1

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

After completing this lesson,
you will be able to

• List the principles and identify the apparatus used in the techniques of fractionation, differential staining,
centrifugation, micro-dissection, tissue culture, chromatography, electrophoresis and spectrophotometry.
• Describe the terms of resolution and magnification with reference to microscopy.
• Explain the use of graticule and micrometer.
• Describe the locations, chemical compositions and significance of the primary and secondary cell walls
and of middle lamella.
• Explain the chemical composition of plasma membrane.
• Rationalize the authenticity of the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane.
• Relate the lipid foundation and the variety of proteins of the membrane structure with their roles.
• Identify the role of glycolipids and glycoproteins as the cell surface markers.
• Explain the role of plasma membrane in regulating cell's interactions with its environment.
• Describe the chemical nature and metabolic roles of cytoplasm.
• Distinguish between smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum in terms of their structures and functions.
• Explain the structure, chemical composition and function of ribosome.
• Describe the structure and functions of the Golgi complex.
• State the structure and functions of the peroxysomes and glyoxysomes in animal and plant cells.
• Describe the formation, structure and functions of the lysosomes.
• Interpret the storage diseases with reference to the malfunctioning of lysosomes.
• Explain the external and internal structure of mitochondrion and interlink it with its function.
• Explain the external and internal structure of chloroplast and interlink it with its function.
• Describe the structure, composition and functions of centriole.
• Describe the types, structure, composition and functions of cytoskeleton.
• Explain the structure of cilia and flagella and the mechanisms of their movement.
• Describe the chemical composition and structure of nuclear envelope.
• Compare the chemical composition of nucleoplasm with that of cytoplasm.
• Explain that nucleoli are the areas where ribosomes are assembled.
• Describe the structure, chemical composition and function of chromosome.
• List the structures missing in prokaryotic cells.
• Describe the composition of cell wall in a prokaryotic cell.
• Differentiate between the patterns of cell division in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• Relate the structure of bacteria as a model prokaryotic cell.
 1 Cell Structure and Functions
You are quite familiar with the word “cell” i.e., a basic unit of life. By the middle of the nineteenth
century, biologists had formulated cell theory which is a fundamental concept in biology. The generally
accepted portions of the modern cell theory are as follows:
(1) The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
(2) All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
(3) Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.
This chapter will help you to become familiar with the structure of cells and how they work, and
also the basic techniques essential for cell study.

1.1 TECHNIQUES USED IN CELL BIOLOGY

To know the structure and functions of cells etc., and cell organelles some of the techniques will
be discussed here in brief.
1.1.1 Cell Fractionation
Cell fractionation is the combination of various methods used to -------- a cell -------- and
components based upon ---- and -------. It is very useful for ---------- microscopy of cell components. The
principle of cell fractionation consists of ----- steps i.e.,------------------- and ----------------.
Homogenization
It is the formation of a homogenous ------ of cells. It involves the grinding of cells in a suitable
medium with correct ---, ------ composition and --------------. In plants enzyme ------------ is added to digest
middle -----------. This can be done in a blender. This procedure gives rise to a uniform mixture of cells
which is then centrifuged.
Centrifugation
Centrifugation is the process to---------- substances on the basis of their ---- and ---------- under
the influence of ------------ force. It is done by the machine called -------------. This machine can spin the
tubes at very high speed. Spinning the tubes exerts a centrifugal force on the contents. There are two
major ways of centrifugation i.e., --------- gradient centrifugation and ---------------- centrifugation. In
density gradient centrifugation the cell components of different sizes and densities are separated in
different ---------. The upper layers are ------ dense than lower layers.
In differential centrifugation the ------ and ------ of particles determines how ----- it settles. A
series of increasing speeds can be used. At each step, the content which settles in the bottom of the
tube are called ------ and those that remain suspended above in the form of liquid are called --------. After
each speed, the supernatant can be drawn off and centrifuge again. A series of pellets containing cell
organelles of smaller and smaller size can therefore be obtained.

CELL ••*• SUPERNATANT

• ••• •
HOMOGENATE — — -smaller and less
before CENTRIFUGATION dense components
centrifugation *****
PELLET
_ larger and more
dense components

BEFORE AFTER

Fig 1.1: Centrifugation of cells

 1 Cell Structure and Functions

Science Titbits

ger particles sediment ------- and have higher sedimentation coefficients (----------, or S values). Sedimentation coefficients are,
ntation rate does not depend only on the ------ or -------- of a particle, and when two particles bind together there is inevitably a
en measured separately they will have Svedberg values that may not ---- up to that of the bound particle. This is notably the
mes are most often identified by their sedimentation coefficient. For instance, the 70 S ribosome that comes from bacteria has
coefficient of 70 Svedberg, although it is composed of a --- S subunit and a--- S subunit.
er sedimentaion coffecient values?

1.1.2 Diff ------------

Most biological structures are ---------. In order to differentiate
between these structures various ------- dyes are applied. Such techniques
are called ---------- techniques. When only one stain, such as -------------
(that stains ----------) is used it is called ------ staining. When two stains, one
that will stain nucleus e.g., ------------- and other that will stain cytoplasm
e.g., -------- are used, the process is called --------- staining or ----------------l
staining.

ng Microdissections
refers to the variety of techniques where a -------------- is used to assist in
remove ---------- or ------------- from delicate tissue or cells like, ---------,
this technique, the image is seen on large ---- screen or ---------- while

e
tissue on ------------ defined ----------- medium under ----------- conditions is called tissue culture. This technique can
and ----------.
is mainly used for plant --------- i.e., production of ----------- identical plants (clones). Animal tissue culture is usually
cells to form a single -------- of cells over the surface of a ------- container. Animal tissue cultures are used to see any
----, ---------------l disorder etc.
1.1.5 Chromatography
Chromatography is a technique which is used to ------------ different
chemical compounds from a -----------. It is generally used for the separation of
mixtures of -----------, ------- acids or --------------- pigments. There are different
types of chromatographic techniques.
--------------- chromatography is a simple and most widely used
Solvent technique. It involves two phases. ------------- phase which is -----------------
front filter paper and ----------------- phase is solvent in which sample mixture is
dissolved. When the solvent travels over the paper, the mixture sample
begins to separate as dots at different places on paper according to their
affinity. This paper is then called --------------------.

