HCMC UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION

FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

FINAL REPORT

MEASUREMENT TOOLS IN ELECTRICAL

AND ELECTRONIC

Subject: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

HCMC UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION
Lecturer: MASTER NGUYEN TRUNG HIEU
FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
Group: 05
Members: NGO TRI THANH NAM 20145418
PHAM TRAN DANG KHOA 22145039
CHAU THANH THONG 22145072
NGUYEN MINH KHOA 22145038
PHAM TUAN KIET 22145041

Ho Chi Minh City, March 2024

 FINAL REPORT

MEASUREMENT TOOLS IN ELECTRICAL

AND ELECTRONIC
Subject: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
Lecturer: MASTER NGUYEN TRUNG HIEU
Group: 05
Members: NGO TRI THANH NAM 20145418
PHAM TRAN DANG KHOA 22145039
CHAU THANH THONG 22145072
NGUYEN MINH KHOA 22145038
PHAM TUAN KIET 22145041

Ho Chi Minh City, March 2024

 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

When words alone cannot convey the depth of our gratitude, we humbly extend our
most sincere thanks to you, Master Nguyen Trung Hieu, through this report.
Throughout our academic journey and research, your guidance, heartfelt support, and
the valuable knowledge you have imparted have greatly influenced the development of
our skills and intellectual direction as individual members of our group.

You have not only kindled our academic passions but also served as a shining example
of enthusiasm and dedication in education. Your advice, encouragement, and
instructions have been our north star, helping us to overcome difficulties, face
challenges, and continue to strive on our scholarly path.

We wish to emphasize that your understanding and kindness have been a precious
source of motivation, inspiring us to move forward with greater confidence and hope
for the future. Once again, thank you, Professor, for everything.

We are sincerely grateful!

Ngo Tri Thanh Nam

Pham Tran Dang Khoa

Nguyen Trung Thong

Nguyen Minh Khoa

Pham Tuan Kiet

i
 LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1 Comparison between fuel types…………………………………………...23

ii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Page
Figure 1.1 Principle of Hydrogen fuel cell…………………………………………..…1

Figure 1.2: Structure of hydrogen fuel cell………………………………………….…6

Figure 1.3: Principle of Hydrogen Fuel Cell…………………………………………...8

Figure 1.4: Catalyst Preparation………………………………………………...…….10

Figure 1.5: Bipolar Plate Manufacturing………………………………………….….11

Figure 1.6 Quality Control and Testing…………………………………………..…..12

Figure 2.1 Layout of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle……………………………………13

Figure 2.2 Components of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle’s powertrain system…….....14

Figure 2.3 Electrical circuit of DC/DC converter………………………………….....15

Figure 2.4 Brushless DC Motor………………………………………………………16

Figure 2.5 Components of a pressurized hydrogen storage tank…………………..…17

Figure 2.6 Electrical circuit of power electronics controller………………………….17

Figure 3.1 EV’s engine characteristic curve………………………………….………19

Figure 3.2 Fuel-cell efficiency with respect to % of rated power……………………20

Figure 3.3 Fuel cell stack assembly…………………………………………………..21

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

FCVs: Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles

PEM: Proton-exchange membrane
SMR: Steam methane reforming
EVs: Electric vehicles
FCEV: Power electronics controller
HEVs: Hybrid vehicles
PM: Particulate matter
Pt: Platinum
Au: Gold
LCAs: Life cycle assessments
V2G: Vehicle-to-grid
HaaS: Hydrogen-as-a-Service

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENT………………………………………………………………i

LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………….…ii

LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………...…
iii

LIST OF SYMBOLS…………………………………………………………………..v

Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC……………………………………..….1

1.1. The importance of the report…1

1.2. Subject and scope of the report

……………………………………………….2

Chapter 2: POPULAR MEASUREMENT TOOLS IN ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONIC

2.1. Voltmeter

2.1.1 working of principle

2.1.2. Practical application of Voltmeter

2.2 Ampe Kế (Ammeter)

- 2.2.1 Nguyên lý hoạt động

- 2.2.2 Ứng dụng thực tế

2.3 Ôm Kế (Ohmmeter)

v
 - 2.3.1 Nguyên lý hoạt động

- 2.3.2 Ứng dụng thực tế

2.4 Multimeter (Đồng Hồ Vạn Năng)

- 2.4.1 Nguyên lý hoạt động

- 2.4.2 Ứng dụng thực tế

2.5 Oscilloscope

- 2.5.1 Nguyên lý hoạt động

- 2.5.2 Ứng dụng thực tế

2.6 Các công cụ đo lường hiện đại khác

- 2.6.1 Signal Generator

- 2.6.2 Frequency Counter

- 2.6.3 Logic Analyzer

- 2.6.4 LCR Meter

Chapter 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS WHEN

APPLIED IN VEHICLES……………………………………………………………
19

3.1. Characteristics of vehicles using hydrogen fuel

cells………………………..19

3.2. Disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells for electric cars………………………

24

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 3.3. Advantages of hydrogen fuel cells for electric cars…………………………
26

Chapter 4:
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………..30

4.1.
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..30

4.2. Development
orientation……………………………………………………...30

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….34

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. What is a hydrogen fuel cell?

