CHAPTER ONE

Managing the Transition from High School to University

1.0. Introduction

The process of change from high school to university education is a critical occurrence in the
academic life of freshmen. If properly managed, it can lay a solid foundation for university
students’ academic achievements throughout their academic career. If, however, the newly
enrolled students are not adequately prepared and guided about their new circumstances as
well as what is expected of them, they are likely to make serious mistakes which eventually
impact negatively on their academic success leading to unnecessary frustrations and later
unfulfilled future professional career expectations or dreams. University education presents a
new academic environment to first year students which is different from high school
including meeting certain obligations and displaying a certain level of maturity all of which
are a precondition for a fruitful academic career. Instead of viewing their time out of lectures
and tutorials as ‘free’ time, for instance, students should develop practical study skills and
self-management techniques so that time is not wasted on unproductive activities. This
implies that first year students’ adjustment from high school to university needs to be
properly managed by equipping them with relevant study skills, independent learning
strategies, time management as well as informing them about how to get the best out of
university learning modes.

1.1.Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, students should be able to

 Develop independent learning strategies.

 Prepare their own study time-table.
 Appreciate the benefits of using different learning modes of learning at university.
 Manage time effectively in order to strike a balance between academic activities and
other obligations.

1.2. What is Independent Learning?

The term independent learning can also be referred to as ‘self-directed learning’, ‘learning
how to learn’ or ‘self-regulated learning’ (Meyer et al 2008). It means different things to
different people and it is conceptualised in different ways across cultures and fields of study.
Independent learning can be defined as a process during which learners develop values,
attitudes, knowledge and skills needed to make responsible decisions and take appropriate
actions in their academic work. As independent learners, students should take responsibility
in managing their studies.

The self-management by students can be an insurmountable challenge unless university staff

makes a deliberate effort by creating ‘opportunities and experiences that encourage learner
motivation, curiosity, self-confidence and self-reliance, and is based on the understanding by
learners of their own interests and valuing of learning for its own sake (Meyer et al
2008:15). This implies that university staff and lecturers in particular should consistently
work with first year students by imparting in them the knowledge about how best they can
develop skills and attitudes that make them self-sufficient and self-regulated learners.

While in high school teachers play a major role in students’ learning by reminding them of
due dates, checking on progress as well as telling them when and what to study, university
learning demands that students should study and complete assignments independently, plan
their workload, meet deadlines and organise their time all of which need discipline, maturity,
commitment and responsibility. When students become independent learners, it means they:

 Can take control of their learning.

 Can decide what they need to know and how they are going to study.
 Have an understanding of their own chosen approach to learning.
 Are able to get maximum benefits from their chosen approach to learning.
 Are able to work with others in order to expand their frontiers of knowledge in
the different degree programs and courses they are taking.
 Still appreciate the need to seek assistance of those facilitating their learning
(Ashford and Cummins, 1993) including lecturers, tutors and teaching assistants.
 Demonstrate a certain level of learner autonomy.

Equipping first year university students with independent learning skills provides them
with good foundation not only for their first year studies but also for more demanding
academic endeavours like projects, dissertations research papers and theses. It is,
therefore, important for students to learn to appreciate that they should take an active
role and demonstrate a certain level of learner autonomy in their academic studies in
order to enhance their academic achievements.

The kinds of tasks one might do as part of independent learning include:

 Reading and thinking about some of the books and articles on reading lists ,
and perhaps making notes.
 Talking about aspects of your subject with others on your course.
 Reviewing lecture notes and hand outs.
 Working with a specialist tutor to improve your academic studies.
 Reading on topics in preparation for forthcoming lectures.

The accomplishment of these tasks makes students self-motivated and confident in

their learning leading to academic achievement.

