Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

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Thin-Walled Structures
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Full length article

A novel plug-in self-locking inter-module connection for modular steel

buildings
Nianxu Yang a,b , Junwu Xia a,b ,∗, Hongfei Chang a , Lihai Zhang c , Han Yang a
a
State Key Laboratory for Geomechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
b
JiangSu Collaborative Innovation Center for Building Energy Saving and Construction Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
c
Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The inter-module connection of modular steel building components is key to ensuring the integrity and stability
Modular steel buildings of modular steel buildings. To tackle the existing technical problems of the inter-module connection, especially
Self-locking connections those related to the complex on-site installation process, and ensure installation quality, this study presents a
Self-locking performance
novel plug-in self-locking connection involving a lock cylinder consisting of two horizontal locking blocks, a
Load–displacement curves
locking plate, and an inner insert plate. A series of axial tensile tests were conducted on plug-in self-locking
Design recommendations
inter-module connections by changing the processing and the thickness ratio of different components of the
locking cylinder (i.e. ℎP : ℎC : ℎI ). In addition, mechanical tests were performed to study the axial tensile load
capacity, axial tensile ductility factor, and failure modes of the locking cylinder of the plug-in self-locking
inter-module connection with different configurations. The results show that the weld fracture of the locking
plate and the inner insert plate can result in brittle damage to the connection, when the locking plate and
the inner insert plate are manufactured as a whole, and the self-locking connection is rendered ineffective by
shear fracture of the horizontal locking block. Among all the specimens, the ultimate tensile load capacity of
the lock cylinder of Specimen R70NCB40 can reach around 293 kN with a tensile ductility factor of around
4, showing better mechanical properties. In addition, the thickness ratio of different components of a lock
cylinder (i.e. ℎP : ℎC : ℎI ) plays an important role in governing the mechanical capacity of the lock cylinder
due to its relatively low tensile strength achieved through reducing the thickness of the inner insert plate
(i.e., R70NCB40). This demonstrates a better mechanical performance of the cylinder through fully utilizing
the plastic deformation capacity of different components of the locking cylinder. The recommended thickness
ratio of different components of the lock cylinder (i.e. ℎP : ℎC : ℎI ) is 1:1:0.68. Finally, based on the experimental
and FEM results, an empirical theoretical model for the lock cylinder of a plug-in self-locking connection was
proposed for the design of plug-in self-locking connections in engineering practice.

1. Introduction

A modular steel building (MSB) is a highly integrated building
structure system which is one of the most advanced forms of assembled
steel structure construction [1]. Compared with traditional buildings,
the concept underpinning MSBs is to divide the building into modular
units with rooms as units. Each modular unit integrates structural
components such as beams, columns, and floor slabs, and it also consists
of functional building components and equipment such as enclosure,
decoration, electrical, and plumbing. The modular units can be man-
ufactured in factories and then transported to construction sites for
assembly [2]. MSBs have been used in construction of a wide range
of buildings (e.g. as flats, schools, hotels, office buildings, hospitals,
military camps, and industrial bases [3]), while the high degree of
integration of MSBs has led to the development of different forms of
construction with respect to component, structural, and system level
assembly [4]. As the failure of the inter-module connections is one
of the main causes of instability and collapse of the overall modular
structure [5–10], the study of the mechanical performance of the
inter-module connections is important.
The steel inter-module connections include welded connections,
bolted connections and other automated self-locking connections. Ta-
ble 1 lists some typical inter-module connections. Annan et al. [11] pro-
posed an inter-module connection by direct welding of beam–column