Hydrogen fuel cells offer a clean alternative to conventional fossil fuels, providing
electricity through a chemical process with only water vapor and heat as emissions.
They are fueled by hydrogen, which is not only plentiful in various sources like water,
organic matter, and natural gases but can also be produced in environmentally friendly
or less friendly ways depending on the method used.

Figure 1.1 Principle of Hydrogen fuel cell

For instance, when hydrogen is produced via the electrolysis of water, if the
electricity comes from renewable sources like solar or wind power, the environmental
footprint is small. On the other hand, if the process is powered by energy from fossil
fuels, it will emit carbon dioxide. High-temperature gasification of biomass or coal,

viii
and the use of chemical catalysts to produce hydrogen from sources like natural gas,
also have varying impacts on greenhouse gas emissions.

Most of the hydrogen currently used is obtained from natural gas, resulting in
CO2 emissions as a side effect. However, as technology advances and the push for
greener methods becomes stronger, cleaner ways to extract hydrogen are becoming
more prevalent.

On the application front, hydrogen fuel cells are versatile. They range from
powering small devices to large-scale facilities. In the context of stationary power
generators, fuel cells can provide electricity to buildings, support data centers, and
ensure operations at places requiring constant and reliable power such as hospitals and
remote telecommunication sites. Their efficiency is further improved by their ability to
capture and utilize the heat they generate, which otherwise would be wasted.

Moreover, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), which are being developed as an
alternative to traditional internal combustion engines, can match conventional vehicles
in terms of range. While the current infrastructure for refueling such cars is limited,
with California leading the push, the increasing attention towards sustainable transport
is likely to spur further development.

In terms of cost, while hydrogen fuel might presently be more costly than
gasoline when considering energy content alone, FCVs’ superior efficiency balances
the scale, making running costs competitive over comparable distances. As the
technology matures and production scales up, it is expected that costs will decrease,
making the economic case for hydrogen even stronger.

1.2. Properties of hydrogen fuel cell

1.2.1. Physical properties of hydrogen fuel cell

- Structure and Design: Hydrogen fuel cells are designed with a layered structure,
typically including the anode, cathode, and a proton exchange membrane situated in

ix
between them. Additional layers like gas diffusion layers and bipolar plates are also
integral to the cell's design, affecting its physical attributes.

- Material Durability: The materials used in the construction of the fuel cell,
especially the membrane and electrodes, must be durable and resistant to the chemical
reactions that occur within the cell, as well as to the operating environment, which may
involve vibrations, temperature fluctuations, and humidity changes.

- Electrical Conductivity: The electrodes must have high electrical conductivity to

effectively collect and transport electrons.

- Proton Conductivity: The membrane must allow for the easy passage of protons
while being impermeable to gases such as hydrogen and oxygen.

- Physical Size: The size of fuel cells can range from very small, like those used in
portable electronics, to much larger sizes used in stationary power generation systems
or integrated into vehicles.

- Density: This refers to the compactness of the cell's components. It needs to be

optimized to ensure there is enough reactive surface area while maintaining a form
factor that is suitable for the intended application.

- Thermal Stability: Fuel cells must withstand the heat generated during operation
without degrading. For PEM fuel cells, this is typically up to 100°C, while other types
of fuel cells can operate at much higher temperatures.

- Mechanical Strength: The cell must be mechanically robust to withstand pressure

differences across the membrane and ensure a sealed environment to prevent gas leaks.

- Weight: In mobile applications like vehicles, the weight of the fuel cell stack is a
crucial factor, as it impacts the overall efficiency and range of the vehicle.

- Corrosion Resistance: Components within the fuel cell must resist corrosion from
the electrochemical environment to maintain longevity and performance.

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1.2.2. Chemical properties of hydrogen fuel cell

Hydrogen Reactivity:

- Hydrogen is a highly reactive element that readily forms compounds with most
non-metal elements due to its electron configuration.

- In a fuel cell, hydrogen gas (H2) is supplied to the anode side where it
encounters a catalyst, typically platinum, that facilitates its dissociation into hydrogen
ions (protons) and electrons.

Catalytic Properties:

- The catalyst at the anode causes the hydrogen molecules to split into protons and
electrons (2H2 → 4H+ + 4e−).

- The catalyst must possess the ability to adsorb hydrogen molecules, dissociate
them, and then desorb the resultant ions and electrons efficiently.

Ionization Energy:

- Hydrogen has a relatively high ionization energy, requiring a catalyst to assist

in ionizing the hydrogen by lowering the activation energy of the reaction.

- This ionization is essential to create a flow of electrons, which is the electricity

generated by the fuel cell.

Electrolyte Selection:

- The electrolyte must permit only the positive ions (protons) to pass through it,
preventing electrons or gas cross-over.

- It needs to be chemically stable in the presence of H+ ions and have high ionic
conductivity to minimize voltage losses.