1.3. Benefits of Independent Learning

The merits of independent learning include the following:

1. It urges students to take responsibility for their learning and be actively involved in
other learning activities since they will be capacitated to make thorough prior
preparations.
 2. It gives students a certain level of autonomy in their learning thereby sharpening
their decision making skills.
3. Students are able to learn at their own pace which suits their own personalities and
abilities.
4. Independent learning motivates students to learn and encourage reflection.
5. It fosters critical thinking skills.
6. It encourages students to use their initiative.
7. Independent learning fosters time management skills in students.

2.0.Time Management Skills

In endeavour of life, time is such an important resource which cannot be recovered if it

has been misused. Within the first few day of university education, the majority of
students realise that time management is one of the most difficult experiences considering
the amount of work they will be confronted with. Given the fact that at high school time
tabling is done for them by school authorities, first year students will normally be lacking
in time management skills. At university, students do have a lot of ‘free’ time outside
lectures, seminars and tutorial sessions which is put to unproductive activities if it is not
properly managed.

Time management is a self-management skill which freshmen need to acquire and

practise on a day to day basis in order to get maximum educational benefits from their
studies. Students are confronted with numerous tasks with multiple deadlines which can
only be net if time is managed wisely. For students, time management entails allocating
their time to different academic activities including independent study as well as social
activities and abiding by the demands of time schedules. ‘Effective time management
(actually) means there is time to do what needs to be done and what we would like to do’
(A New Students Guide Queensland University). It is in other words a skill which one
needs to learn and it involves prioritising a number of activities as well as a series of
decision making processes, organising and planning.

To effectively manage their time, students should begin by compiling a list of all the
activities they need to accomplish on a day to day basis. They should then be involved in
some balancing act in order to allocate time equitably to the different activities including
study, research, writing assignments, recreation, physical fitness, lectures, tutorials resting
while bearing in mind that the greater part of their academic work is done outside the
designated formal learning situations. Students should draw time tables which they
strictly follow without unnecessary flexibility if their time management is going to be
beneficial to their learning and well being. This can only be achieved if students are
disciplined, goal oriented and responsible.

2.1. Time Management Strategies

 Some of the hints that can assist university first year students in time management are as
follows:
1. Demonstrate that you are organised by writing down everything you have to do so
that you keep focused.
2. Build your schedule around your commitments.
3. Make sure in your time allocation, justice is done to all the courses you are studying.
4. Make use of ‘off hours’ for study. Those scattered one or two hour free periods
between lectures are easily wasted instead of putting them to productive use.
5. Prioritise your coursework especially if you are on a tight deadline and cannot finish
your work in time.
6. Do not study all the time in order to avoid confusion arising from information
overload.
7. During tests, work on the highest return on investment.
8. Study as soon after lectures as possible when lecture material is still fresh in your
mind.
9. Abide by your time schedule.
10. Study no more than two hours on any course at a time and take a break between
courses in order to keep your efficiency.
11. Find a regular place which is conducive for study in order to avoid disturbances.
12. Always remember that as a human being you have social life which also needs to be
taken care of for you to be able to refresh your mind and be reinvigorated in
preparation for arduous academic activities.

CHAPTER TWO

ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

2.0. Introduction

The ability to use verbal language in order to communicate ideas in an academic context is a
skill whose significance should not be overlooked during first year students’ transition
process from high school to university education. Hughes and Large (1993) found out that a
number of students have a level of oral communication considerably discrepant from their
written communication. This observation implies that there is a need for oral communication
skills to be prioritised university students. The acquisition and sharpening of oral
communication skills by students adequately prepares them for interaction with other
academics in different learning encounters and this enhances academic achievement.

2.1.Defining Oral Communication Skills

Oral communication is a skill which students need to learn and be able to utilise in numerous
academic contexts in order to enhance their academic performance. In fact besides cases in
which university students are involved in their own independent study, the majority of other
learning situations requires them to tap into their oral communication skills. Such situations
include lectures, tutorials, seminars and small group discussions where effective and fruitful
learning depends on their ability to effectively express themselves in conversational
interaction on different topics with lecturers, tutors and fellow students. Whilst schools play
their part in preparing university students for communication at university, it needs to be
acknowledged that ‘in entering the new and perhaps daunting environment and culture of a
university, students may need to redefine themselves and so may experience a loss of
confidence’ (Crosling (n.d):2). This implies that first year students need to improve their oral
communication skills in order to suit new academic demands.

