WEEK 1

Fields and Vector Spaces

Kwok-Wing Tsoi

1.1 Motivation of abstract linear algebra

Linear algebra on Rn in a nutshell
There are many ‘Linear Algebra’ courses on this planet that study

• vectors in Rn where Rn = {(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) : x1 , x2 , ..., xn ∈ R} where we can conduct

References for Week 1
– Addition. This is defined coordinate-wise : FIS Appendix C,
def
FIS §1.1, §1.2, §1.3
(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) + (y1 , y2 , ..., yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ..., xn + yn ).

– Scalar multiplication by R. For any a ∈ R, we define

def
a · (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = (ax1 , ax2 , ..., axn ).

• linear functions L : Rn → Rm given by matrices, more specifically,

L(v) = A · v where A is a m by n matrices.

Limitations of linear algebra on Rn

While this may already offer a wide range of applications. However, just studying Rn and
matrices only are not good enough in multiple ways :

(1) In many occasions, we are not interested in pure vectors, but objects that believe
like vectors. For example, ‘differentiable functions’ f : R → R actually behave like
vectors : adding two differentiable function is still differentiable, and multiplying a
differentiable function by a scalar (a real number) is still differentiable.

(2) Sometimes we may wish to use a different collection of scalars. For example,

• In Chemistry, ‘characters’ are used to help distinguish molecules with different

structures. Rigorously, a character is the trace of a linear function induced by a
symmetry of the molecule on Cn (rather than Rn ).
• In Computer Science, the theory of linear codes are developed by regarding the
space of binary numbers as a vector space with scalar multiplication by F2 (We
will see what F2 means very soon).

1
 Objectives of this course
Therefore, there is a need for us to develop an abstract, algebraic theory of linear algebra
which

(Goal 1) studies not just vectors but objects that behave like vectors (in particular, one can
add and multiply by scalars);

(Goal 2) extends the concept of scalars (not only restricted to real numbers);

(Goal 3) by proving theorems on abstract algebraic structures, we can specialize these abstract
theorems in any concrete examples that we know; instead of proving each individual
case one-by-one.

The objective of this course is to equip you with sufficient theoretical background that
allows you to explore any applications of interests in the future.

Suggestion for readers

As mentioned in the syllabus, this is a course of pure mathematics : it doesn’t mean that
the course is hard but you would need to be mathematically mature to handle and digest
abstract mathematical notions. We suggest readers to

• learn the definitions of the course by heart : some definitions might look very ‘long’
but they are just abstract/humourless ways to write down something that are intu-
itively understandable.

• for each definition, know a few concrete examples and also non-examples by heart :
you should be able to verify why they are or are not examples.

• learn the theorems, learn how to prove them if you can : learning the proofs would
help you to gain insights into the theorems themselves.

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1.2 Fields (=scalars)
First of all, we would like to generalize the concept of scalars. In mathematics, we prefer
to use the term ‘field’ instead.

Definition 1.2.1. A set F is called a field if we can define two operations + and · such
that

(A0) For any x, y ∈ F , we have x + y ∈ F

(A1) For every x, y ∈ F , we have x + y = y + x.

(A2) For any x, y, z ∈ F , we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).

(A3) There exists 0 ∈ F such that x + 0 = x for every x ∈ F .

(A4) For every x ∈ F , there exists x′ ∈ F such that x + x′ = 0.

(M0) For any x, y ∈ F , we have x · y ∈ F .

(M1) For every x, y ∈ F , we have x · y = y · x.

(M2) For any x, y, z ∈ F , we have (x · y) · z = x · (y · z).

(M3) There exists 1 ∈ F such that x · 1 = x for every x ∈ F .

(M4) For every x ∈ F \{0}, there exists x′′ ∈ F such that x · x′′ = 1.

(D1) For any x, y, z ∈ F , x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z.