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 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions:

- At the anode, hydrogen oxidation occurs (oxidation reaction), while at the

cathode, oxygen reduction happens (reduction reaction).

- The overall reaction in the cell is exothermic, meaning it releases heat energy
along with electrical energy.

Electron Affinity:

- Oxygen has a strong electron affinity, which drives the reduction reaction at the
cathode (O2 + 4H+ + 4e− → 2H2O).

- A catalyst is usually applied to the cathode as well, to overcome the energy

barrier for the reduction of oxygen.

Electric Potential Difference:

- The difference in electric potential between the anode and the cathode creates
a voltage that can be harnessed to do work.

- The standard electrode potential for hydrogen is 0 V, which sets a reference for
measuring the potential of other electrodes.

Water Formation:

- The product of the overall chemical reaction in a hydrogen fuel cell is water
(H2O), which is environmentally benign.

- Since the overall reaction involves combining hydrogen and oxygen to form
water, it's essential that the cell operates under conditions that allow for water to be
efficiently managed, either through evaporation or proper channeling away from the
cell.

Thermal Properties:

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 - The exothermic nature of the reactions within the fuel cell requires effective
thermal management to ensure stable operation and maintain efficiency.

Chemical Stability:

- Long-term operation of a fuel cell requires materials that remain chemically

stable in the presence of hydrogen, oxygen, and water vapour.

- Electrode and electrolyte materials must resist corrosion and maintain their
integrity over the lifespan of the fuel cell.

1.3. Structure of hydrogen fuel cell

Figure 1.2 Structure of hydrogen fuel cell

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 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM): Also known as the polymer electrolyte
membrane, it is the core component of the fuel cell. It only allows positive hydrogen
ions (protons) to pass through and blocks electrons.

Electrodes (Anode and Cathode): The anode is the negative side where hydrogen
molecules are supplied and split into protons and electrons. The cathode is the positive
side where oxygen molecules combine with electrons and hydrogen ions to form water.

Catalyst Layer: Typically made of platinum, the catalyst is placed on both the
anode and cathode sides. It speeds up the reactions at the electrodes.

Gas Diffusion Layer (GDL): Sandwiched between the catalyst and the bipolar
plates, GDL ensures even distribution of reactant gases over the surface of the catalyst
and facilitates the removal of water produced in the reaction.

Bipolar Plates: These plates serve dual functions - as the conductor of electrons
that are pulled from the hydrogen molecules at the anode side to the external circuit,
and from the external circuit back to the cathode side, and as a means to distribute the
gases across the cell surface. They also separate individual cells in a series to create a
stack.

Flow Channels: Embedded within the bipolar plates, these channels guide the
hydrogen and oxygen gases to the anode and cathode, respectively, and allow for the
removal of water and heat.

1.4. Working principle of hydrogen fuel cell

On one side of the fuel cell (cathode), hydrogen gas (H2) is split into
protons and electrons by a catalyst. Only protons can pass through the plastic
membrane (PEM) to the other side of the battery (anode). Electrons (electrons)
cannot pass through the plastic membrane.

The negatively charged electrons move towards the positively charged side
and form an electric current.

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 This electric current can operate a device that consumes electricity, such as
an electric motor. At the anode protons, electrons and oxygen combine to create
water.

Figure 1.3 Principle of Hydrogen Fuel Cell

1.5. Hydrogen fuel cell manufacturing

1.5.1. Hydrogen battery production process as fuel

The energy source and production method used to create molecular hydrogen are
the criteria for determining the color of hydrogen. Hydrogen itself is a colorless gas but

xv
there are about nine color codes to identify hydrogen. The color codes of hydrogen
refer to the source or process used to create the hydrogen. These codes are green, blue,
gray, brown or black, turquoise, violet, purple, red and white.

Blue hydrogen is derived from fossil fuels, however, CO2 is captured and stored
underground (carbon sequestration). Because it does not emit CO2, blue hydrogen
production is classified as carbon neutral. Capturing and storing carbon dioxide instead
of releasing it into the atmosphere allows positive hydrogen to become a low-carbon
fuel. The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal
gasification, both of which involve carbon capture and storage. Blue hydrogen is a
cleaner alternative to gray hydrogen, but is expensive because it requires carbon
capture technology.

Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy

sources. Green hydrogen is considered low-emission, or zero-emission, hydrogen
because it uses energy sources such as wind and solar power, so it does not emit
greenhouse gases during electricity production. Green hydrogen is created when water
(H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). Water splitting is also known as
electrolysis, and requires an input of energy. The powered method of water splitting is
an expensive process, but much more environmentally friendly than the production of
gray hydrogen.

Grey hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels and typically uses steam methane
reforming (SMR). During this process, CO2 is produced and eventually released into
the air. More succinctly, gray hydrogen is hydrogen produced using fossil fuels such as
natural gas or coal, which accounts for about 95% of the hydrogen produced in the
world today. The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal
gasification. Both of these processes release carbon dioxide (CO2). If CO2 is released
into the atmosphere, hydrogen is produced called gray hydrogen. Gray hydrogen is not
considered a low carbon fuel.

