickly brought France, Belgium, and the UK into the
Ferdinand conflict against Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Conclusion:
The First World War was the result of a myriad of causes, both long-term and immediate. The
tangled web of alliances, combined with longstanding rivalries and tensions, made a large-scale war
almost inevitable once the first shots were fired. The war, often termed as "The Great War", was
hoped to be the "war to end all wars", but unfortunately, it laid down the groundwork for further
geopolitical conflicts, including the Second World War.

Topic: The Great Depression (1929–1939)
What are the causes for Economic depression?
The Great Depression of the 1930s was the most severe worldwide economic crisis of the 20th
century. Its causes are multifaceted and intertwined, reflecting both underlying structural problems
and specific events.
Stock Market • The abrupt and dramatic crash of the stock market in October 1929
Crash of 1929: served as an immediate trigger for the Great Depression. Overleveraged
investors and rampant speculation had inflated stock prices beyond their
real value, leading to the crash.
• The economic contagion began around September 1929 and led to the
Wall Street stock market crash of October 24 (Black Thursday).
Bank Failures: • As people panicked after the stock market crash, they withdrew their
money from banks. Many banks, having invested heavily in the stock
market or extended bad loans, found themselves unable to cover all
these withdrawals. This led to widespread bank failures.
Reduction in • Following the initial stock market crash and as the depression deepened,
Consumer consumers became increasingly cautious, cutting back on expenditures.
Spending: This decrease in demand led businesses to reduce their inventories and
cut back on new orders, further contributing to economic contraction.
Drought and the • In the U.S., particularly in the Great Plains region, severe drought and
Dust Bowl: poor land management practices led to the Dust Bowl. This
environmental catastrophe displaced numerous farmers and
exacerbated economic distress.
Decline in • The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 in the U.S. raised tariffs on
International imported goods to protect domestic industries. However, other countries
Trade: retaliated with their tariffs, leading to a reduction in international trade
and further straining the global economy.
Economic • Some governments, including the U.S. initially, tightened their budgets to
Policies: tackle the depression. This contractionary fiscal policy, along with high-
interest rates set by some central banks, further reduced demand and
exacerbated the downturn.
Structural • The prosperity of the 1920s hid underlying economic weaknesses,
Weaknesses and including the uneven distribution of wealth, limited growth in consumer
Imbalances: demand, and overextension of credit.
Collapse of the • Many countries were tied to the gold standard, which fixed their
Gold Standard: currencies to a specific amount of gold.
• As the depression deepened, countries devalued their currencies or
abandoned the gold standard altogether to boost their economies,
leading to instability in global exchange rates.

Economic • The economies of many countries, especially in Europe, were closely
Interdependence: linked, especially due to war debts and reparations from World War I.
Problems in one economy quickly spread to others.
Conclusion:
Thus, the Great Depression resulted from a confluence of events, structural weaknesses, policy
decisions, and international linkages. While the U.S. was the epicenter, the effects were felt
worldwide, leading to widespread unemployment, poverty, and profound political and social
consequences.

Topic: Second World War:
What are the Causes for Second World War?
Introduction:
The Second World War (1939-1945) was the result of a range of interrelated factors, both long-term
and immediate.
The principal causes of the war:
Treaty of Versailles: • The 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which formally ended World War I,
imposed heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany. This
created resentment and economic hardships in Germany, paving the
way for the rise fascist party called Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler. Nazis
believed in ever expansion of the state. It led to the wars and battles.
Militarism and • Major powers were involved in significant rearmament programs in
Arms Race the 1930s, particularly Germany, which directly violated the terms of
the Treaty of Versailles.
Failure of • Britain and France's policy of appeasement towards Germany’s
appeasement Policy territorial expansions, notably during the Sudetenland crisis (Munich
agreement), emboldened Hitler's ambitions and made war more likely.
Economic • The global economic downturn of the 1930s worsened political and
Depression social conditions. High unemployment and economic distress made
radical ideologies more appealing.
Rivalry and Fear of • The ideological differences between fascism, especially as practiced by
Communism Nazi Germany, and communism, as practiced by the Soviet Union,
contributed to tensions. Hitler's avowed aim was to destroy
communism, which was one reason he sought to invade the Soviet
Union.
Rise of Totalitarian • By the 1930s, totalitarian dictatorships had taken power in Italy
Regimes: (Benito Mussolini), Germany (Adolf Hitler), the Soviet Union (Joseph
Stalin), and Japan (military leaders). These regimes, particularly
Germany and Japan, sought territorial expansion.
Axis Aggressions • Japan's invasion of Manchuria (1931) and later China, Italy's invasion of
Ethiopia (1935-37) and Germany's occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938-
39) were clear signals of the aggressive intentions of the Axis powers.
Failure of the • The League of Nations, established after World War I, was designed to
League of Nations ensure peace but failed to prevent the aggression of Axis powers,
partly due to its lack of enforcement power and the absence of the
U.S. from its membership.
Immediate Cause - • Despite signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the Soviet Union to
German Invasion of avoid a two-front war, Germany's invasion of Poland in September
Poland 1939 prompted Britain and France to declare war on Germany.
Conclusion:

