FURTHER RESEARCH

1. Where does space begin?

Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above Earth’s surface. The Kármán line, an
altitude of 100 km (62 mi) above sea level 12, is conventionally used as the start of outer space
in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. Certain portions of the upper stratosphere
and the mesosphere are sometimes referred to as “near space”. The framework for
international space law was established by the Outer Space Treaty, which entered into force on
10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of national sovereignty and permits all states
to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the peaceful uses of
outer space, anti-satellite weapons have been tested in Earth orbit.

Illustration of Earth’s atmosphere gradual transition into outer space

1 O'Leary, Beth Laura (2009), Darrin, Ann Garrison (ed.), Handbook of space engineering, archaeology, and
heritage, Advances in engineering, CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-4200-8431-3, p. 84.
2 "Where does space begin?", Aerospace Engineering, archived from the original on 2015-11-17, retrieved

2015-11-10.
 2. When does the satellite start to orbit?
A. Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
The majority of satellites orbiting the Earth do so at altitudes between 160 and 2,000
kilometers. This orbital regime is called low Earth orbit, or LEO, due to the satellites’ relative
closeness to the Earth. Satellites in LEO typically take between 90 minutes and 2 hours to
complete one full orbit around the Earth. Low altitudes in combination with short orbital
periods make LEO satellites ideally situated for remote sensing missions, including Earth
observation and reconnaissance. Fifty-five percent of all operational satellites are in LEO.

B. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

Although over 90 percent of all satellites are situated in LEO (below 2,000 kilometers) and
GEO (near 36,000 kilometers), the space between the two most popular orbital regimes can be
an ideal environment for a smaller subset of satellite systems. Satellites in this middle-of-the-
road region, appropriately named medium Earth orbit, have larger footprints than LEO
satellites (meaning they can see more of the Earth’s surface at a time) and lower transmission
times time than GEO satellites (meaning they have a shorter signal delay because they aren’t
as far away).

C. Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO)

The period of a satellite, or how long it takes to orbit the Earth one time, is dependent on its
orbital altitude. Satellites in LEO, like the International Space Station, take about 90 minutes
to orbit the Earth. Satellites in MEO take about 12 hours to do the same. Satellites orbiting at
35,786 km have a period precisely equal to one day. Satellites in this orbit, known as
geosynchronous Earth orbit, or GEO, observe the Earth as if it were not rotating. Because of
this property, satellites in GEO are constantly in the field of view for approximately one-third
the planet’s surface. While about 55 percent of all operational satellites are in LEO, another 35
percent are in GEO, making it the second most popular orbital regime.

3. When does the satellite start to Deorbiting?

Small spacecraft launched at or around the 400 km altitude naturally decay in under five years,
however at orbital altitudes beyond 500 km, there is no guarantee the spacecraft will deorbit
within that timeframe and some may have trouble deorbiting in under 25 years. This is due to
potential low atmospheric density conditions and the effects on various ballistic coefficients,
as seen in figure below. This graph displays various cases of SmallSats with distinct masses,
drag areas, and initial orbits, under the atmospheric density conditions during the 11-year solar
cycle maximum and minimum.

Initial orbit altitudes yield different lifetimes depending on

the ballistic coefficient of the spacecraft. Three representative area-to-mass ratios
are shown. Note that the propagation stops at 25 years, but the initial altitudes yield even
longer times.

Another important factor that affects orbit propagation in LEO is the spacecraft’s Ballistic
Coefficient (BC). The BC is defined in this chapter as the mass to area ratio multiplied by the
inverse of the drag coefficient, that is assumed to equal 2.2. By this definition, a spacecraft with
a lower ballistic coefficient will decay faster due to the smaller mass to area ratio. As shown in
figure above. a 6U spacecraft with an area of 0.06 m2 and an assumed mass of 6 kg has a
ballistic coefficient of 45, which is significantly lower than a 100 kg spacecraft of 0.5 m2 with
BC of 90.

Since timing the launch for a particular solar weather scenario may not be feasible, another
strategy for satellite operators to comply with orbital lifetime requirements is to decrease their
spacecraft ballistic coefficient or mass to area ratio. Deorbit technologies such as drag devices
can effectively increase the spacecraft’s drag area and may become even more important for
spacecraft operations in LEO.

4. What amounts to a mega constellation?

A satellite internet constellation is a constellation of artificial satellites providing satellite
internet service. In particular, the term has come to refer to a new generation of very large
constellations (sometimes referred to as megaconstellations 3 orbiting in low Earth orbit (LEO)
to provide low-latency, high bandwidth (broadband) internet service 4.

5. What are the effects of a mega constellation?

1. Increased Connectivity: Mega constellations, comprised of numerous satellites, can

provide widespread and continuous connectivity, improving internet access,
communication, and navigation services globally.