For students to be able to actively participate in their learning and be able to attain good
results in their degree programs, students need to have sharp oral communication skills.
According to Rahman (2010:3)‘at its basic level, oral communication is spoken interaction
between two or more people.’ It is, in other words communication between at least two
people by means of the spoken word or language.

According to Crosling (n.d):3)‘oral communication is a broad area ranging from listening,

understanding and responding, giving oral presentations to participating in teams and team
leadership. This comprehensive definition tries to capture a number of important elements of
oral communication by making reference to some of the activities which take place within the
process of conversational interaction. These include listening, sharing meaning and giving
appropriate responses, interpersonal and group communication as well as opportunities for to
give oral presentations. The definition also clearly highlights the interface between oral
communication and listening skills and this signifies that to be effective in oral
communication, one also needs to be a good listener.

In academic contexts particularly at university, oral communication entails conversational

engagement in formal learning situations like lectures, tutorials and seminars between
students, lecturers and tutors where interlocutors express opinions, make arguments, offer
explanations, debate or discuss academic issues. In addition, oral communication also finds
space in informal academic contexts, for instance, in interpersonal contexts or small group
discussions between students outside formal academic situations.

Oral communication is a unique and learned rhetorical skill which does not come naturally
like every day conversational speech. It requires that speakers should understand what to say
and how to say it. Equipping first year university students with this skill makes it possible for
them to be able to deliver effective oral presentations as well as contributing meaningfully in
discussion groups, seminars, tutorials and other academic activities. Students who lack
effective oral communication skills are generally reluctant to engage others in academic
conversational interaction especially in formal situations.

2.2. Some of the Reasons for Students’ Reluctance to Speak in Academic Situations

1. Some students feel nervous to voice their opinions, a condition referred to by Petress
(2001:3) as ‘communication apprehension- a clinical fear of communicating with or in
presence of others.’ This might be as a result of the fear of embarrassment if one’s
idea/opinion proves to be factually misplaced.
2. Having a low self-esteem can also affect one’s ability to effectively express themselves in
oral communication. This may make some students feel that they probably have nothing of
value to share with fellow students leading to failure to participate in important academic
discussions.

3. Some students may be affected by lack of familiarity with the context of the topic at hand
(Drew and Bingham 2001). This should, however, not be viewed as an insurmountable
challenge to deal with since encouraging students to read ahead or prepare adequately for
lectures , tutorials and other interactive learning situations could instil enough confidence in
students for them to be able to actively participate in their learning.

4. The language barrier can also be a serious impediment to students’ ability to

conversationally interact in academic discussions. The language of education in universities
is English, a second language to the majority of the students. Some students have problems in
articulating their ideas in the language and consequently they only participate in discussions
only when they are directly asked to do so.

2.3. Preparing an Oral Presentation

In their academic life, university students experience learning situations which require them
to make oral presentations in the presence of fellow students, lecturers, tutors and sometimes
members of the public. For this reason, first year university students need to be
knowledgeable about the steps they need to follow when they are preparing for an oral
presentation. An oral presentation can be described as a talk which is delivered by a presenter
with a group of people as the audience. Normally an oral presentation has stipulated time
lines which guide the presenter and during the preparatory stage the presenter should take this
into cognisance in order to avoid delivering either a too long or too short a presentation. In
most cases university students get the opportunity to deliver oral presentations during
seminars, tutorials and sometimes at academic conferences.