mber
 1 Cell Structure and Functions
1.1.6 Electrophoresis
It is a technique which is used to separate fragments
of a------ bearing ----mer molecule according to their ------,
-------, --------- weight and surface -------- whether (--) or (-).
Such charge bearing polymer molecules are-----, --------.
---------etc.
This technique utilizes a ----- medium for separation of
fragments which is done under the influence of an ----------
field. Often the ---- is sandwiched between glass or plastic
plates to form a ------- slab. The two ends of the ------ are
suspended in two----- solutions that are connected by
----------- to a power source. At one end of the slab the --------
are loaded. When -------- is applied to the apparatus, the
molecules present in the gel migrate through the -------- field.
The ------------ charged molecule will move towards the
positive pole and the molecule having ---------- charge will
move towards the negative pole. The --------- of movement of Fig. 1.4 :Gel electrophoresis
fragments is ------------ proportional to the ------. Therefore
smaller fragments move ------- than larger. In this way all the fragments are separated in the gel after
some time. Later on the molecules can be pin pointed by ----------- the gel.

1.1.7 Spectrophotometry
Spectrophotometry is a technique which is used to determine the absorption of different
----------- of light by a particular ---------- compound or a -------------------- pigment. For this purpose the
instrument used is -------------------------. The amount of light absorbed at each wavelength is plotted in a
graph called the --------------- spectrum.

Wavelength of light (nm)

Fig. 1.5: Spectrophotometer Fig. 1.6: Absorption spectrum

Spectrophotometry can be used to determine the
wavelengths of light that take part in -----------------------. It can also be used to determine the very ---------
quantity of a substance (such as -----) in a sample.
10 1 Cell Structure and Functions

1.1.8 Resolution and Magnification in Microscopy

The ----------------capacity of a------ to differentiate between two adjacent points is called
------------. The resolution of naked eye is 0.- mm. This resolution can be increased by increasing
---------------. The magnification is the capacity of an --------- instrument to ---------- the ------ of an object
than its original size. The objects which cannot be seen by naked eye can also be observed by
increasing -----------------. Different lenses have different ----------------- powers which are represented by
letter “---” that means the number of times than original size. Therefore, a lens of 10X magnification
power can increase the size of an object of 1 pm to 1- pm.
Microtubule 1
n > Cytoskeleton

Not in
most Rough
plant endoplasmic
cell reticulum
Ribosomes

Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Peroxisome
Golgi Mitochondrion
apparatus

Plasma
membrane

Fig. 1.7 :Electron microscopic structure of an animal cell

Microfilament J

Cell wall
Central Not in
vacuole animal
Chloroplast cell
/
Rough
reticulum
Ribosomes

Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi Plasma
apparatus
membrane

Cytoskeleton | Microtubule
Microfilament

Fig- 1.8 :Electron microscopic structure of a plant cell

------------------ is the technique used to view objects that cannot be seen by the naked eye. The
range can be anything between --- and----. Most animal cells and plant cells are between --- micro m
and --- micro m. A common compound microscope consists of ------- lens and ----------- lens. The overall
magnification power of such a microscope is equal to the product of
 1 Cell Structure and Functions 11

---------------- powers of both --------. The ---------- power of light microscope is ----- nm and its
magnification is up to -------X. The resolving power of ------- microscope is 0.-- nm and its magnification is
up to 2---------------X.
1.1.9 Micrometry Disc (plastic or glass)

Micrometry is the --------------- of the size of

Scale-arbitrary units
objects under microscope. It involves two usually 100 divisions
----------------. The -------- micrometre is a glass ----
with ----- equal divisions with no --------- value. It is
placed in the ----- piece of the microscope. Then it is
calibrated by using a ------ micrometre. This is a
glass ------ with an exact ------- like a miniature
transparent ------. By superimposing the images of
the ocular micrometre and stage micrometre scales,
it is calibrated so the size of any given object viewed
under the microscope can be estimated.
Fig. 1.9 :Ocular micrometre
1.2 CELL ------- AND -----------
MEMBRANE
Q-what is cell wall and plasma membrane?
Q-what is plant prokaryote and fungi cell wall made of?
The -------- membrane is the outer -------- boundary
of the ----. Many cells have an ------------- component that is Critical Thinking
formed -----------to the membrane, which is called ----- -----.
Is plant cell wall permeable,
1.2.1 Cell Wall semipermeable or impermeable boundary?
The cell wall is present in plant cells,
----------------- and -------- but animal cells do not have
cell wall. This is probably due to their ----------- mode of life. Plant cell walls (made up of ------------) differ
in ------------ composition from those of the prokaryotes (made up of ------------------) and fungi (made up of
-------). We will discuss here only plant cell wall. The cell wall is secreted by the ------. The cell wall is
---------- and allows -------passage of water and
dissolved material. The plant cell wall
consists of three main layers,----------cell
wall, middle ------------ and ------------ cell
wall.

Science Tidbits
Fig. 1.10 : Crisscross arrangement of cellulose ------ is a ---mer of around --00 -------- acid molecules.
Majority of its -------- groups are ---------- (COO-----). It is
less hydro-------- then ------- acid but soluble in ----- water. It is another major component of ---------- but also found
in ----------- --------.

Primary cell wall

Primary cell wall is a ----- wall and develops in------ growing cell i.e., during ------ division. Each
------ produces a primary cell wall. The primary cell wall is
present -------to the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is ----
and slightly ----------. The primary cell wall is composed of cellulose ------------ (bundles of ----------
chains), running through the matrix of other polysaccharides like --------celluloses and --------. The --------
fibrils show a crisscross arrangement in layers one above the others. This feature gives the cell great

-----------. The primary cell wall is adapted to ---------. The wall stretches plastically i.e., ------------.
Secondary cell wall`
Secondary cell wall is formed between the
---------- cell wall and --------- membrane only in ---------------- cells. The plant cells possessing
------------ cell wall are generally -------- and provide
---------- for the plant. The secondary cell wall
develops only when the cell has reached maximum
------ i.e., completes its-------- because it is very much ------ and -------- therefore it does not allow further
-------. The secondary cell wall consists of ---------, hemi-----------, -------, -------- salts and ------. Its
cellulose ------------ also show crisscross arrangement. -------- cements and anchors cellulose -----------
together and it is mainly responsible for ------ness. The secondary cell wall provides definite ------- and
--------------- support to the cell.
Middle lamella
Middle lamella is present between --------- cell walls of adjacent ------ which holds the cells
together. It is composed of sticky, gel-like --------and -------- salts and--------.