∗ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory for Geomechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou
221116, China.
E-mail addresses: yangnianxu1@163.com (N. Yang), xiajunwu100@163.com, xjunw@163.com (J. Xia), honfee@126.com (H. Chang),
lihzhang@unimelb.edu.au (L. Zhang), yanghan2680@163.com (H. Yang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2023.110774
Received 7 November 2022; Received in revised form 8 March 2023; Accepted 10 April 2023
Available online 26 April 2023
0263-8231/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al.
Table 1
Typical inter-module connections.
C.D. Annan et al. [11]
Welded connection
Xia et al. [14]
Bolt-welded connection
Dai et al. [17]
Self-locking connection
members for MSBs, while Deng et al. [12] proposed a method of
inter-module connection for MSBs using welded cover bolts. To avoid
welding work on site, Dhanapal et al. [19] proposed a form of inter-
module connection used only for corner connections. Chen et al. [20]
developed a design method for inter-module bolted connection which
has an independent vertical component (VC) and a horizontal com-
ponent (HC) of the inter-module connection. However, on-site bolted
connection makes modular construction cumbersome. Lee et al. [21]
proposed an inter-module inserted plate bolted connection for channel
beams in which VC and HC of the inter-module connection arise via
beams from adjacent stories, and thereby there is no direct connection
Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774
Deng et al. [12] Chen et al. [13]
Bolt-welded connection
Xia et al. [15] Chen et al. [16]
Prestressed connection
Chen et al. [18]
between columns. In addition, Chen et al. [13] studied an inter-module
connection using a rotatable bolt plate for direct transmission of the
connection force, however the construction space needs to be reserved
on the outside of the node corners and thereby the installation of inter-
mediate nodes cannot be installed directly. Lacey et al. [22] proposed
a form of the inter-module connection using horizontal plates, locating
pins, and high-strength bolts for assembly. The intermediate nodes
have to be slotted into the floor or ceiling for installation, weakening
the floor slab, reducing its stiffness, and affecting the structural in-
tegrity. Xia et al. [14,23] demonstrated a column-bearing interpolating
2
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al.
laminated-beam inter-module connection, in which the vertical com-
ponent (VC) of the inter-module connection and horizontal component
(HC) of the inter-module connection were completed by the plug-in
device with through-bolts and stacked beams for interlocking force
transfer, respectively. Due to the use of tie bolts between the internal
insert and the column for connection, a certain construction space
needs to be reserved for on-site installation, and the side frames and
intermediate connection nodes need to be installed with openings on
the ceiling or floor slab, which weakens the integrity of the floor
slab. Xia et al. [15] proposed an inter-module giant bolt vertical con-
nection node, and the construction required special torque spanners
to complete the vertical giant bolt inter-module connection via the
columns from adjacent stories, which increased the difficulty of con-
struction on site. On-site welding and bolting increased the difficulty
of construction and reduce construction efficiency. To improve the
efficiency of construction, a more automated form of beam–column
node connection was proposed. Chen et al. [16] established a corner-
support inter-module connection system, which uses preload technique
to connect adjacent modules vertically. Dai [17] proposed a plug-in
self-locking inter-module connection, which can be used for corners,
side frames, and intermediate connection nodes. No operating space
is required for the construction process, and the connection device
between modular units is placed in a separate connector to avoid con-
flicts with other structural members. There is no special requirement
for the beam–column section form, but high construction accuracy is
required. Chen et al. [18] proposed a beam–column self-locking inter-
module connection for multi-module unit connection, which contains
corner members, a bottom end plate, a lower mortise and tenon, locking
clips, springs and buckle plates, and other components. Although the
inter-module connection is relatively easy to install, the limited contact
between mortise and tenon results in an uneven force on the corner
members.
The vertical tensile performance of the inter-module connection
between the upper and lower modules is of importance during normal
operation of MSBs. Dai et al. [17] measured the axial tensile per-
formance of inter-module connections with plug-in self-locking joints,
focusing on the diameter and material properties of screw connections.
Zhao et al. [24] found that the axial tensile strength of the inter-
module connections with end-plate type was significantly lower than
their compressive strength. Axial tensile tests and finite element anal-
ysis using ABAQUS software on two inter-module connections with
rotatable bolted plates performed by Chen et al. [25] showed that the
axial tensile forces were mainly borne by the corner joint and the base
plate of the lower rotated section. An empirical tensile bearing capacity
equation for the inter-module connections was also developed based
on edge yielding. The axial tensile tests on corner column connections
conducted by Dhanapal et al. [26] proved that the position of the inter-
module connections can significantly increase the economic efficiency
and the ultimate load capacity of MSBs. In addition, Ding et al. [27]
carried out a series of axial tensile tests on inter-module bolted con-
nections with steel end plates and stiffening ribs welded on the surface
of column. Their results showed that stiffening ribs at the corners and
other parts of the steel pipe could enhance the tensile load capacity of
the steel pipe by about 60%.
At present, inter-module welded and bolted connections are com-
monly used in MSB construction, however, construction quality cannot
be guaranteed due to the complicated process of installation and re-
quired construction space. To tackle this challenge, a novel plug-in
self-locking inter-module connection was proposed. The modular units
were manufactured in the factory, then transported to site, meaning
that is only necessary to lift and center the upper modular unit on the
lower modular unit, which can be installed under its own weight. This
leads to the non-destructive automatic installation of adjacent modular
units, overcoming the construction difficulties of inter-module connec-
tion nodes, and high installation quality of inter-module connections.
Meanwhile, a high degree of manufacturing precision of the inter-
module connection is required, as well as a small installation tolerance.
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Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774
Three sets of axial tensile inter-module connection specimens were
experimentally and numerically studied to explore the mechanical per-
formance and failure mechanism of the proposed plug-in self-locking
connection.
2. Design of novel connection
2.1. Details of the novel plug-in self-locking connection
To overcome the problems of inter-module connection site instal-
lation in MSBs, a new form of self-locking connection was proposed
(Fig. 1). Square steel tubes were selected for the side columns, ceiling
beams and floor beam sections of the modular units, and the ceiling
beams and floor beams were factory welded to the side columns.
The upper and lower locking cylinders of the modular unit were
welded to the upper and lower walls of the column, respectively, while
the lower part of the inner insert (NCJ) was welded to the inner wall of
the column of the lower modular unit. The NCJ was inserted into the
column of the upper modular unit to complete the vertical locking of
the upper and lower modular units, and the horizontal connection plate
(SPLJB) was set on the NCJ to connect horizontal modular units. The
upper modular unit floor beams were laminated to the lower modular
unit ceiling beams with column-column connections for synergistic
force transfer. The upper and lower modular units were prefabricated
in the factory and transported to the construction site where the upper
modular units are lifted and centered on the lower modular units. The
installation was completed by exploiting the self-weight of the modular
unit itself.
2.2. Design of the locking cylinder
To achieve smooth unlocking and self-locking of the connection, the
dimensions of the horizontal locking block (SK), the locking plate (SXB)
and the inner insert plate (NCB) of the lock cylinder were designed and
the geometric model is shown in Fig. 2.
The upper locking cylinder consists of a fixed ring plate (GDHB),
two SKs, a spring, a horizontal slide, and a cushion block. The GDHB
was welded to the inner wall of the upper modular column, and SK was
connected to the inner wall of the upper modular column by a spring,
and SK was confined in the plane by a horizontal slide. The cushion
block was made of synthetic resin, and the cushion block was set with
a certain length of the cylindrical mortise and tenon on the contact
surface of SKs, which was inserted into the pre-set round holes of the
left and right-hand SKs, so that the spring was in a compressed state.
The lower locking cylinder mainly includes SXB and NCB. The SXB
and NCB were processed as a whole from one plate (or SXB was welded
to the upper surface of NCB), and the lower part of NCB was welded to
the inner wall of the lower modular column by using stiffening ribs to
strengthen the connection between the NCB and the modular column.
During the downward movement of the upper modular unit, the
wedge-shaped surface of the lower edge of SK touches the wedge-
shaped surface of the upper edge of SXB, the SXB compresses the spring
along the horizontal slide, the tenons of each cushion block are pulled
from the SK, and the spring pushes SK to complete locking of the
connection when the lower surface of SXB crosses the upper surface
of SK.
2.3. Force analysis: unlocking
To ensure the smooth completion of unlocking, the SXB must always
produce horizontal thrust to the left and right-hand sides of the SKs,
namely 𝛼 ≤ 𝛽, the point B of SXB first contact AD, and then point D of
SK contact BC, the SXB always exerts a horizontal thrust on SK, thus
to complete the unlocking; when the bottom of SXB completely crosses
SK, the locking will be completed under the action of the restoring force
exerted by the spring.
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Fig. 1. Novel plug-in self-locking connection.