The Second World War was a culmination of unresolved grievances from World War I, aggressive
expansionist aims of Axis powers, economic instabilities, and failures of diplomatic efforts to prevent
conflict. The devastation of the war reshaped global politics and led to significant changes in the
international community's approach to conflict resolution, including the establishment of the United
Nations.

Chapter 10: Post Second World War
Topic: Suez Crisis in 1956:
What were the events that led to the Suez Crisis in 1956:
The Suez Crisis of 1956 was a major geopolitical event resulting from the invasion of Egypt by Israel,
followed by the United Kingdom and France. The primary goal for these European powers was to
regain control of the Suez Canal:
Post-WWII • After WWII, the British Empire was in decline. Britain, however,
Imperial Decline: maintained its military presence in the Suez Canal Zone, which was
critical for its strategic and economic interests, especially the
transportation of oil.
Rise of Arab • Gamal Abdel Nasser emerged as a leading figure of Arab nationalism.
Nationalism: His policies and rhetoric often clashed with Western interests in the
region.
The Cold War • The global rivalry between the U.S. and USSR influenced events in the
Context: Middle East. Nasser, for instance, played both sides for economic and
military aid, increasing tensions.
• He was an important leader in NAM movement.
Egyptian Arms • Egypt's arms deal with Czechoslovakia (backed by the USSR) alarmed
Deal with the Western powers and Israel, as it was seen as shifting the balance of
Czechoslovakia power in the region.
(1955):
The Baghdad Pact • The UK tried to build an alliance system to counter communist influence
(1955): in the Middle East. Nasser viewed the Baghdad Pact as a direct threat to
Egypt.
Nationalization of • In response to the US and UK withdrawing their financial support for

the Suez Canal: the construction of the Aswan High Dam (due to concerns over Egypt's
closer ties with the USSR), Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal Company.
This was the joint British-French enterprise which had owned and
operated the Suez Canal since its construction in 1869.
• This act took the canal out of British and French control and threatened
Western Europe's oil supply.
Secret Protocol of • Israel, France, and the UK hatched a plan to respond to the
Sèvres (October nationalization. Under this plan, Israel would invade the Sinai Peninsula,
1956): and then Britain and France would intervene militarily, ostensibly to
separate the warring parties but with the actual aim to secure the
canal.
Conclusion:
The Suez Crisis marked the decline of traditional colonial powers, especially the UK and France, in
global politics and showcased the rising influence of the United States and the Soviet Union as they
both opposed the tripartite invasion. United Nations General Assembly also played a crucial role in
resolving the conflict.

Chapter 11: Colonization and Decolonization
Topic: Causes for Colonization
Dimension: Explanation:
Economic Interests • Trade and Markets: European powers sought new markets to sell
their goods and sought raw materials for their growing industries.
• Resource Extraction: Colonies were seen as vast reserves of
natural resources, from minerals like gold and diamonds to
agricultural products like rubber, cocoa, and tea.
• Land Acquisition: The demand for land, especially for plantation
agriculture, drove colonization in many parts of the world.
Strategic and Political • Rivalry Among European Powers: The competition between major
Motives European nations, such as Britain, France, and Germany, made
colonies strategically important for defense and dominance.
• Naval Bases: Colonies provided strategically located naval bases
essential for maintaining a global military presence.
Technological • Navigation: Advancements in shipbuilding and navigation made it
Advancements possible for European explorers to travel long distances and
discover new lands.
• Weapons: The superiority of European weaponry, especially
firearms, made it easier to conquer and control indigenous
populations.
Social and Cultural • Missionary Zeal: The desire to spread Christianity was a powerful
Factors motivation for many European colonizers. Missionaries often
believed they were bringing "civilization" to "savage" peoples.
• "White Man's Burden": Some Europeans believed they had a
moral and civilizational duty to colonize and "educate" indigenous
peoples.
Scientific Exploration • European powers were interested in studying the flora, fauna, and
geography of foreign lands.
• This scientific curiosity sometimes served as a justification for
colonization.
Settlement • Overpopulation and land shortages in Europe led to the migration
of Europeans to colonies where they established settler colonies,
especially in parts of Africa and the Americas.
Control of Trade Routes • Colonies were established to control important trade routes,
especially maritime routes, to ensure the smooth flow of goods
back to Europe.
Ideological Reasons • Nationalism: The pride of owning colonies was a matter of
national prestige. An empire was seen as a demonstration of a
nation's greatness.
• Social Darwinism: Some Europeans believed in the racial
superiority of whites over other races and felt that dominating
"inferior" races was natural and justified.