1.2.2 Plasma Membrane

Plasma membrane is the boundary of -------plasm. It is
found in all living -------- and ------------ cells. Plasma membrane is
Science Titbits
also called cell membrane or -----------or cell --------- membrane. It ---------- acids are ------mer of around --00
controls the passage of --------- into and out of the cell. ------------- acid molecules. These are very
Composition of plasma membrane hydro------
Critical and form salts with ---++ and ----++ that
Thinking
are--------
Why gels.
the cell Thesemembrane
surface are majoriscomponents of
Chemically cell membrane consists of proteins --0- --------------as--------- but also found in --------- cell
described fluid mosaic?
--0%, lipids--0----0% and small quantity of c------------. walls
 1 Cell Structure and Functions 13

Structure of plasma membrane

Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane: The model proposes that the membrane is a
------------lipids ----layer in which ---------- molecules are either partially or wholly embedded. The -----------
are scattered throughout the membrane in an irregular pattern just like large----- bergs float in the sea.
The pattern of distribution of ---------- can vary from membrane to membrane and also vary on both
----------- of membrane. The membrane is about --- nm thick.

Fig. 1.12: Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane

The------- part of plasma membrane consists of --- layers (-layer) of ------------ which are arranged
in such a way that their hydro--------- ends face each other while hydro--------- ends are appeared on the
surface. The ----------, ----------- are wedged into the ----------lipid bilayer at some intervals. The plasma
membrane is ---symmetrical i.e., their two surface and halves are not ------------.
In general most membrane proteins drift sideways in the
fluid bilayer.The ---------- within a membrane determine most of
Science Titbits the -----------. Carbohydrates are either attached to proteins
The -----------of membrane is (glyco-----------s) or lipids (glyco--------s) generally on the ------r
dependent on its ------ components, side of membrane. Filaments of the ------------ are also present on
including ---------lipids, ------lipids and the ------ surface of the membrane. These support the plasma
---------- membrane.
Functions of plasma membrane ------
The ------ part of plasma membrane controls the --------- of the membrane. When the
concentration of ---saturated ------- acid in phospholipids becomes --------, the bilayer becomes more------
that makes cell membrane more --------. The ------------helps to stabilize the lipid bilayer. It also restricts
entry and exit of --------- molecules and-------.

q-who restrict entry and exit of polar molecules and ions in plasma membrane?
 1 Cell Structure and Functions
Functions of plasma membrane ----------
A great variety of --------- are found in ------- membrane which may act as tr----------- channel or
c-------, e--------, re--------or as a------s.14
1. ---------proteins and ----------proteins: Certain ------- membrane ---------are involved in the passage
of ----------- through the membrane. Some of those have a --------- through which a substance --------
can move across the ------------, other are ---------- that combine with a ------------- and help it to move
across the membrane.

2. ----------: Some -------- membrane -------- have ----------- functions e.g----------- --------- which
converts----- to cyclic ------ (cAMP).

3. ----------- molecules: Some -------- in the -------membrane are----------- that receive ----------- from
other ------s. Each type of receptor has a --------- shape. The binding of a ---------- on ----------can
bring about an -------------r response. For example, ----------- circulate in the ------ , but bind to ---------
target ----, with specific --------.q-can hormone combine with any cell?

4. ----------: Some --------are --------- which enable the cells to ------------- other ------- for example the
foreign --------- can be -------------and attacked by----------system.

Roles of --------------- and -------------- as --------------------------

Mostly ------------- and ------------- act as ------------markers. They are involved in cell to cell
----------- and sticking the correct --------together in-----------.
Regulation of cell’s interaction with its environment by the ------- membrane
------- membrane regulates cell’s interaction with its environment by controlling --------- of material
across the cell. Transport across plasma membrane occurs to: (1) obtain --------- (2) excrete --------
substances (3) secrete --------substances (4) generate --------gradients essential for ---------and ----------
activity (5) maintain a suitable -- and------concentration within the cell for ------- activity.

1.3 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES

The living matter of a cell is called --------------- In---------- cells it can be divided into ------ parts
i.e., --------- and----------.

1.3.1 ---------------
------------is the region between --------- membrane and--------- membrane. This is also a---------
component of both ------------- and -------------- cells. The major difference between the ---------- of these
two kinds of cells is the presence or absence of ------------ and membrane bounded --------------. These
structures are absent in ------------- cells.
Physico-chemical nature of cytoplasm
It is about --0% -------r and forms a -------- that contains all the fundamental biochemicals of life.
Some of these are------ and small -------------- in -------- solution, such as sa------, su-------, am----------------
s, f-----acids,nu----------------, v------------- and dissolved--------s. Others are----------molecules, such as
---------s, which form the c----------l solutions. The---------portion of ------------ i.e.,-----------the ------- is -----
--------- and is called ----------while the --------------l part of -------------i.e., towards the ------- membrane
is-------------- and is called -----------. A ---------- streaming movement can also be observed in -----------
due to the -------------activity
 1 Cell Structure and Functions 15

of ---------------. This movement is called ----------- which is --------------- for ----------- of cell -------- in
------------.
------------- and ----------- role of -------------
The ------------ acts as a site of ---------------and -------------- of a cell. The ------------ pathways
generally occur in the --------l which includes-------- synthesis, ------------- etc. The ---------- is usually
concerned with ------------ of ------ compounds which are subsequently used in various -------- activities
and ------- compounds which are ---------------from the cell time to time.
1.3.2 Cell Organelles
In a ------------- cell, the ------------- contains highly ---------------- discrete structures which are
----------- for various --------- functions are called ---- --------------. The cell ------------- are generally
enclosed by the ------------ except few such as --------------e.
The organelles in the cytoplasmic ------ of a cell are: endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi
complex, lysosomes, peroxysomes, glyoxysomes, vacuoles, mitochondria, and chloroplasts etc. Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER) Nuclear Envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum
An -------------network of ---------(----------
closed -----) which is generally extended from
----------membrane to the -------membrane throughout
the ----------of all ------------cells is called ---------------
reticulum (ER). There are two types of ER, rough
ER and smooth ER. ----------cells contain both types
of ER. However, some cells (---------muscle cells)
have ---------ER more, where these are called
-----------------reticulum.
Rough ER has -------------attached to the
sides facing the -------------and has rough appearance
under ------------microscope. Rough ER is mainly
concerned with the events of ----------synthesis
(-----------)due to association of ------------;however,
Fig.1.13: Endoplasmic reticulum
their presence in the cell also provides a --------------
support to the cell. due to the association of ribosomes; however,