1.5.2. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Production Process

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 The initial stage in crafting hydrogen fuel cells is the acquisition of foundational
elements vital for their assembly. These include precious metals like platinum for the
reactions at the electrodes, polymers for the electrolytic interface, and carbon
substances for constructing the bipolar plates. Securing these components typically
involves partnering with diverse suppliers who are expected to deliver materials of
exemplary quality to be suitable for crafting efficient fuel cells.

Next up is the preparation of the catalyst, often platinum-based, that's

quintessential for the internal electrochemical activities that fuel cells execute. This
catalyst undergoes a sequence of refinement procedures to amplify its reactivity and
assure its constancy within the cell. Following refinement, the catalyst is meticulously
deposited onto the electrodes through advanced techniques ensuring an even and
effective coating.

Figure 1.4 Catalyst Preparation

The core of the fuel cell is the Membrane Electrode Assembly, or MEA for short.
This assembly entails the electrolyte membrane fused with electrode layers coated in
catalyst. The fabrication of this part is delicate, with precise dimensions needed to

xvii
match the configuration of the fuel cell stack. Once completed, it serves as the critical
juncture for the fuel cell's operation.

We then move to the production of bipolar plates. These structures play a dual
role; they are the conduits for reactant gases and also facilitate electrical connectivity
across the cells. Fashioned from corrosion-resistant and featherweight carbon
compounds, the plates are crafted through techniques like pressing or machining to
include specified pathways that aid in the distribution of hydrogen and oxygen.

Figure 1.5 Bipolar Plate Manufacturing

Constructing the actual fuel cell stack involves the assembly of numerous
individual cells. This is done by systematically layering MEAs, bipolar plates, and
other components, ensuring they're secured together while preventing any leaks with
sealing materials like adhesives or gaskets. The aim is to construct a high-performing
stack with streamlined management of gases and coolant cycles.

Furthermore, a fully operational fuel cell system incorporates additional

components dubbed as the Balance of Plant (BOP). These entail systems to supply
hydrogen and oxygen, humidifiers to manage moisture, coolants to regulate
temperature, and intricate power electronics to manage the output. Integrating these

xviii
elements is crucial for the system’s holistic functioning, ensuring all parts
communicate and function seamlessly.

Of course, no production cycle is complete without stringent quality controls. At

each stage, the components and final assemblies are inspected and tested against set
performance criteria. It involves both visual examination and rigorous electrical
evaluations. Any unit that fails to meet the benchmarks is removed and replaced to
uphold the overall quality.

Figure 1.6 Quality Control and Testing

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 Finally, once the inspection and testing phase is solidified with passing marks, the
fuel cells are dispatched for integration into their respective fields. They might power
vehicles, serve as backup generators, or energize portable gadgets. Each fuel cell
system is linked to its allied systems, such as air supply, hydrogen storage, and power
regulation units, heralding the advent of an operational and proficient hydrogen-driven
technology.

CHAPTER 2: AUTOMOBILE APPLICATIONS

2.1. Layout diagram and working principle:

Figure 2.1 Layout of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle

The kinetic energy for driving the car’s wheels does not come from batteries. The
source of this energy is from fuel cells.

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 There is a reverse electrolysis process that takes place in a fuel cell when
hydrogen (H2) reacts with oxygen (O2). Hydrogen comes from one or more tanks in the
car while oxygen comes from the surrounding air. This reaction creates electrical
energy, heat and water which emisses as steam – with no emissions such as carbon
dioxide/monoxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons… at all.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + energy + heat

The electricity generated in a fuel cell has two ways to go, depending on the
requirements of the working condition. It runs to the electric motor and directly drives
the vehicle, and/or it charges the battery that has a role as temporary storage used for
when power is needed assisting for driving, like accelerating. This battery is
continuously recharged by the fuel cell.

Like other electric vehicles (EVs), hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles, so-called
fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) can also recover braking energy. During this
process, the electric motor converts the braking energy back into electrical energy and
charges the battery.

2.2. Components on the powertrain:

The powertrain system of FCEVs includes some components that used to

converting energy from hydrogen into electricity for driving:

xxi
 Figure 2.2 Components of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle’s powertrain system

Battery (auxiliary): used on electric drive vehicles, has the low voltage (12V) with
two main functions:

- Supplies electricity to start the vehicle before activating the traction battery,
similars to the starting function on internal combustion engine vehicle.

- After starting the car, it acts as a power source for the vehicle's electrical loads
(accessories) such as lights, air conditioning, windshield wipers, etc. Its low voltage
ensures the functionality of the electrical loads similars to that of traditional vehicles.

Traction battery pack: This high-voltage battery stores energy generated from
regenerative braking and provides supplemental power to the electric traction motor.