Topic: Causes for Decolonization
Causes Explanation:
Impact of the World • Both World War I and II exhausted the European powers,
Wars economically and militarily.
• They found it increasingly challenging to maintain control over
vast colonial territories. Colonized troops who fought for their
colonial masters in these wars became exposed to liberal and anti-
imperialist ideas, leading to increased demands for independence.
Economic • After the wars, many colonial powers found the economic cost of
Considerations maintaining and governing colonies to be more than the benefits
derived from them.
Nationalist Movements • Strong nationalist movements emerged in various colonies
demanding self-rule and independence.
• Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi in India, Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam,
and Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana played pivotal roles in these
movements.
Role of International • The establishment of the League of Nations and later the United
Organizations Nations recognized the principle of self-determination.
• The UN Charter encouraged respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms, indirectly promoting decolonization.
Superpower Rivalry • The Cold War rivalry between the USA and the USSR influenced
decolonization.
• Both superpowers often supported decolonization movements,
hoping to bring the newly independent nations into their
respective spheres of influence.
Moral and • The brutal suppression of rebellions in colonies, such as the Mau
Humanitarian Reasons Mau uprising in Kenya, drew international attention and criticism.
• Many in the colonizing countries began to see colonization as
morally indefensible.
Rise of the United • The U.S., with its anti-colonial roots, often pressured European
States and Soviet Union powers to decolonize.
• Similarly, the USSR supported anti-imperialist movements as part
of its ideological stance.
Cultural Exchange • Increased interaction and exchange of ideas between the
colonized and the colonizers led to mutual respect and
understanding. Many in the colonizing countries began to
empathize with the aspirations of the colonized.
Economic Self- • Many colonies became economically self-reliant over time,
Sufficiency of Colonies reducing their dependence on the colonizers and demanding more
control over their resources.
Fear of Rebellions and • The colonial powers realized that maintaining control would lead
Revolts to continuous revolts and uprisings, making the colonies more
trouble than they were worth.
Global Shift in • There was a global shift in the perception of colonialism.
Perception • It was increasingly viewed as an outdated and unjust system that
went against the tide of history.

Topic: Role of Western Educated Middle Class in Africa's Decolonization
The Western-educated middle class in Africa played a crucial role in the decolonization process.
Their influence was multifaceted and can be understood through following examples:
Dimension: Explanation:
Emergence of Educated • Western education cultivated a class of Africans who could
Elite engage with colonial powers on their terms.
• These individuals often occupied bureaucratic and professional
roles and became instrumental in the push for independence.
• Example: Jomo Kenyatta, the first President of Kenya, was
educated in London and used his Western education to challenge
British rule and lead Kenya to independence.
Exposure to Western • The African middle class, through Western education, became
Ideas familiar with ideas of democracy, liberty, and nationalism. They
were influenced by Western thinkers and the principles of the
French and American revolutions.
• Example: Kwame Nkrumah, who studied in the U.S., was
influenced by the works of Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois. He
later became the first Prime Minister and President of Ghana,
leading the country to independence from British rule in 1957.
Formation of Nationalist • The Western-educated elite often spearheaded nationalist
Movements movements, using their knowledge to articulate demands for
self-rule.
Example: The Nigerian nationalist Nnamdi Azikiwe, educated in
the U.S., played a significant role in Nigeria's struggle for
independence from British rule.
International • Many members of the African middle class studied abroad,
Networking where they built networks with other anti-colonial activists from
Africa and other parts of the world.
Example: The Pan-African Congresses, which were attended by
African leaders like Nkrumah, Kenyatta, and Azikiwe, were
crucial in fostering a sense of solidarity among Africans from
different countries.
Media and Publications • The educated elite used their skills to contribute to newspapers,
journals, and other publications, promoting nationalist
sentiments and fostering a sense of unity among Africans.
Example: Nnamdi Azikiwe, before entering politics, was an
influential journalist and newspaper publisher who used his
platforms to promote nationalist ideas in Nigeria.
Critique of Colonialism • Using their Western education, the African middle class could
deconstruct and challenge the philosophical and moral
justifications of colonialism.
Example: Leopold Sedar Senghor of Senegal, a philosopher and
poet, used his writings to critique colonialism and envision a post-
colonial African identity.
Leadership Post- • After achieving independence, many nations turned to their
Independence Western-educated elites for leadership, as they had the
necessary skills and knowledge to navigate the complexities of
state-building and international diplomacy.