Smooth ER is -------------- with the RER. Since, ------------- are not attached to it, therefore, it has
---------- appearance under ------ microscope. The smooth ER functions in various -------------processes,
e.g., -----------of --------------. The ------------of --------and ---------especially in the --------cells and synthesis
of ---------including ------, ---------------and -----------take place in ---------ER. It also -------------------ions,
when -----------calcium ions trigger ------------of the ----------. Smooth ER also transports various ---------
products -------- the cell or --- of the cell e.g., --------- from ----- ER are also transported to the --------
complex through -----------ER. Like rough ER, the presence smooth ER in the cell also provides a
----------support to the cell.
16 1 Cell Structure and Functions
60 S

Ribosomes
Ribosomes were first observed using
---------microscope as ----------granules.
Ribosomes are roughly ---------, granular, non
-----------bodies found in ------ ------------as well as
--------------cells. However, eukaryotic ribosomes
are ------and characterized as ------ribosomes
while the prokaryotic ribosomes are slightly
Fig.1.14: Eukaryotic 80S ribosome --------and are characterized as --------ribosomes.
They can be seen only under the --------
microscope. They are made of almost an -------amount of --------and --------so they are ---------------.
Ribosomes are formed in the -------. Then these are transported to the -----------through the ------------
pore.
In a ------------- cell, the ribosomes may be found as attached with --- or freely dispersed in the
------------. Ribosomes are also found in --------of -----------------and ---------of ---------------but these
ribosomes are ------------(-------) in nature.
The ------------- ribosomes are composed of
-------subunits (---------) of ----------sizes. The larger
one is ------particles and the smaller one is ----
particles. The two subunits on attachment form ------
particles. The attachment is controlled by presence
of -----------ions concentration or forming salt bonds
between -----------group of ------and -------group of
--------acid or both by -----------ions and salt bonds.
Both ribosomal subunits are generally attached
together at the time of their ----------. The ribosomes are involved in the events of ----------synthesis.
Sometimes, during protein synthesis, several ribosomes are attached to one ---------molecule. Such a
chain of many ribosomes is called -----------or -------------. In this way several copies of same ------------can
be produced in very less time.

Incoming transport Golgi complex

Cis face vesicle
It is found in all ------------cells. It was discovered
Cisternae Lumen by ---------------------------------in 18--.
Golgi complex consists of a ----- of flattened,
------------- bound sacs called -----------, together with
system of associated vesicles called ------------------. It is
a -----------system of -----------------tubules formed around
o the ------- stack. At one end of the stack a new ----------
are constantly being ---------- by the --------- of -----------
Newly forming Trans face Secretory from the ------ ER. This -------
vesicle vesicle

Fig. 1.16: Golgi complex

 1 Cell Structure and Functions 17 1 Cell Structure and Functions

or ---------------- (--- face) is ------- , while the ------- end is -----------and is called ---------------face (------
face) where the -------------- breakup into -----------
again.
The most important function of Golgi
complex is the --------------- of ----- --------------.
Therefore these organelles are ------------in
--------------cells. The cell --------------mainly
consist of -------------. Golgi complex collects
these -------------from -----through ------,
-----------them to ---------- specific -----------and
then -----------these -----------products in the
form of -----------. Certain organelles, such as
---------------, ---------------and ----------------
also originate from Golgi complex. Golgi
complex is also involved in the -------------of
conjugated molecules like ---------------,
---------------etc. In ------- cell during -----------------, Fig. 1.17: Role of Golgi complex in a glandular cell
Golgi complex also gives rise -----------which
contain ------ ----- -------------materials. At -------------, these Golgi ----------- are arranged on the cell
---------- , fuse together and form a structure, called -----------------. Later on new ----- ------is derived from
this structure.
Lysosomes
----- means ----------- and ----- means
------. These are ------ --------------, -----------
----------. They contain ---------- or ----------
--------. The ------------ ----------- are made by
the ------ and then are transported to --------
------- ---through ------ . After -------------- ,
these ---------- are ---------- from the ----- face
Golgi complex in the form of ------------. Such
---------are called ---------------. The -------
formed ------------- before the start of their
---------- are usually called ---------- --------------.
In ------- and -------, certain -----------carryout
-------------- -------------, a function shared by
------------ in ------- cells.
Fig. 1.18: Formation and functions of Lysosomes
----------- contain about ---- different
---------------- ------------. These --------- can ------------- every major -----------------of the cell. The -------- of
the -------------- are ------. In
order to --------- its ------------- the ------------ fuses with ------------ bound ----------- that arises from any of
these pathways ----------------- , -----------------or -------------------. These ----------- are referred to as
-------------- , ---------------- and -------------------respectively. These -------------- fuses with ------------- (--------
lysosomes) and forms --------------- ------------ . The ----molecules are further -------- down into ------- forms
like ------- acids, ------------------, -------------- and ----- acids which are then ------------ in the ---- . Major
------------ of lysosomes include ---------------- ------------, ----------------, ---------------and sometimes
------------------------------.
The ------------- food of cell is stored in ---------- , called -------- -----------. Once a -----------has fused
with ------ ----------, the resulting structure is called ----------- ------------in which ------- begins to -------. The
----------- products are ------------ by the ----------- while the remaining ------ containing ------ is now called
------------ ------------. Later on these ---------- fuse with cell ------------- (------------) to eliminate ---------------
--------. This whole process is known as --------------- -------------.
The process by which ------------- structures within the cell are ---------- and ---------- within the
----------- is called ------------. This is ----- ---------- process of a ---- in which a ------------ begins to --------
cell’s own ------------. Such ------------- are also called ----------------------. This process ------ takes place in
------------ period in order to obtain --------- or it occurs in ------- in order to control ---------- of specific
-----------. For example: If someone starts to perform --------- ------------ ------------, the number of
----------------- begins to ---------- in his -------- cells, but if he leaves --------- , the number of ----------------
are again ----------- by the process of ---------------.
Sometimes, especially during ------------------ phase, when a particular ----- is required to be
disintegrated, a type of cell ----- is committed, called ----------. This is a ---------------- cell ------ in which
------------- ------ and their --------- contents are quickly ------------- throughout the ------------. In this way the
cell is disintegrated into ------------- which are ----------------- by other -----. Due to this function lysosomes
are also called ------------- ------.