2.3.1. Steps to follow when Preparing for an Oral Presentation

1. Getting a clear understanding of the assignment

The initial step in preparing for an oral presentation is for the presenter to be well informed
about the assignment. Oral presentations have a specific topic, question or problem which
needs to be addressed. The presenter should clearly understand the given task in order to
prepare adequately for the presentation and gather as much relevant material as possible
bearing in mind that after the completion of the presentation, listeners are normally provided
with the opportunity to ask questions. Related to having clarity on the given assignment is the
fact that the presenter must be familiar with the purpose of the presentation which could
either to inform, persuade or educate. Having knowledge about the purpose of the
presentation assists the presenter determine objectives as well as select use the most
appropriate diction and expressions.

2. Audience analysis
The presenter should bear in mind that the key measure of a good presentation is the reaction
of the audience. For this reason, the presenter must strive to gather as much information as
possible about the nature of the audience to whom the presentation will be delivered. This
will help the presenter to tailor the presentation in order to suit the audience. The process of
audience analysis normally involves finding information about the audiences’ educational
backgrounds, their needs, preferences, their reasons for attending, attitudes, age, sex as well
as socio-economic status. Audience analysis also helps the presenter to have an idea about the
nature of questions could be anticipated from them as well as how far the presenter should go
in terms of depth in the presentation. This will help the presenter to have an idea about
whether or not the audience know anything about the topic. In a nutshell, it is the audience
that determines what the presenter says and how the presentation should delivered.

3. Research

The presenter should gather as much relevant material as possible. The information can be
obtained from a multiplicity of sources including secondary textbooks, research papers, the
internet, interviews, questionnaires, observations or any documented material. It is also at the
research stage that the presenter should think about the most relevant examples which will
give clarity to the issues to be presented on.

4. Audio-visual aids

The presenter should make an effort to find suitable audio-visual aids which make it possible
for him/her to be clearly understood by the audience. Giving a power-point presentation
could be a major option which helps in making the oral presentation effective. Visual aids are
normally of critical importance when making oral presentations because they crystallise
ideas. They also keep the presenter on track as well as generating the interest of the listeners
thereby getting their attention for a long period of time. Audio-visual aids also create mental
images in the minds of the listeners thereby assisting in the retention of information, a feat for
an effective oral presentation.

5. Composition of the presentation

After gathering all the relevant and adequate information, the presenter would now be in a
position to arrange all the material in a way that makes sense of the objectives. The presenter
should ensure that there are logical connections between ideas and examples. It is also at this
stage that the presenter should design hand outs and visual aids.

6. Rehearsal

The presenter should devote a lot of time on practising the presentation. Rehearsals make it
possible for the presenter to be able to make some corrections on certain parts of the
presentation. It also allows the presenter to adjust the presentation in such a way that it is
within the confines of the allocated time. It is also during practice sessions that the presenter
can develop better and more effective ways of describing concepts as well as coming up with
better expressions. In addition, practising an oral presentation allows the presenter to develop
a natural flow which is conversational leading to an effective delivery.
7.Familiarisation with the venue

Before making an oral presentation, the presenter should take time to visit the venue. Failure
to do so can result in the presenter taking much time to get composure on the presentation
day because everything would appear to be new. The presenter should, therefore, familiarise
himself/herself with the set-up of the venue, sitting arrangements for the audience as well as
the kind of equipment that is available. It would also be sensible to test the equipment that
will be used before the presentation is carried out.

2.3.2. Guidelines for Delivering Oral Presentations

For one to be effective as an oral presenter, there are important rules of behaviour that should
guide their demeanour. Most of the behaviours are easily visible to the audience and if they
are not properly managed, they may impact negatively on the effectiveness of the oral
presentations. Some of the issues the presenter needs to consider are:

1. The presenter should maintain eye contact with the audience in order to quickly establish
rapport with them. Good eye contact serves as a warm invitation for the audience to listen to
the presentation.