Indeed, the definition of a field is just a formal way to identify sets where we define
sensibly addition, subtraction, multiplication and division by any non-zero elements
and these operations would satisfy the usual arithmetic rules (commutativity, asso-
ciativity, distributivity).

Example.

Example (Field of two elements).

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1.3 Vector spaces (=spaces that behaves like vectors) Notation alert :
In this notes,
Now we are ready to define the central object of this course : a vector space over a field.
• elements of a vector space
Definition 1.3.1. Let F be a field. A set V is called a vector space over F if we can are denoted in bold (e.g.
endow V with two operations : addition and scalar multiplication by F such that v, u, w, etc),

(A0) v1 + v2 ∈ V for any v1 , v2 ∈ V . • (scalar) elements from the

field are denoted by reg-
(A1) v1 + v2 = v2 + v1 for any v1 , v2 ∈ V . ular letters (e.g. a, b or
(A2) v1 + (v2 + v3 ) = (v1 + v2 ) + v3 for any v1 , v2 , v3 ∈ V . α, β).

(A3) There exists 0 ∈ V such that v + 0 = v for all v ∈ V .

(A4) For each v ∈ V , there exists v′ ∈ V such that v + v′ = 0.

(S0) αv ∈ V for every α ∈ F and v ∈ V .

(S1) α(v1 + v2 ) = αv1 + αv2 for every α ∈ F and v1 , v2 ∈ V .

(S2) (α + β)v = αv + βv for every α, β ∈ F and v ∈ V .

(S3) (αβ)v = α(βv) for every α, β ∈ F and v ∈ V .

Remark.
(S4) 1v = v for every v ∈ V .
We sometimes will abuse the
name and refer
Indeed, the definition of a vector space over a field is just a formal way to identify sets
0 = 0V ∈ V as the ‘zero vector’
where we define sensibly addition and scalar multiplication by elements in the field .
of the vector space V . Readers
Example (Vectors). should not confuse 0V with the
zero scalar 0 = 0F ∈ F from the
field F .

Example (Polynomials).

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Example (Functions).

Example (Matrices).

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 √ def √ VS checklist :
Example. Verify that Q( 2) = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Q} is a vector space over Q.
(A0) Closure under +

(A1) Commutativity of +

(A2) Associativity of +

(A3) Existence of zero vector 0

(A4) Additive inverse

(S0) Closure under scalar mul-

tiplication

(S1) Distributivity I

(S2) Distributivity II

(S3) Asso. between scalars and

vectors

(S4) Identity in scalar multipli-

cation

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1.4 Basic properties of vector spaces
Theorem 1.4.1 (Additive inverse is unique). Let V be a vector space over F . Then for
every v ∈ V , its additive inverse (described in (A4)) v′ is unique. Conventionally, we
denote v′ as −v.

The following properties may seem trivial but as they are not part of the axioms of a vector
space so they need to be proved.

Theorem 1.4.2. Let V be a vector space over F . Then

(1) 0 · v = 0 for every v ∈ V .

(2) For any a ∈ F and v ∈ V , we have (−a)v = −(av).

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1.5 Subspaces
Some vector spaces might be ‘too big’ and be unwieldy to deal with. Therefore, it is often
convenient to look at ‘smaller vector spaces’ inside a given vector space. These are called
subspaces.

Definition 1.5.1 (Subspace). Let V be a vector space over F . A subset W of V is

called a subspace of V if W is also a vector space over F with addition and scalar
multiplication inherited from V .

Example (Trivial Examples). Given a vector space V . Then

• V is a subspace of V itself;

• {0} is a subspace of V . (This is called the ‘zero subspace’.)

Given a vector space V , there is an easy criterion to check whether a subset W ⊂ V is
indeed a subspace or not.

Theorem 1.5.1. Let V be a vector space over F and let W ⊂ V . Then W is a

subspace of V if and only if the following are satisfied

• W is non-empty;

• W is closed under addition : w1 + w2 ∈ W for all w1 , w2 ∈ W ;

• W is closed under scalar multiplication : αw ∈ W for all α ∈ F and w ∈ W .