Fig. 1.19: Functions of Lysosomes

 1 Cell Structure and Functions 19 1 Cell Structure and Functions

Since, ------------ contain various ------------ ------------ , if a ---------- lysosomal ----------- is missing in
an ------------- , the ---------- of that particular -------------- (for which ---------- was --------) will be -----------.
As a result, the ------------- begins to --------------- in the cell and cause different ---------------. Such
complications which are caused by the --------------- of various ----------- in the cell due to ------ of certain
lysosomal -----------are called -------------- ----------- ------------. These diseases are ------------- and
congenital therefore run in particular families and exist by ------ in an individual. Most of these diseases
are ------- in early ---------- . About more than ---- such diseases have been -------------so far. One of the
common examples is ----------------- --------- in which a ------ digesting --------- is ------------ or ------------ and
the ----becomes impaired by an accumulation of ------- in the cell.
----------------- and -----------------
---------------- and -------------- are collectively called ---------------.
These are ---------- to ------------ in the sense that they are ------- --------------,
vesicular structures. They contain ---------- (although different than
------------) and originate from
--------- ----------but they are ---------- than --------------.
--------------- contain some ------------ enzymes like
---------------- , -------------- and --------- acid ------------. They are abundant in
------- cells where they are specifically involved in the
--------------- and ------------------- of --------- ------------ so they are named
-----------------. They are mainly concerned with the ------------------ of ---------.
In this activity ------------ is --------------- into -------------------------(-------) with the help of ---------------
-----------. ------------------ is itself a -------- molecule, which is immediately broken down to --------- and
--------- by another ----------- called ------------ . In ------- cell, --------------- are involved in --------------------. A
step of -------------------- takes place in -------------in which ------------- is converted into ----------with the help
of an ---------- called -------------- ------ ----------------.
--------------------- are found only at ------------- stage in ----- ------ plants. These ------------- have a
number of ------------ specific for ------- -------- metabolism that are not found in ----------- cells. The
--------------- seedlings ---------- stored ------ acids to ------------------ . This is achieved through a metabolic
pathway called -------------- -------- , the ----------- of which are located in the ------------------.

---------------
-------------- are large ----------- originate from the
------------- ------------ and -------- ---------- and ---------
membrane. ----------- perform a --------- of functions in
different kinds of ------ . In ----------- cells --------- -------------
are formed by ---------------- . Many --------- -------- ----------
have --------------- ----------- that ------ ------- ------- out of the
----- , thereby maintaining a suitable concentration of ---- and
---------- ------ the cell.

In young ------ -----, many small ------------ are present

which can hold reserves of important -------
compounds. These vacuoles may also help in --------------- of
Fig. 1.21: Vacuole of a mature plant cell
----- against ------------- by storing compounds that are
 ------------- or -------------- to animals. ------- plant ------ generally
1 Cell Structure and Functions contain a large ---------- --------- develops by the --------- of
---------- vacuole. The -------- inside the central vacuole, called ------- ------, is plant cell’s main reservoir of
----------- ions, including ---------------and -------------. The ---------- vacuole plays a major role in --------------
support by maintaining ------- and also acts a ---------------- of the cell. The ----------- separating the
----------- from --------------is called ---------------.

-------------------
-----------------(singular: ----------------- ) are present in all --------------- cells. Some ----- have a ------
large ----------------, but more often a --- has -------------- or even ---------------of -----------------; the number
correlates with the cell’s level of ------------- activity. For example, cells that ------- or ---------have
proportionally more --------------- per ------ than less ------ cells. ----------------are capable to ---------
themselves (----- -------------) in order to ------------their number. They divide by ---------.
Mitochondria are --------------- or ---- shaped structures. They are enclosed by ------- membrane,
the ------ --------------- and the ------- ---------------. The ---- membrane is ---------- and somewhat like a ------
due to presence of ---------. These are special --------- responsible for the ------------- of ------------ across
the membrane. -------- allow ------ passage of various ----------- into the ---- -------------- ------. The ------
membrane is selectively -------------- and folded --------. The folds are called --------- which serve to
---------- the ---------- area. The ------- surface of ----------- has -------------- structures called
------ -------------- These particles
are actually ------ ------------- (see
section 4.2.7) ------------. In
addition, several other --------------
are also found in inner
----------------- membrane, which
serve as --------- carriers in
----------- ------------ chain. The
------- membrane ----------- the
mitochondrion into ---- internal
----------------. The ----- is the
------------------- -------, the -------
region between the ------ and
------- membranes. The ----------
compartment, the --------------------
--------, is enclosed by the -------
membrane. Mitochondrial -------
is a ------ like material that contains a ------ ----------- ------ , all ------- of -----, ------------- (----) and ------------.
The presence of these components indicates that mitochondria have their own ------------system. It
means, the ---------, which are required by ----------------- are synthesized by their ----- -----------------
machinery.
Mitochondria are the sites of ---------- -------------, the ------------- process that uses -------- to
generate ------- by extracting --------- from ---------, -----, and other ---------- compounds. ------------- in the
------- catalyze some of the steps of cellular respiration like ------- cycle. Other ----------- that function in
------- generation through ----------- transport chain are found into the -------membrane.
Mitochondria (extra reading material) ------------------ and ---------------display similarities with ----------- like
both are --- ------------- --------------, both have their own -------- system and ------------machinery i.e., both has small
 ----------- -----, all -------of -----and -----------(-----). An interesting fact about them is that they are ---------- to -------
------- the cell in ------------ medium if carefully -------------. Based upon these observations evolutionists believe
that they were independent ----------- and the early -------- of ------------- cells ---------- them. Eventually, the
----------- cells formed a -------------- with the ----- cell in which they were enclosed, becoming an ------------------ (a
---- living within another ----- ). Therefore, they are -------------- as ------------- within ------------.Mitochondria --------
and in this way their number --------- before cell -----------. --------------- regulate the -------- of mitochondria. ---------
of mitochondria are ------------by ---------------. Because mitochondria are contained within ----- (----- cells) but not
within the -------- of the --------cells, all the mitochondria in a ------------- -----are derived from ----------.