DC/DC converter: is an electrical circuit with the function of regulating the voltage
and located near the auxiliary battery. It converts high voltage DC power from the fuel
cell or traction battery pack into low voltage DC (12V) to recharge the auxiliary

xxii
battery, assists it in running electrical load and accessories. In addition, it also serves
the function of fuel cell boost converter (used in Toyota Mirai). It is a new technology
with high efficiency and capacity that allow the fuel cell stack voltage to be amplified
to the higher voltage (about 650 V) as the output.

Figure 2.3 Electrical circuit of DC/DC converter

Electric traction motor: drives the car's wheels by using power received from the
fuel cell and the traction battery pack. In some vehicles, this motor is capable of
handling regeneration functions (braking energy recovery). The brushless DC motor is
applied in FCEVs. They have the advantages of high power-to-weight ratio, high
speed, almost instantaneous speed (rpm) and torque control, high efficiency and low
maintenance costs.

xxiii
 Figure 2.4 Brushless DC Motor

Fuel cell stack: is made up of individual membrane membrane electrodes

assembled, using hydrogen and oxygen to react with each other to produce electricity,
providing energy to charge the batteries and drive the wheels.

Fuel tank (hydrogen): Stores hydrogen gas and supplies this fuel to the fuel cell
when needed.

xxiv
 Figure 2.5 Components of a pressurized hydrogen storage tank

Power electronics controller (FCEV): controls the flow of electrical energy

supplied by the fuel cell and traction battery, as well as the torque and speed which is
produced by the electric traction motor. In general, it optimally controls both fuel cell
stack output under various operational conditions and drive battery charging and
discharging.

Figure 2.6 Electrical circuit of power electronics controller

xxv
 Thermal system (cooling): using coolant to absorb heat from these components and
carry that heat away to prevent overheating, maintains a proper operating temperature
range of the fuel cell, electric motor, power electronics, and other components. In
FCEVs, it has a crucial role because when the temperature is too high, hydrogen can
easily cause a dangerous explosive reaction.

Transmission (electric): transfers power from the electric traction motor to drive
the wheels, creates transmission ratios. Since FCEV uses electric energy, its gearbox
/transmission is also the one used on electric vehicles.

The powertrain of FCEVs has many differences between the powertrain of an

electric vehicles (EVs) and is somehow similar to that of hybrid vehicles (HEVs) .
Although both EVs and FCEVs use electricity to drive the vehicle, FCEVs produce
electricity using hydrogen-powered fuel cells, instead of just taking energy from
storage batteries like EVs. Instead of that hybrid vehicles (HEVs) using only gasoline
and electric power sources quite independently, FCEVs use a combination of these two
fuel sources at the same time.

xxvi
 CHAPTER 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROGEN FUEL
CELL WHEN APPLIED IN VEHICLE

3.1. Characteristics of vehicles using hydrogen fuel cells:

In general, Hydrogen fuel cell technology is not limited to passenger cars but can
also be applied to buses, trucks, trains, and even ships and aircraft. In aspect of
passenger car, currently in the world, most major automobile manufacturing companies
such as Daimler Chrysler, Honda, Toyota, BMW… have researched, developed and
published car models powered by hydrogen fuel cells. Due to its outstanding
advantages as well as its ability to be applied to many fields, its potential is becoming
more developed. Each brand of FCEVs has different characteristics and features, so in
this report, we will take a representative example of the Toyota Mirai – one of the best
fuel cell cars in the world, to describe their characteristics when applied to vehicles.

Acceleration performance: The acceleration when starting to drive (from 0 to 100

km/h) is within 9.6 seconds and overdrive in 3.0 seconds (from 40 to 70 km/h). The
reason is that the characteristic curve of FCEV’s engine is equivalent to the
characteristic curve of EV’s engine. This curve shows that the engine generates very
high torque as soon as the vehicle immediately start to drive.

Figure 3.1 EV’s engine characteristic curve

27
 Energy conversion efficiency (%): Fuel cells typically achieve energy efficiencies
ranging from 40% to 60%. Nonetheless, by harnessing waste heat, it's possible to boost
efficiency to as high as 85%. The loss of efficiency exists due to electricity creation in
the fuel cell stack and a small amount in the electric power transmission system.

Figure 3.2 Fuel-cell efficiency with respect to % of rated power

The fuel cell stack assembly: the assembly includes these components: fuel cell
stack, auxiliary components (hydrogen circulation pump, etc.), and the fuel cell boost
converter.

28
 Figure 3.3 Fuel cell stack assembly

 The fuel cell stack: assembled by 330 Polymer Electrolyte fuel cells and the
voltage of each cell is 1.23V at 25°C. The stack can generate a maximum power of
approximately 114 kW (equivalent to 155 DIN hp). With that ability, it can drive the
car at the maximum speed of 178 km/h.
 Fuel cell boost converter (4 phases): in addition to the function of converting
high voltage from the fuel cell stack into low voltage (12V) supply to accessories,
Toyota has improved the function of adjusting higher output voltage (650V) to the
wheel drive motor , improve vehicle performance in response to various load modes
and higher load capacity than without fuel cell boost converter.