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1.5.1 Examples and non-examples of subspaces
(I) Subspaces of Rn
Example. Show that {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x + 2y = 0} forms a subspace of R2 .

Example. Show that {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x + 2y = 3} is not a subspace of R2 .

The adjective ‘homogeneous’

More generally, any ‘solution space’ of a homogeneous linear system of equations gives
means that the right hand sides
a subspace of Rn .
of each equation in the system
Theorem 1.5.2. [Subspace of Rn ] Let A be a m by n matrix. Then the ‘solution are all zeroes.
space’
W = {v ∈ Rn : Av = 0}

forms a subspace of Rn .

Proof. This is an exercise.

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(II) Subspaces of polynomial space
Let F be a field and recall that the set of polynomials with coefficients in F .

F [x] = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an xn : n ∈ Z≥0 and a0 , a1 , ..., an ∈ F }

forms a vector space over F . Let’s have a look on what kind of subspaces that F [x] has.
Example (Polynomials of degree at most n).

Remark. The set of polynomials of a fixed degree is not a subspace. For example,
consider the set W of all quadratic (degree 2) polynomials with coefficients in R.
Then W is not a subspace of R[x] because

(III) Subspaces of function space

Let C(R) = {f : R → R | f is continuous.} be the set of all continuous functions with
domain R. Let’s have a look on what kind of subspaces that C(R) has.
Example (Differentiable functions).

Example (Solutions of differential equations). Consider any homogeneous differential

equation, for example,
d2 y dy
2
−3 + 2y = 0.
dx dx

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 More generally, any ‘solution space’ of a homogeneous differential equation gives a Two remarks.
subspace of D(R), as we display below : 1. Indeed we can replace (⋆) in
Theorem 1.5.3 by a system of
Theorem 1.5.3. Suppose we are given a homogeneous differential equation differential equations.
2. In the near future we can
dn y d2 y dy realize that Theorem 1.5.2 and
(⋆) an n
+ ... + a2 2
+ a1 + a0 y = 0; where ai ∈ R.
dx dx dx Theorem 1.5.3 are really cousins
The subset of a much more general result.

W = {y = f (x) ∈ D(R) : y = f (x) satisfy the equation (⋆)}

forms a subspace of D(R).

(IV) Subspaces of matrix space

Let F be a field and fix a positive integer n. Let Mn (F ) be the set of all n by n matrices
with entries in F . This is a vector space over F . Let’s have a look on what kind of subspaces
that Mn (F ) has.
Example (Symmetric matrices).

Example (Upper triangular and diagonal matrices).

Trace of a matrix
Let A ∈ Mn (F ) and write Aij be the (i, j)-th entry of the matrix A.

Definition 1.5.2. Let A ∈ Mn (F ). Define the trace of A

tr(A) = A11 + A22 + A33 + ... + Ann

to be the sum of all diagonal entries of A.

Theorem 1.5.4. Fix a positive integer n. Then the subset of ‘trace-free matrices’

W = {A ∈ Mn (F ) : tr(A) = 0}

forms a subspace of Mn (F ).

Proof. This is left as an exercise. Again in the future we will be able to see this
theorem as a cousin of Theorem 1.5.2 or Theorem 1.5.3.

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1.5.2 Intersection of subspaces
Having seen a lot of examples of subspaces, we finish this chapter with a theoretical result
on subspaces.

At the outset, let F be a field and V be a vector space over F .

Theorem 1.5.5 (Intersection gives subspaces). If both W1 and W2 are subspaces of V ,

then W1 ∩ W2 is also a subspace of V .

Example (Matrices).

Remark. (Warning) Union of subspaces may not be a subspace : if both W1 and W2

are subspaces of V , then W1 ∪ W2 is not necessarily a subspace.

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