When point B of SXB makes contact with AD (Fig. 3(a)), the equi- the frictional force along the AD resisting the SK, 𝐹st is the force
librium conditions lead to, decomposed along the horizontal direction of the lateral force 𝐹t which
is the thrust on the horizontal slide, 𝐹s denotes the force decomposed in
𝐹𝑡 = 𝐹 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
the vertical direction of the lateral force, 𝐹t is the vertical force on the
𝐹𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝐹𝛿 horizontal slide of the SK, 𝛼 is the angle between the wedge plane AD
𝐹𝛿 = 𝑘𝛿 and the horizontal plane, 𝛽 denotes the angle between the wedge plane
(1)
𝐹 ≤ 0.125𝐺 BC and the horizontal plane, k is the Hookean spring stiffness, 𝛿 is the
peak spring compression, and 𝜇 refers to the coefficient of friction on
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
the contact surface.
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝐹𝑡 If the connection is locked, to achieve maximum utilization of
When point D of SK makes contact with BC (Fig. 3(b)), we obtain, the components, assuming b = 2𝑙k +ℎncb , according to the geometric
relationships shown in Fig. 2(c), we obtain,
𝐹𝑡 = 𝐹 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
2𝑙k + 2𝑙ty + 𝑏 = C
𝐹𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 𝐹𝛿
2𝑙k + hncb = 𝑏 (3)
𝐹𝛿 = 𝑘𝛿
(2) a ≤ 𝑙d + a ∗
𝐹 ≤ 0.125𝐺
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 where, 𝑙ty refers to the minimum length of the spring after compression,
𝑙k is the width of the SK, 𝑏 is the width of the lower surface of SXB, a
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝐹𝑡
is the width of the upper surface of SXB, 𝑎∗∕2 is the horizontal wedge
where G is the total weight of one modular unit, F represents the width of SK, 𝑙d is the width of the cushion block, and C is the length of
vertical force decomposed to the individual corner column nodes by SXB in the vertical unlocking direction.
the self-weight of the upper modular unit, 𝐹t is the lateral force Eqs. (1) and (2) describe the stress mode of the contact surface of
decomposed along the AD normal to the vertical force, 𝐹f represents the key components during the unlocking of the lock cylinder: Eq. (1)