Example: Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, who studied at the
University of Edinburgh, became an influential leader post-
independence, advocating for African socialism and playing a
significant role in the Non-Aligned Movement.
Promotion of African • Despite their Western education, many of these leaders were
Identity deeply rooted in their African heritage and sought to promote
African values, cultures, and traditions.
Example: Senghor's concept of "Negritude" celebrated African
culture, values, and black identity. Negritude has been defined by
Loopold Sedar Senghor as “the sum of the cultural values of the
black world as they are expressed in the life, the institutions, and
the works of black men.”
Conclusion:
In summary, the Western-educated middle class in Africa, equipped with the intellectual tools and
global networks they gained from their education, were central figures in the push for
decolonization. They bridged the gap between Western colonial powers and the African masses,
advocating for the rights and aspirations of their fellow countrymen.

Chapter 12: Political Philosophies
Topic: Communism:
Introduction:
Communism is both a political ideology and a socio-economic system that seeks to establish a
classless society in which the means of production are communally owned. It is based on the
theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels as primarily presented in "The Communist Manifesto."
Here are the fundamental features of communism:
Classless Society: • Communism aims to create a society where there are no divisions based
on socio-economic class. This means there would be no distinction
between the rich and the poor.
Common • All productive resources, such as farms, factories and mines, are owned
Ownership of collectively by the community or the state. There is no private ownership
Means of of capital goods in a purely communist system.
Production:
Abolition of • There's no private ownership of industrial and production capacity.
Private Property:
Centrally • Economic decisions, including production, distribution, and consumption,
Planned are determined by a central authority or the state, rather than being
Economy: influenced by market forces such as supply and demand.
No Profit • The production of goods and services is for direct use, not for making a
Motive: profit. The principle of distribution is often described as "From each
according to his ability, to each according to his needs."
Elimination of • Since the means of production are communally owned, the concept of
Wage Labor: hiring laborers to work for wages would, in theory, be eliminated.
Free Access to • Essential goods and services are freely available to all, and there is no
Goods and system of money or barter in a fully realized communist society.
Services:
Internationalism: • Communism holds that the worker's movement is a global one,
transcending national boundaries. This is based on the idea that the
working class around the world shares the same struggles and should
unite.
Abolition of • Communism seeks to eliminate institutions that are seen as upholding the
Traditional bourgeoisie's power, including certain family structures, religions, and
Institutions and other cultural institutions.
Relations: • Education and Culture:
o Communism emphasizes state-sponsored education and the
promotion of a shared cultural ethos. This often involves
promoting communist values and discouraging those associated
with capitalism and individualism.

• Atheism:
o Many communist regimes and theories promote atheism, seeing
religion as a tool that has been used by the ruling classes to
maintain their domination.
Conclusion:
It's important to understand that the theoretical ideals of communism, as described by Marx and
Engels, have been interpreted and implemented in various ways across different countries and
regimes. No nation has achieved the end-stage communism that Marx envisioned.