-------------
---------- are found in --------- and --------cells, and they are necessary for essential life processes,
like --------------- and ----- storage. On the basis of ------------ or ------------and ----- of ------------ , and the
stage of ----------------, ---------- have been classified into ---------------, ----------------, -----------------and
-----------------.
----------------- are ---------, ------------and developing ----------. They are ------ ------------organelles.
They divide and re-divide in ----------------cells and are distributed to different ---- types. Depending upon
the -------------- in which they found, the ---------------- factors and on exposure to -----, they may develop
into ----------------- (-------------- plastids) or ---------------(------- plastids).
------------------ are found in --------------- cells of
------- , -------and --------. They act as ---------- organelles. Based on the ------ of substance they ------- they
are further classified into ------------------ (store -------), ---------------(store -----) and ------------------
(store -----------). ------------------- synthesize different
coloured -----------------other than -------. Therefore, they are
found in --------------- parts of ------ such as flower ------- and fruit ---- where they attract --------- and thus
help in ---------------. -------------------are found in ------ parts of the
plants and act as site of ---------------------.
Structure and functions of --------------------
Chloroplast is a discoid structure which consists of ------- parts i.e., ------------, ---------- and
--------------. Each ---------------- is bounded by a smooth --------
membrane (------------). The ------- membrane like proplastid

--------------------- contains -------- and therefore ------- permeable

to ------- molecules. The ----- membrane is ------------------- and
leucoplast
rich in ------. Between the outer and inner membrane there is
--------------------- space.
chloroplast

chromoplast

amyloplast elaioplast protein oplast

Fig. 1.23: Types of plastids

22 1 Cell Structure and Functions

The ------------ mass of chloroplast is called ----------. It is the colourl---- ---------------------substance

which like ---------------------- matrix also contains a small ------------ ------, all ----- of ------, -----------(-----)
and various -------------. The -------- contains a system of ---------------- bearing --------membrane, flattened
sac-like structures called -------------------. There are ----- types of thylakoids: ------------ thylakoids and the
-------- thylakoids. ------------- thylakoids are ------ like -----which are piled over one another like stack of
-------. Each stack of ---------- thylakoids is called ------------(plural: --------). Each ---------- consists of -------
thylakoids and there are about ---- ----grana found in each ---------------. Photosynthetic ----------- are also
found in the -------------- of ----------thylakoids. ----------- thylakoids connect the ------with each other and
are also called ---------------. These ---------------- are ------------- as they do not have ---------------.
------------------ is the site of -----------------in a ------- cell. The ------ phase of photosynthesis is ------
------------- reaction in which ------------ is
captured and transformed into ------.
This phase takes place in ------- region
of ------------. The second phase of
photosynthesis is light ----------------
reaction (----- reaction) in which ------ is
reduced to make ------------------. The
--------- for this activity are found in
--------- region of ---------------.
-----------------
Centrioles are ----- -
Thylakoid Thylakoid membranous cell ------------- found
membrane space
mainly in --------- cells. They are also
Fig. 1.24: Chloroplast found in ------- like ------ such as ------
molds and ------ molds. -------------- are ----- shaped structures and usually occur in ------. These occur at
----- angle to each other near one ----- of the ----------. ----- centriole is composed of ------ triplets of
-------------- which are ----------- arranged around a ----------axis.
Just ---------- the ------ division, the ----- of centrioles ------------- and becomes ----- pairs which
later on migrate to the ----------- sides of the ----------. ------ centriole -------give rise -------------- (-------
-------) during cell ------------. The -------- structure of ------------- fibres
is known as ---------- ---------------which helps in the ----------------- of
----------------between the -------------- cells during cell ---------. In
addition, centrioles also give rise to --------- -----------of ------ and
-----------.
--------------------
The term ------------------ is generally applied to --------
different kinds of ---------- structures which are distributed from
Fig. 1.25: Centrioles ---------- to the ----------membrane throughout the --------------of a
---------------- cell. These fibres include: -------------------, ----------------,
and ----------------filaments.
 1 Cell Structure and Functions 23

---------------------are also known as ------- filaments.

These are extremely ----- contractile fibres about --- nm in
-----------. It consists of ------ twisted chains. ----- chains of --------
and ----- chains of -------------with -------- --------------at intervals.
They form -------------in --------, involved in muscle -------------- and
-------------. They perform -----------as well.
------------------ are small ------cylinders about ----in
----------and ----------- in length. They are composed of a ----------,
the ----------. Each ---------- is a dimer. In ------ cells at the time of
cell ------------ freely dispersed -------------- organize themselves to
form ------- -------. In ---------- cells, the --------------are involved in Fig. 1.26: Three types of cytoskeleton
the formation of -------------, ------, ----------and -------body.
---------------filaments are -- to ---- nm in --------i.e.,
intermediate in size between ------ filaments and -------------, this Science Titbits
is why they are called --------------filaments. The basic ------- In --------- cells the ------------- are
called ---------------which are of -----
subunit of the filament is ------------. The ----------- subunits also different types i.e., ---- and -----
form chains by --------- arrangement. ----- intermediate filament is myofilaments. The ----- filaments are
composed of ------- chains of ---------which are twisted ------ filaments while the ------ filaments
(---- thick) are composed of another
--------, the -------; therefore, they are
also called ----------filaments.

about each other in such a way that no -------

space is ----- between them. They usually
form a ----------in the ------------- which provide Electron micrographs
of cross sections:
a --------------- support to ---------- envelope
and ---------- membrane.