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N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Fig. 2. Geometric model of the locking cylinder.

Fig. 3. Sketch of unlocking interface calculation.

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N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Table 2
Classification of connection locking cylinders.
Thickness of Tensile strength Tensile strength Tensile strength
components reinforced equivalent weakened
ℎNCB >hNCB0 =hNCB0 <hNCB0
ℎSXB >hSXB0 =hSXB0 <hSXB0
ℎSK >hSK0 =hSK0 <hSK0

Note: hNCB0 = 𝑇c ∕𝑓 ⋅ 𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐵 , hSXB0 = 𝑇c ∕𝑓𝑣 ⋅ 𝐴𝑆𝑋𝐵 , hSK0 = 𝑇c ∕𝑓𝑣 ⋅ 𝐴𝑆𝐾 , T C is the tensile load capacity of column sections,
f stands for the design tensile strength, f 𝑣 is the design shear strength, ANCB , ASXB , and ASK denote the areas in the
vertical thickness direction of the NCB, SXB, and SK respectively.

Table 3
Details of the specimens used in mechanical testing.
Specimen number ℎC /mm ℎP /mm ℎI /mm b/mm 𝑙k /mm 𝐻ncb /mm 𝐶1 /mm
R70-1 13.2 13.2 15 54.5 19.75 143.2
R70-2 13.2 13.2 15 54.5 19.75 143.2 90
R70NCB40 13.2 13.2 9 54.5 19.75 143.2

Note: hC is the thickness of SXB, hP denotes the thickness of SK, hI is the thickness of NCB, H ncb is the unreinforced height of NCB and H s is the
reinforced height (Fig. 6); C 1 represents the length of SXB in the vertical unlocking direction; b and lk are as shown in Fig. 2(c).