Topic: Capitalism
Introduction:
Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and
the pursuit of profit. It operates largely through the free market, where prices for goods and services
are determined by supply and demand. “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
Nations (1776)” by Adma Smith became the foundation for this philosophy.
Some of the features of capitalism:
Free Market: • Prices for goods and services are determined by supply and demand in the
marketplace. This promotes efficiency and consumer choice.
Economic • There's freedom to produce, buy, and sell any goods or services in a
Freedom: competitive market, without interference from the government or any other
outside forces.
Private • Individuals and corporations have the right to own and control their
Property possessions as they wish without government intervention. This includes
Rights: land, buildings, and other resources.
Profit • The primary objective of businesses within a capitalist economy is to
Motive: maximize profits. This profit motive drives innovation and efficiency in the
economy.
Competitive • Multiple businesses compete with each other, leading to a variety of
Markets: products, innovation, better quality, and often lower prices.
Consumer • In a capitalist economy, consumers drive the production of goods and
Sovereignty: services. Their preferences determine what is produced.
Limited Role • In its purest form, capitalism has limited government intervention. However,
of most contemporary capitalist economies feature some degree of government
Government: regulation to ensure fair competition, protect consumers, and address market
failures.
Factor • Capital and labor can move relatively freely in response to market signals,
Mobility: finding where they can be most efficiently used.
Risk and • Capitalism is characterized by the relationship between risk and reward.
Reward: Entrepreneurs take on risks, and if successful, they reap significant rewards.
Wealth • In capitalism, there's an acceptance that there will be inequality in terms of
Disparity: wealth. Success in the market can lead to significant wealth, while failure can
lead to poverty.
Conclusion:
It's important to note that there are various forms of capitalism, such as laissez-faire capitalism
(minimal government intervention), welfare capitalism (with significant state intervention in the
form of welfare programs), and state capitalism (where the state undertakes commercial activities).

Topic: Socialism:
Introduction:
Socialism is a political and economic theory that advocates for the means of production, distribution,
and exchange to be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. It stands in contrast to
capitalism, where assets and production are primarily controlled by private entities.
Some of the core features of socialism:
Economic • Instead of relying solely on the free market to determine prices, outputs, and
Planning: distribution, a centralized body often makes these decisions in a planned
economy.
Public • Key industries and services, such as healthcare, transportation, energy, and
Ownership: education, are often owned by the state or the public.
Redistribution • Through taxation, welfare systems, and other mechanisms, socialism seeks
of Wealth: to reduce or eliminate the inequality seen in strictly capitalist systems.
Equality: • Socialism stresses equality, aiming to eliminate the class distinctions defined
by the disparities in income and power. This is achieved through providing
equal opportunities and, often, through redistributive policies.
Labor Rights: • The interests of workers are prioritized, with emphasis on good working
conditions, fair wages, and the right to unionize.
Universal • Services like education, healthcare, and sometimes housing are considered
Basic rights under many socialist systems. They're provided by the state, funded
Services: through taxation.
Control of • Under socialism, key natural resources (like oil, gas, and minerals) are often
Natural controlled by the state or the public to ensure that profits benefit all
Resources: members of the community.
Cooperatives: • In many socialist systems, worker or consumer cooperatives play a
significant role. These entities are owned and operated by their members,
who share profits and have a say in decision-making processes.
Elimination of • While profits can still exist within certain socialist frameworks, they are not
Profit Motive the primary driving force behind economic decisions. Instead, meeting the
as Primary needs of the community and ensuring a decent quality of life for all are
Driver: prioritized.
Community • Socialism emphasizes communal responsibility and cooperation over
and individualism. The welfare of the community is considered as or more
Cooperation: important than individual ambitions.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it is essential to note that socialism is a broad ideology, and its features can vary based on
how it's implemented in different countries and contexts. There's a range from democratic socialism,
which combines elements of democracy with socialist principles, to more authoritarian forms of
socialism.

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ART & CULTURE

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Ancient India – Enriched Study Material, 1e

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PART 1: ART & CULTURE ................................................................................................................. 13

UPSC SYLLABUS ........................................................................................................................... 13

Chapter 1: Ancient India ................................................................................................................. 13

Topic: Sources for Reconstructing India History ........................................................................... 13

Greeco-Roman Accounts: ........................................................................................................ 13

Arab Accounts ......................................................................................................................... 15

Topic: Prehistoric Paintings .......................................................................................................... 17

Topic: Society during Sangam Age ............................................................................................... 18

Topic: Ashoka’s Dhamma ............................................................................................................. 20

What was the impact of Ashoka's Dhamma on Indian society? ................................................ 22

Topic: Schools of Art .................................................................................................................... 24

Differences between the Schools of Art: .................................................................................. 24

Gandhara School of Art: ........................................................................................................... 24

Topic: Literature during Ancient Period........................................................................................ 26

Topic: Art and Architecture during Ancient India.......................................................................... 28

Topic: The rise of Alvars and Nayanars: ........................................................................................ 31

Topic: The nature of the Bhakti Literature in India ....................................................................... 32

Chapter 2: Medieval India............................................................................................................... 34