---------- and ------------

------- and ----------are ----- like
projection on the ------------ of the ------. The
-------------structure of both ----- and ----------is
------ but they may differ in -----, ----------and Flagellum

pattern of -------------. The ---------are -------,

---- in number, exhibit undulating -------- and
beat -------------. Whereas, ----- are numerous
and relatively ---- and beat perpendicularly in
metachronous (--- of a row beating one -----
the other) or in synchronous rhythm (all ----of
a row beating ---------------). Basal body

Fig. 1.27: Structure of a eukaryotic flagellum or cilium

24
1 Cell Structure and Functions

Structure of -------- and ----------

------- and --------share a common -----------. Each consists of a longitudinal ---------. The ---------
enclosed is in a spiral sheath of ----------- and a ------membrane. -----------is made up of a bundle of -------
longitudinal -------------. ----- peripheral ----------are arranged in a ---. In the --------of the ring are ---- -------
--------------. This arrangement is called “--+ --” pattern.
-------- and --------originate from their ------ -------embedded in the -----------. ------bodies have the
same circular arrangement of ------------ --------as -----------.

(a) Clium Mechanism of -------------- of

Direction of locomotion
------ and -------------
Movement of -----: The movement
of cilia is due to sliding of --------- fibrils in
----groups one after the other. ----- out of
---- double fibrils ----------simultaneously. As
a result ------bends or --------. It is called
--------stroke. ----out of -----double fibrils
Power stroke Plasma membrane Return stroke or Effective stroke --------and cilium becomes -------. It is called
or Recovery stroke --------stroke.
Movement of --------: A
flagellum causes movement by the
passage of rapid successive -------of
bending from the attached to the free end,
Fig. 1.28: Movement of cilia and flagella as it can be seen in flagellar movement of
human --------, which propel them forward
within the ------medium of the -------
Ribosome
s
reproductive tract.
Nuclear pore
complex
1.3.3 Nucleus
\
Nucleus is the most prominent and
\— Rough \ the most important part of a cell. In animal
endoplasmic
cells it is found in the centre (with
、t reticulum
exception of muscle fibre cells) but in adult
Chromati
plant cell it is slightly away from the centre
n
Perinuclear due to the presence of a large central
space Outer vacuole. A typical eukaryotic nucleus
nuclear
membrane consists of nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm,
Innernuclear nucleoli and chromatin.
membrane
Cytoplas
m

Fig. 1.29: Nucleus

 1 Cell Structure and Functions 25

Nuclear envelope
Nuclear envelope (also called nuclear membrane) is a double membrane covering which makes
the boundary of nucleus. Both membranes of nuclear envelope are separated by a fluid-filled
perinuclear space. The membranes are composed of lipid bilayer and proteins. The outer membrane of
nuclear envelope is covered with ribosomes and is connected with the membranes of ER. There are
numerous pores in nuclear envelope called nuclear pores which are composed of a specialized
transport protein called nucleoporin.

At the point of nuclear pore both the membranes are interconnected. These pores regulate the
nucleo-cytoplasmic exchange of materials. This exchange includes RNA and ribosomal proteins moving
from nucleus to the cytoplasm and proteins (such as DNA polymerase), carbohydrates, signalling and
lipids
moving into the nucleus. Although smaller molecules Science Titbits
Sieve tube cells in plants and red blood cells
simply diffuse through the pores, larger molecules in human are exceptional living cells that do
may be recognized by specific signal sequences not possess nucleus. On the other hand
some cells have more than one nuclei i.e.,
and then be diffused with the help of nucleoporin into binucleate or dikaryotic cells (cells having
or out of the nucleus. two nuclei) and multi nucleate or coenocytic
cells (cells having many nuclei).
Nucleoplasm

Nucleolus Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus '..
Nucleolus is a non-membrane bound structure in ๔/< Nuclear pores
the nucleoplasm. A cell may have one or more nucleoli.
Nucleolus appears during interphase and disappears
during cell division. A nucleolus consists of a peripheral
granular area (contains ribosomal subunits) and a central
fibriler area (contains rRNA and rDNA). Therefore, Chromatin
nucleolus is involved in the construction of ribosomes.

Chromatin and Chromosomes Fig. 1.30: Nucleolus

Nucleoplasm is the transparent semifluid ground substance formed of a mixture of proteins,

enzymes (DNA and RNA polymerase), free nucleotide and some metal ions (Mg) for the synthesis of
DNA and RNAs. It also contains histone and non-histone protein. So the nucleoplasm is slightly different
from cytoplasm.
Chromatin is a network of thin thread like structures made up of DNA and proteins. During cell
division chromatin fibres begin to condense and coil up into separate structures called chromosomes,
which are thick enough to be seen with a light microscope. A typical chromosome consists of two
strands called chromatids which are attached with each other at a point known as centromere. The
centromere lies within a thinner segment of the chromosome called primary constriction.
26 1 Cell Structure and Functions

The centromere is a constriction functionally related to

Secondary
the movement of chromosomes during cell division. Each constriction

centromere has a complex of kinetochores protein present on

the opposite sides of the constriction. Each kinetochore forms
Primary
the site of attachment for a single microtubule during cell constriction

division. Some chromosomes may have another point of union

along the length of chromatids, called secondary
constriction or nucleolar organizer. It gives rise to nucleoli
during interphase.

1.4 PROKARYOTIC AND

EUKARYOTIC CELLS Fig. 1.31: A pair of chromosome
Two kinds of structurally different cells have been
evolved overtime. Prokaryotic cells include archaea, bacteria and cyanobacteria whereas all other forms
of life are composed of eukaryotic cells. A prokaryotic cell lacks definite membrane bounded nucleus
and other organelles. Its DNA is dispersed in cytoplasm. On the other hand, a eukaryotic cell contains a
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondrion, lysosomes, nucleolus, chloroplast,
cytoskeleton, 80S ribosomes (larger), and flagella or cilia which are made up of microtubules. All these
structures are missing in prokaryotic cells. Furthermore, the prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella have
different structure and composition. The prokaryotic cells do not divide by typical mitosis or meiosis like
eukaryotic cells, instead their cell division is very simple and is called binary fission. A detailed account
on prokaryotic cells is given in chapter 6 of this book.
Skills: Analyzing, Interpreting and Communication
1. Compare and contrast the structure and function of mitochondria with those of chloroplasts.
2. Compare in tabular form, the functions of organelles with the processes occurring in animals and plants.
3. List the structure and molecules, which can cross the nuclear envelope.