2. Reduced Latency: With satellites positioned closer to Earth, mega constellations can
decrease latency in data transmission, enhancing real-time communication and internet
browsing experiences.

3. Space Debris Concerns: The proliferation of satellites in mega constellations raises

concerns about space debris and the potential for collisions, which could pose risks to
existing satellites and spacecraft.

4. Light Pollution: Mega constellations may contribute to light pollution, affecting

astronomical observations and potentially impacting nocturnal ecosystems.

5. Regulatory Challenges: The deployment of mega constellations may face regulatory

challenges related to spectrum allocation, orbital slots, and environmental impact
assessments.

3 Henry, Caleb (25 June 2019). "Megaconstellation ventures cautious about deployment milestones".
SpaceNews. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
4 "NSR Reports China's Ambitious Constellation of 300 Small Satellites in LEO". SatNews. 8 March 2018.

Retrieved 24 March 2018. The most visible or at least, the most talked about LEO contenders stem from the
U.S. and Canada, numbering at least 11 with planned satellites to be deployed at around 18,000.
6. International Relations: Mega constellations could impact international relations,
especially if satellite deployments interfere with other countries' space activities or if
regulatory conflicts arise.

7. Economic Opportunities: Mega constellations can stimulate economic growth by

creating jobs in satellite manufacturing, launch services, and downstream industries
benefiting from improved connectivity.

8. Accessibility: Mega constellations have the potential to extend connectivity to remote

and underserved regions, bridging the digital divide and promoting socioeconomic
development.

9. Privacy Concerns: The extensive coverage provided by mega constellations raises

privacy concerns regarding data collection, surveillance, and the tracking of individuals'
activities.

10. Technological Advancements: The development and operation of mega constellations

drive advancements in satellite technology, propulsion systems, and autonomous
spacecraft management.

11. Space Debris Accumulation: Mega constellations increase the risk of space debris due
to the large number of satellites deployed. This debris can pose hazards to operational
satellites, spacecraft, and even the International Space Station (ISS).

12. Astronomical Observations Interference: The large number of satellites in mega

constellations can interfere with astronomical observations, both visually and through
radio frequency interference, impacting scientific research and observations of the night
sky.

13. Impact on Night Sky: Light pollution from mega constellations can disrupt the natural
darkness of the night sky, affecting stargazing experiences and cultural practices reliant
on celestial navigation or dark skies.
 14. Radio Frequency Interference: Mega constellations can cause radio frequency
interference, disrupting communication signals for ground-based radio telescopes,
satellite communication systems, and other radio-dependent technologies.

15. Regulatory Challenges: The rapid deployment of mega constellations may outpace
regulatory frameworks, leading to challenges in managing spectrum allocation, orbital
debris mitigation, and coordination among satellite operators.

16. Environmental Concerns: The manufacturing, deployment, and operation of mega

constellations require significant resources and energy, potentially contributing to
environmental degradation and climate change.

17. Disruption to Wildlife: Light pollution from mega constellations can disrupt nocturnal
wildlife behavior, affecting navigation, reproduction, and foraging patterns of various
species.

18. Privacy and Surveillance Risks: The extensive coverage provided by mega
constellations raises concerns about privacy violations and surveillance capabilities,
particularly if satellite imagery is used for monitoring and tracking individuals or
activities without consent.

19. Threat to Existing Satellite Networks: Mega constellations may pose a competitive
threat to existing satellite networks and traditional telecommunication infrastructure,
potentially leading to market consolidation and reduced diversity in service providers.

20. International Tensions: The deployment of mega constellations could exacerbate

international tensions, especially if satellite deployments interfere with other countries’
space activities or if regulatory disputes arise over spectrum allocation and orbital slots.

6. What is the difference between Airspace and Outer Space?

Air space, in international law, the space above a particular national territory, treated as
belonging to the government controlling the territory. It does not include outer space, which,
under the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, is declared to be free and not subject to national
appropriation. The treaty, however, did not define the altitude at which outer space begins and
air space ends.

7. Is space and infinite resource?

Professor Joseph Silk, Head of Astrophysics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford,
United Kingdom5

We don’t know. The expanding Universe theory says that the Universe could expand forever
[that corresponds to a ‘flat’ Universe]. And that is probably the model of the Universe that we
feel closest to now. But it could also be finite, because it could be that the Universe has a very
large volume now, but finite, and that that volume will increase, so only in the infinite future
will it actually be infinite.

5This interview was conducted in 2001 at ESA's European Space Technology Centre (ESTEC) in Noordwijk, the
Netherlands, during an international workshop to discuss the scientific programme of the Planck satellite.