29
 Figure 3.4 Electrical circuit of fuel cell boost converter

High-pressure hydrogen tank: there are 2 tanks that can contain hydrogen with
nominal working pressure of 70 MPa (700 bar). It is estimated that with full filled tank,
car is capable of driving for 550 km, according to New European Driving Cycle
(NEDC).
Hydrogen can be compressed at different pressures depending on the intended
use. For example, in fuel cell vehicles, hydrogen is typically stored at pressures of 350
and 700 bar. The pressure of 350 bar is suitable for vehicles with shorter ranges, while
the pressure of 700 bar is used for vehicles with longer ranges. This allows for greater
storage capacity in the same volume, helping to optimize the vehicle's performance and
range.

Electric traction motor: can generate a maximum power of 113 kW (154 DIN hp)
with maximum torque of 335 Nm.

Refueling time: the refueling process for Toyota Mirai is quite fast, approximately 3
minutes.

30
 Lifespan: The fuel cell stacks are typically designed to have a lifespan ranging
from approximately 150,000 to 200,000 miles, equivalent to roughly 5 to 10 years of
usage.

Table 3.1 Comparison between fuel types.

(The table below describes information on the comparison of energy density

(kWh/l), energy cost (US $/kWh) and US $/liter gasoline equivalent for different fuel
types, in which includes Hydrogen)

It can be seen that all types of hydrogen have the energy density, meaning the
amount of energy stored in a given mass, that is generally lower than both gasoline and
diesel. In aspect of the cost of fuel used to generate 1 kWh of energy, statistics show
that all hydrogen fuels are more expensive than gasoline and diesel, depending on their
production methods.

31
3.2. Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Electric Cars

Compared to cars with internal combustion engines:

- Hydrogen fuel cells offer higher energy efficiency compared to traditional

internal combustion engines. The performance of the output power of a car using the
internal combustion engine is affected by many external factors such as loss through
friction, heat loss,... and loads through many components in the mechanical driveline
( torque converter, transmission/transaxle,...). These factors causes the vehicle’s
efficiency to only be about 20% - 30%, while this one of FCEVs is up to 40% - 60%.

- Vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells can cover distances comparable to or

even greater than gasoline vehicles on a single refueling.

- Operating with less noise and providing a smoother driving: Regular

automobiles typically generate noise levels ranging from 65 to 75 decibels, while diesel
buses can reach up to 100 dB. In contrast, fuel cell passenger vehicles operate at much
quieter levels, ranging from 50 to 60 decibels, comparable to the sound of a refrigerator
humming or an ordinary spoken voice. That contributes to reduce the possibility of
noise pollution - a type of pollution that originates mainly from vehicles.

- High acceleration: As mentioned in the characteristics of FCEVs, this type of

vehicle has the ability to accelerate much faster than traditional vehicles due to engine
characteristic curve is similar to that of electric vehicle.

- Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other polluting emissions: instead of

using traditional vehicles, which will emit many types of gases that pollute the
environment such as NOx, CO, CO2, particulate matter (PM), soot…, using FCEVs
only emits heat and water vapor. Therefore, FCEVs are more environmentally friendly
and contribute to the mitigation of climate change.

- Economy and Cost:

32
  Although the initial cost for a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle may be higher
than for an internal combustion engine or electric vehicle, the production costs
for hydrogen and fuel cells are expected to decrease significantly due to
technological advancements and production scaling.
 Both governments and automotive corporations are investing in the
research and development of hydrogen fuel cells to improve efficiency and
reduce costs. Therefore, it is likely that in the future, this type of vehicle will be
encouraged to be used and from there, its price will gradually decrease.
 In addition, the simple structure of the powertrain system will make
repair and maintenance of FCEV more economical.

- Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other polluting emissions: instead of

using traditional vehicles, which will emit many types of gases that pollute the
environment such as NOx, CO, CO2, particulate matter (PM), soot…, using FCEVs
only emits heat and water vapor. Therefore, FCEVs are more environmentally friendly.

Compared to EVs/BEVs:

- Faster charging time: FCEVs can charge hydrogen in a fairly short time (3
minutes to fully charge). Meanwhile, electric cars take a very long time to fully charge
the battery (more than 30 minutes for 1 charge).

- The batteries in FCEVs are usually much smaller than BEVs. It is used
primarily to boost power during acceleration, other peak power demands, and
regenerative braking. Hence, FCEVs are superior to BEVs in terms of time required to
recharge, as well as cost and weight of the battery.

- Although the efficiency of FCEVs is quitely lower than that of BEVs, they have
a higher range and are more durable at high speeds, making them suitable for long-
distance driving.

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 Figure 3.5 Efficiency of different types of vehicles versus design range

- According to experts, FCEV fuel cell vehicles also have great potential, even
surpassing BEV pure electric vehicles in terms of emissions reduction. FCEV vehicles
emit clean water during use, showing that it is also considered as a green vehicle that
protects the environment.

3.3. Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells Cars:

Infrastructure and costs:

- Construction of hydrogen charging stations: meeting the demand for hydrogen

charging can pose major challenges in terms of cost, maintenance as well as the
application of safety measures for charging stations.