Activity

1. Measure the size of Paramecium, pollen grains, hair etc., by micrometry.

2. Prepare and examine the slides of animal and plant cells using differential staining.
1. Select the correct answer

(i) Which of the following is the major advantage of using a light microscope instead of an
electron microscxjpe?
(A) superior resolving power (B) constant depth of focus
(C) observation of living matter (D) use of very thin sections
 27
1 Cell Structure and Functions

(ii) Some cellular organelles are bound by a single membrane, while other organelles have
two membranes (envelopes) around them. Which one of the following is correct?
Single membrane Double membranes
(A) peroxysomes, lysosome nucleus, chloroplast
(B) chloroplast, lysosome nucleus, peroxysomes
(C) nucleus, chloroplast lysosome, peroxysomes
(D) nucleus, lysosome chloroplast, peroxysomes
(iii) Which of the following cell structures contains the highest concentration of RNA?
(A) centriole (B) lysosome (C) chromosome (D) nucleolus
(iv) A tadpole’s tail is gradually broken down during metamorphosis into an adult frog. Which
organelle increases in number in the cells of the tail at this time?
(A) centriole (B) endoplasmic reticulum
(C) Golgi complex (D) lysosomes
(v) Which of the following organelles always contains DNA?
(A) centriole (B) Golgi complex (C) lysosome (D) mitochondria
(vi) Which distinguishes a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell?
(A) prokaryotic cell have a cell wall and a nucleus
(B) prokaryotic cells have no membrane bound organelles
(C) prokaryotic cells have a centriole
(D) prokaryotic cells have no ribosomes
(vii) The elasticity of the plasma membrane demonstrates that it is made up in part of
(A) lipids (B) nucleic acids (C) carbohydrates (D) proteins
(viii) Filaments present in flagella and cilia are
(A) microfibrils (B) microtubules (C) microfilaments (D) microvilli
(ix) Which of the following structure is found in all living organisms:
(A) cell membrane (B) nucleus (C) lysosome (D) vacuole
(x) The cell wall of plant cell is different from that of prokaryotes in:
(A) both structure and chemical composition (B) structure only
(C) chemical composition only (D) number of layers only
(xi) Which of the following are present in prokaryotic cells:
(A) chloroplast, DNA, nuclear envelope
(B) chromosomes, mitochondria, nuclear envelope
(C) cytoplasm, DNA, mitochondria
(D) cytoplasm, DNA, ribosome
(xii) Which of the following is present in all eukaryotic cells:
(A) cell wall (B) diploid nucleus
(C) flagellum (D) membrane bounded organelles
28 1 Cell Structure and Functions
(xiii) Which of the following would be more prominent in a secretory cell than non- secretory cell:
(A) lysosome (B) Golgi complex (C) mitochondrion (D) ribosome
(xiv) When a glycoprotein is being synthesized for secretion from a cell, which route is it most
likely to take?
(A) Golgi complex RER4 SER (B) RER+ Golgi complex SER
(C) RER4 SER4 Golgi complex (D) SER4 Golgi complex RER
(xv) Which one of the following is responsible for cyclosis?
(A) microtubule (B) microfilament
(C) intermediate filament (D) none of them

Short Questions
2. Name three organelles revealed by an electron microscope.
3. Why cell wall is not present in animal cells?
4. What holds the ribosomes together in a polysome?
5. What would happen if there are no lysosomes in human cells?
6. Why lysosomes are called suicidal bags?
7. Name the structures and organelles which are common in plant cell, animal cell and a prokarytic
cell.
8. How is a chloroplast similar to a bacterium?
9. Name the organelles of eukaryotic cell and write their specific functions.
10. What are prokaryotic cells? List the structures missing in prokaryotic cells.
11. Compare microfilaments and microtubules.
12. Which organelles are single membrane bound, double membrane bound and lacking any
membrane?
13. How cytoskeletons are important to eukaryotic cells?
14. Compare the chemical composition of nucleoplasm with that of cytoplasm.
15. Explain that nucleoli are the areas where ribosomes are assembled.
16. Draw a labelled diagram of a section through:
(a) mitochondrion (b) chloroplast
17. Write the difference between:
(a) resolution and magnification
(b) cytoplasm of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell
(c) rough ER and smooth ER
(d) chromatin and chromosome
 1 Cell Structure and Functions 29

Extensive Questions
18. Describe the principles and uses/applications of the apparatus used in the techniques of:
(a) Fractionation (b) Microdissection (c) Tissue culture
(d) Differential staining (e) Centrifugation (f) Chromatography
(g) Electrophoresis (h) Spectrophotometry
19. What are the locations, chemical compositions and significance of the following in a plant cell wall?
(a) Primary cell wall (b) Secondary cell wall (c) Middle lamella.
20. Explain the (a) Chemical composition of plasma membrane (b) Role of plasma membrane in
regulating cell’s interactions with environment.
21. Describe the lipid composition and variety of proteins of the plasma membrane.
22. What are the functions of the plasma membrane proteins?
23. What is the role of glycolipids and glycoproteins as the cell surface markers?
24. What is the chemical nature of cytoplasm? Explain the metabolic roles of cytoplasm.
25. Describe the structures and functions of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum
26. Explain the structure, chemical composition and function of ribosomes.
27. Explain the structure, and functions of Golgi complex.
28. Explain the structure, and functions of the peroxysomes and glyoxisomes in animal and plant cells.
29. Explain the formation, structure and functions of the lysosomes.
30. What are the storage diseases? Explain with reference to the malfunctioning of lysosomes.
31. Describe the external and internal structure of mitochondrion? What are the functions of these
structures present in mitochondria?
32. Describe the external and internal structure of chloroplast? What are the functions of these
structures present in chloroplast?
33. Compare and contrast the structure and functions of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
34. What are centrioles? Describe the structure, composition and functions of centriole.
35. What are cytoskeletons? Describe the types, structure, composition and functions of cytoskeleton.
36. Describe the structure of cilia and flagella. Explain the mechanism of movement of cilia and
flagella.
37. What is nuclear envelope? Describe the chemical composition and structure of nuclear envelope.
38. What are chromosomes? Describe the structure, chemical composition and function of
chromosome.
39. What is the relationship of endoplasmic reticulum with Golgi complex, lysosome and plasma
membrane?