Q1.

Define;

RANGE:- The higher and lower limit of an instrument in which it is

designed to be operated for measuring an object (measurade) is called as
range of an instrument.

SPAN:- Span represents the algebraic differences between the upper limit
and lower limit values of an instrument.

DRIFT:- It is defined as an undesired change or a gradual variation in Output

over a period of time that is unrelated to change in output, operating
conditions or load.

SENSITIVITY:- It can be defined as the ratio of change in output to the

change In input which causes it, as steady state condition.
OR
It is an ability of an instrument to sense small variations during the
measurement (i.e. input)

Fidelity:- It is defined as the degree to which an instrument indicated the

changes in measured variable without dynamic error.
OR
It is the ability of the system or an instrument to reproduce the output in the
same form as the input

OVERSHOOT:- It is defined as the maximum amount by which the pointer

moves beyond the steady state.

Q2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCER.

ACTIVE
They don’t need external power
supply for their operation.
Also known as self generating type
transducer.
PASSIVE
Requires external power supply for
their power supply.
Their output is a measure of some
variation such as resistance,
 inductance and capacitance.
Operates on energy conversion Operates under energy controlling
principle. principle.
Eg: Thermocouple , Solar cell. Eg: Electronic amplifier, L.V.D.T etc.

Q3. ACCURACY AND PRECISION

ACCURACY PRECISION
Accuracy refers to the closeness to It is degree of exactness for which the
the true value of a quantity under instrument is desgined.
measurement.
High accuracy cannot be obtained Higher precision cam be obtained
with low precision. with lower accuracy.
Measurements are depended on the Measurements are dependent on
systematic error. random error.
Determined by proper calibration They are determined by statistical
analysis.
Q4. Threshold: It is defined as the minimum value of input which is
necessary to cause a detectable change from zero output.

Resolution: It is defined as the smallest change of input for which there will
be a change of the position of a pointer on a scale.

Q5. Transducer is defined as a device which when actuated transforms energy

from one form to another.
Type of Transducers:-
1. Mechanical transducer
2. Electrical transducer.

Q6. Errors: It is defined as the between observed value and true value.
Types of Errors:

Systematic error
Signal transmission errors
observational errors
operational error
instrumental error
environmental error
random error

Q7. Types of instrument :

Q8. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

Principle:- The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a

transformer is varied by positioning the iron core through an externally
applied force.

Construction: A differential transformer consists of a primary winding and

two secondary windings.
The windings are arranged concentrically and next to each other, they are
wound over a hollow bobbin
which is usually of a non-magnetic and insulating material and both the coils
are wounded in the opposite direction to each other. A ferromagnetic core in
shape of rod or cylinder attached to the transducer sensing shaft to sense the
displacement.

Working:- The core of the LVDT is movable so when there is displacement in

the core there is a variation in the voltages in secondary coils S1and S2 which
leads to the difference in the voltage between these 2 coils . This voltage
difference is sensed by a suitable multimeterand thus displacement is
detected.

Q9. RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer)

Principle:- The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a

transformer is varied by rotating the iron core through externally applied
force.
Construction:- You may explain the construction according to the diagram in
brief.

Working;- Its working is similar to that of an L.V.D.T except that its core is
cam shaped and may be moved between the windings by mean of shaft (E0=
Es1- Es2).

If the core is at zero position, I.e there is no angular displacement then the
output voltage in 2 secondary windings are equal in phase opposition. i.e.
E0=0

if the core rotates in anticlockwise direction then, it produces more voltage in

S1 then S2 i.e. positive voltage and when the core rotates clockwise direction
it produces negative voltage in which S2 > S1.

Q10. McLeod Gauge

Principle:- It operates based on the boyles

law of the isothermal compression of gas.

Comstruction:-
You may explain the construction (not necessary).

Working:- It operates by taking in a sample volume of gas from a vaccum

chamber, then compressing it by tilting and infilling with mercury. The
pressure in this smaller volume is then measured by a mercury manometer,
and knowing and compression ratio ( the ratio of the initial nd final
volumes) , the pressure of the original vaccum can be determined by applying
Boyle’s Law.

Q11.Liquid in Glass Thermometer

Principle:- Both liquid and glass expand on heating and their differential
expansion indicates the temperature.

Construction:-
Working:- It consits of a glass envelope, a responsive liquid (Generally
Mercury Hg) and an indicating scale. When there is a variation in the
temperature then, the responsive liquid in the bulb expands or contratcs
depending upon the warm and cold conditions respectively. This expansion or
contraction causes to raise or drop the liquid level in the capillary tube beside
which a linear graduated temperature scale is engraved to take the respective
readings.

Q12. C type Bourdon Tube:

Principle:- When pressure is applied, Bourdon tube tries to become circular

and also tries to unwind, pointer shows the deflection on circular scale, that is
direct measurement of pressure in kg/cm2 or PSI.

Construction:- It consits of elliptical tube cross-section and the tube is

enclosed in a socket which contains pressure inlet. The socket , tube and tip
are welded, brazed or soldered together according pressure gauges.
Working:- The pressure which we have to measure is applied through the
socket, due to pressure applied the elliptical bourdon tube tends to become
circular due the C shape of the frame tries to become straight and it causes a
fraction of displacement in microns which is detected by a sector shaped gear
and this gear is mounted on a pinion with a pointer over it. This pointer
deflects and shows the desired readings based on the scale engraved on the
analog meter.

Q13. Pirani Gauge

Principle:- Pressure changes the filament temperature and due to which it

also changes the resistance of it.

Construction:- It consists of 2 wire filament in which one filament serves as a

reference and while other filament serves is kept in container connected to
the source of pressure.
Working:- These 2 filaments are connected in a bridge circuit. The
temperature of wire depends on the rate of dissipation, which in turn depends
on the conductivity of the surrounding media. The galvanometer is calibrated
in terms of pressure. A refrence cell is also deployed to minimize the chances
of error during the pressure measurement.

Q14. Law of Intermediate Temperature:

“ The e.m.f generated in a thermocouple with junctions at temp. T1 and T2 is

equal to the sum of e.m.f’s generated by similar thermocouple, one acting
between temp. T1 and T2 and the other acting between temperatures T2 and
T3, where T3 lies between T1 and T2.”

Q15.

Different types of high pressure gauge.

1. Elastic element (Diaphragm , Bellows, Bourdon tube)
2. Electric Resistance type
3. Photoelectric pressure transducer
4. Piezo electric type
5. Variable capacitor type