- Storage and transportation: Hydrogen has a lower volume density than other
fuels, which means hydrogen takes up more space for the same amount of energy. This
makes it difficult to transport hydrogen, especially over long distances, as large and
expensive tanks or pipelines are needed. Hydrogen can be compressed to increase its
volume density to overcome this problem, but this requires energy and special
equipment. Another method is to cool the hydrogen to a liquid form, reducing its mass
and making it easier to transport and store. However, this also requires a lot of energy

34
and special equipment, as well as maintaining the extremely low temperatures (-253
°C) required for liquid hydrogen.

- Cost of Green Hydrogen production: Currently, most Hydrogen is still produced

from fossil fuel sources such as natural gas, emitting greenhouse gas (CO 2). Hydrogen
production from renewable sources is estimated to be nearly two to three times more
expensive than Hydrogen from natural gas due to the high cost of electrolysis (0,136$ -
0.268$ and 0.073$ respectively for generating 1 kWh of energy). However, it is
expected that this cost will decrease in the future due to advances in Hydrogen
regeneration technology.

- Cost of fuel cell stack production: parts on the fuel cell stack are made of
expensive materials such as platinum (Pt) and gold (Au), which are used in the polymer
electrolyte membrane fuel cell. Therefore, the cost of the fuel cell stack will be
increased.

Safety ensuring:

- Hydrogen has a very wide flammability and can start burning at low
concentrations in air. It can ignite at concentrations from 4% by volume and continue
to burn up to 75% by volume. Hydrogen combustion can reach an entropy of -286
kJ/mol. To handle hydrogen safely, training in the process and proper use of equipment
is required.

- Asphyxiation hazard: Because hydrogen gas is lighter than air, it can displace
oxygen in poorly ventilated or confined spaces. This can cause suffocation if proper
precautions are not taken.

- Toxic hazard: Mainstream hydrogen gas is not toxic, but impurities that may be
present in hydrogen such as ammonia and hydrogen sulfide can pose a health hazard if
exposed to them.

- Leak hazard: The small and light characteristic of hydrogen atoms makes them
easily rise into the air during charging, escaping from the container containing them.

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Hydrogen can leak from tanks, pipes and other equipment. If it is not detected and
controlled promptly, a hydrogen leak can pose a fire hazard and an asphyxiation
hazard.

- Hydrogen embrittlement: refers to a decrease in the ductility upon hydrogen

absorption of a metal. Due to their tiny size, hydrogen atoms can penetrate metals
easily. Once inside, hydrogen weakens the metals’s resistance to stress, causing cracks
in the metals to form and spread, leading to embrittlement. This phenomenon is
frequently observed in steel, as well as in alloys of iron, nickel, titanium, cobalt, and
other metals. As a result, steel pipes transporting hydrogen can become brittle and
break. This is only safe when hydrogen is mixed with natural gas at a ratio of 5% to
10%. However, to transport pure hydrogen, pipelines must be modified or replaced
with specialized pipelines.

Figure 3.6 Hydrogen causes the crack in a toughened steel

Compared to cars with internal combustion engines:

- Less safety: Hydrogen is highly flammable if it is exposed to sparks or heat

sources and dangerous to human life if it is not stored and handled carefully. Therefore,
the operation of Hydro charging stations is also more complicated than gasoline/ diesel
stations. The responsible person must have qualifications and experience in handling

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hydrogen or other high-pressure gases, as well as be responsible for storing fuel
purchase records.

Compared to EVs/BEVs:

- Less efficiency: despite having higher efficiency than vehicles using internal
combustion engines, FCEVs cannot overtake EVs/BEVs with efficiency up to 85% -
90% of the output capacity due to heat loss during the generation of electricity and the
process of transmitting electricity from the fuel cell stack to many other electrical
devices. Electric vehicles have this advantage because they do not have the process of
generating electricity themselves, so this loss can be reduced.

High costs due to external factors: It is estimated that the level of detriment of
FCEVs are 72%, while BEVs are only 20% since the process of electrolysis, along
with the storage of liquid hydrogen at ultra-low temperatures and transportation to
charging stations contributes significantly to the increase of cost of this vehicle.

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 Chapter 4: CONCLUSION

4.1. Conclusion

The report provides a comprehensive overview of the development and

application of hydrogen fuel cells in the electric vehicle sector. Starting with a basic
introduction, such as the definition and working principles of hydrogen fuel cells, the
report covers detailed physical and chemical properties, as well as the structure and
specific operational principles.

Further exploration of the hydrogen fuel production process and how it is

generated for use in the automotive field enlightens about the integration capability of
clean energy in modern electric vehicles. In the automotive application section, the
adaptability of fuel cell technology and the key components in the drive system are
discussed, highlighting the transformative potential for the auto industry.

The next part focuses on the peculiar characteristics when implementing

hydrogen fuel cells in cars, including both their advantages and disadvantages. Clearly,
the report points out that while there are challenges to be addressed, such as fuel
infrastructure issues and high initial costs, the benefits of pollution reduction and
creating a clean, renewable energy source are significant.