2. Gestures and movement are important non-verbal cues which should be used in a
spontaneous and natural way to give emphasis to the meaning being conveyed by verbal
messages. They should, however, be carefully used as a means to complement oral messages
instead of contradicting them. Simple movements around the podium by the presenter are
also acceptable when making an oral presentation. The presenter should also take into
cognisance that if they are overused, gestures and movement can distract the focus of the
audience from the content of the presentation to the presenter thereby affecting the delivery
of the message.

3. The presenter should always maintain a good posture throughout the presentation. This
entails keeping an erect but not stiff standing position and showing confidence.

4. The presenter should always maintain an acceptable level of etiquette during the oral
presentation. This entails avoiding distracting physical activities like scratching the head,
biting fingernails and rubbing noise.

5. It is crucial for the presenter to avoid mannerisms that distract the attention of the
audience, for instance, vocal pauses some of which are ‘uhm’, ‘you know’,

6. The ability to pronounce words correctly is of paramount importance since failure to do so

can lead to miscommunication.

7. During an oral presentation, the presenter is expected to manage the voice in a way which
facilitates effective communication, for example, the highness and lowness of the voice can
be used in order to signal the introduction of a new idea.

8. There is a need to be focused on the topic.

2.3.3. Structuring an Oral Presentation

The presenter needs to be clear about the organisational structure of the oral presentation. The
structure of a talk is no different from that of an essay which needs have an introduction,
body and conclusion. These major sections of an oral presentation should not be disjointed
but show clear links.

1.Introduction

This is the roadmap of the presentation which informs the audience the direction the
presentation takes. It is actually a make or break occasion because the impression it creates
on the audience determines the overall response the presenter gets from the floor. A good
introduction draws the attention of the audience as well as making a determination about the
credibility of the presenter. The begins by greeting the audience as well as introducing
himself/herself. This should be followed by clearly stating the topic and briefly explaining
what the presentation is intended to cover. Some of the ways which can be used to introduce
topics are ‘I am going to talk about…’ or ‘Today I am going to talk about…’. It is in the
introduction the main points should be outlined after the presenter has provided the necessary
background to the presentation.

2. The Body

This is the heart and soul of an oral presentation where the presenter develops the main points
as well as providing examples and any relevant evidence. The body needs to be well
structured in such a way that that it becomes easy for the listeners to track the development of
the presentation. A decision has to be made with regard to the principle used to organise the
content of the presentation. Some of the principles used include the chronological order,
theme or order of importance. The links between the major point, explanations and examples
should be clearly demonstrated. It is also at this stage that visual aids can be used in order to
capture the interest of the audience by not only ‘telling’ but also ‘showing’ them. The
presenter should emphasise important information. In order to do this effectively, the
presenter is expected to tell the audience when information is particularly important and
interesting as well as telling them why. This should be done using transitional words which
guide the audience throughout the presentation. The presenter can highlight key points in
order to indicate the different segments of the presentation, for instance, ‘Another point is…’,
‘In addition…’, ‘The next point I want to make is…’, ‘A contrary view to consider is…’ and
‘In conclusion…’.The presenter can also move from one point to the next by using phrases
such as ‘Firstly’, Secondly and Finally. The major points of the oral presentation should be
supported with adequate exemplification.

3. Conclusion

This is usually a summary of the main points raised in the body of the presentation. The
presenter should restate the main points. At this stage, no new information or ideas are not
supposed to be introduced. The presenter needs to take this opportunity to show the audience
that all the relevant points have been understood including working out how best the
presentation should be finished. Some of the expressions which can be used to designate
conclusion include ‘To recap the main points…’, ‘To sum up…’, ‘In conclusion…’

3.0.Types of Oral Presentations

1.Impromtu

This is a type of presentation which is done with very little or no preparation at all. The
presenter can may just be given a topic on which to present to an audience without making
prior arrangements for the presentation. This kind of a presentation demands quick and
organised thinking from the presenter so that the presentation will still be flawless, smooth-
flowing, coherent andeffective.