In conclusion, hydrogen fuel cells hold an important role in the future of electric
transportation. If technical and economic challenges can be overcome, hydrogen could
provide a sustainable energy solution that shapes a new direction for the electric
vehicle industry and contributes to combating global climate change.

4.2. Development orientation

- Infrastructure Development: Developing a comprehensive hydrogen distribution

and refueling infrastructure is critical. This entails strategically installing hydrogen
refueling stations, especially along highways and in urban centers, to ensure
accessibility and convenience for FCEV users.

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 - Technological Advancements: Continual innovation is required to improve the
efficiency and durability of fuel cell stacks. Advancements in materials science could
yield more robust and cost-effective catalysts and membranes, significantly impacting
the economic feasibility of fuel cells.

- Sustainable Hydrogen Production: Shifting the hydrogen production mix

towards greener methods is imperative. This project must champion the generation of
hydrogen using water electrolysis, powered by renewable energy sources such as wind,
solar, or hydroelectricity, thereby producing 'green' hydrogen.

- Regulatory Framework and Policies: Developing favorable policies that support

hydrogen infrastructure investment, FCEV incentives, and research funding. Long-term
regulatory support will create a conducive environment for technology adoption and
industry growth.

- Market Integration: Establishing partnerships with automotive manufacturers

and energy companies to integrate hydrogen fuel cells into mainstream vehicle
production lines. This transition should also consider the retrofitting potential of
existing vehicle fleets to maximize market penetration.

- Public Engagement and Education: Public education campaigns are essential to

reshape perceptions about hydrogen safety and environmental benefits. Knowledge
dissemination can be achieved through test-drive programs, informational workshops,
and collaborative initiatives with educational institutions.

- Supply Chain Optimization: Developing a reliable and cost-effective supply

chain for hydrogen production, storage, and distribution components, including
pipelines, storage tanks, and transportation modules.

- Safety and Standards: Establishing stringent safety protocols and industry

standards for hydrogen handling and FCEV maintenance. This will ensure consumer
confidence and regulatory compliance.

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 - International Collaboration: Engaging in global partnerships to share best
practices, standardize regulations, and co-develop international markets for hydrogen
fuel cell technologies.

- R&D Ecosystem Development: To encourage innovation, there's a need to

cultivate an ecosystem for research and development that includes universities,
startups, and established companies. Research grants and incubator programs can
stimulate the creation of new technologies and applications for hydrogen fuel cells.

Life Cycle Analysis and Environmental Impact: It's critical to carry out
comprehensive life cycle assessments (LCAs) of FCEVs to ensure that their
environmental impact, from hydrogen production to vehicle disposal, is fully
understood and minimized. Projects should not only focus on tailpipe emissions but
look holistically at the 'well-to-wheel' analysis.

- Co-Development of Use Cases: Beyond personal cars, hydrogen fuel cells could
be applied to a wide range of transport sectors, including commercial trucking, marine,
and aviation. Diversifying into these areas can significantly increase the volume of
hydrogen use and drive down costs.

- Hydrogen Storage Technology: Innovations in hydrogen storage are required to

increase the energy density, thereby enabling longer ranges and more practical
applications in various vehicle sizes and classes.

- Integration with Smart Grids: As renewable energy becomes more prevalent,

hydrogen can play a significant role in energy storage and grid stabilization. Projects
should explore how FCEVs can integrate with smart grid technologies to provide grid
services and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capabilities.

- Addressing the Bigger Picture: It's important to recognize that hydrogen is not
just an energy carrier for mobility. As part of a broader energy context, hydrogen can
contribute to the decarbonization of industrial processes and heating, which can
promote its production and distribution on a larger scale.

40
 - Evolving Business Models: There should be innovative business models that
can facilitate the growth of hydrogen fuel cells in transport, such as Hydrogen-as-a-
Service (HaaS) to ease the upfront costs for end-users.

- Formulating Strategic Partnerships: Forming strategic alliances with key

stakeholders across the value chain, from energy suppliers to OEMs, can streamline
advancements and reduce integration challenges.

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https://skill-lync.com/student-projects/components-properties-of-
the-fuel-cell

[2] Kartik Jain, Karan Jain (2021). “ Hydrogen Fuel Cell: A Review
of different types of fuel Cells with Emphasis on PEM fuel cells
and Catalysts used in the PEM fuel cell”. IJARESM
Publication.pp. 1012-1025.

[3] Saikia, Kaustav; Kakati, Biraj Kumar; Boro, Bibha; Verma, Anil
(2018). "Current Advances And Applications Of Fuel Cell
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[4] Keith Scott, Lei Xing (2012). "3.1 Introduction". Fuel Cell
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[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_electrode_assembly,
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[6] Espinoza, Mayken (2015). "Compress effects on porosity, gas-

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(11): 1528–1536

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[7] King RO, Rand M. 1955, ―The hydrogen engine‖ Canadian
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