Fig. 4. Locking force of lock cylinder.
describes the force balance of the SXB and SK contact surface when the
upper surface of SXB does not cross the upper surface of SK; Eq. (2) is
the force balance equation for the contact surface between SXB and
SK when the upper surface of SXB crosses the upper surface of SK.
To clarify the geometric relationship between the components of the
self-locking connection, Eq. (3) can be used to describe the geometric
coordination between the components of the locking cylinder.
The core components of the locking cylinder include NCB, SK, and
SXB, according to the forces on the components thereof. The NCB
bears mainly tensile stresses, while the SK and SXB mainly resist shear
stresses (Fig. 4).
According to cross-sectional dimensions of the column and the
forces on the components of the locking cylinder (Fig. 5), the locking
cylinder was designed to have three distinct types: equal-strength,
tensile strength reinforced, and tensile strength weakened connections
(Table 2).
Under horizontal load, the column cross-section has less shear
strength than the NCJ in the horizontal direction, the self-locking
connection is shear-reinforced in the horizontal direction.
3. Experimental testing
3.1. Specimen design
The new connection was designed based on Technical Standard for
Light Modular Steel Structure Combined Houses (JGJT 466-2019) [28]
and Steel Structure Design Standard (GB 50017-2017) [29]. The upper
and lower modular columns were made of a square steel tube with a
cross-section of 150 mm × 150 mm × 8 mm thick. The heights of the
upper and lower modular unit columns were 150 mm and 100 mm,
respectively. The NCJ, SPLJB, and GDHB were also made of square
cross-section steel tubes. The cross-section of NCJ measured 130 mm
× 130 mm × 10 mm thick with a height of 100 mm. Both SPLJB and
GDHB were also formed from a square steel tube, while the cross-
sectional dimensions of SPLJB were the same as those of the corner
column with a height of 20 mm. The cross-sectional dimensions of
GDHB were 94 mm × 94 mm × 20 mm with a height of 30 mm.
Fig. 5 shows the design of vertical inter-module self-locking con-
nection specimens: three specimens were designed by changing the
processing and the thickness ratio of different components of a locking
cylinder (i.e. R70-1, R70-2, and R70NCB40) as listed in Table 3, where,
R70NCB40 denotes a specimen with the design tensile strength of the
locking cylinder which is approximately 30% of the design tensile
strength of the column section, reducing the thickness of NCB by 40%
compared to the R70 counterpart.
Vertical inter-module connection specimens were made from Q345B
high-strength structural steel; to obtain the properties of the steel used
for each component of the connection, the material properties were
tested at the Mechanics Test Center of China University of Mining and
Technology, by using a Z250 electronic universal testing machine for
tensile coupon testing (Fig. 7) based on Metallic materials — Tensile Test-
ing Part 1: Method of test at room temperature (GB/T228.1-2010) [30],
and the mechanical properties of the steel were determined (Table 4).
3.2. Test apparatus and measuring instrument
The connection locking tensile tests were conducted at the State Key
Laboratory of Deep Geotechnical Mechanics and Underground Engineer-
ing, China University of Mining and Technology, using the model MTS-
SHT4605 microcomputer-controlled electro-hydraulic servo-motor uni-
versal testing machine for uniaxial tensile testing of specimens (the
capacity of the testing machine was 60 t). The collet plate welded to
the upper and lower column ends was clamped with the collet of the
servo-hydraulic testing machine, and the LVDT (D1, D2) was used to
measure the nodal domain of the vertical displacement of the upper
and lower columns (Fig. 8). The strain gauge layout is shown in Fig. 9
(DH3816 strain gauges were used).
The specimens were pre-loaded to ensure that all components were
in close contact and to confirm that the test system was able to collect
data properly. A graded force loading mode was used, with each stage
(20% of the yield load) being loaded by 60 kN from the start of the
test to the tensile yield of the connection, when the connection entered
the plastic phase, the connection was loaded at 5 kN per stage for the
purpose of observing the deformation of the connection until its failure
and subsequent destruction.

6
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Fig. 5. Vertical inter-module connection specimen.

Fig. 6. Dimensions of key components.

Fig. 7. Steel material properties: the test device and specimens.

Table 4
Specimen material properties.
Components h (mm) E (GPa) 𝑓y (MPa) 𝑓u (MPa) 𝛿 (%) 𝜀
Column/SPLJB 8 198 325 528 26.1% 0.16
NCJ 10 198 336 540 21.9% 0.12
SK/SXB 13.2 208 315 531 20.3% 0.08
NCB 15 204 346 531 18.6% 0.07

Note: h is the component thickness, E represents the modulus of elasticity of the steel, f y is the yield stress, f u is the ultimate stress, 𝛿%
denotes the elongation at break and 𝜀 is the ultimate strain.

7
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Fig. 8. Test loading device.

Fig. 9. Component strain gauge layout.

4. Experimental results and analysis
4.1. Failure mode
Table 5 lists the tensile resistances of three full-size connection
specimens. The equivalent energy method [31] was used to determine
the tensile yield point of the self-locking connection, and the load
and displacement at the yield point are the yield load and yield
displacement. The NCB and SK of test specimen R70-1 were welded
and the welded connection between NCB and SK was less likely to
reach the ultimate capacity of the connection, and the connection
suffered brittle fracture of the weld in the elastic phase (the bending
deformation was generally small). The welding failure of SXB and NCB
of specimen R70-1 is brittle fracture damage under a small vertical
displacement. To tackle this problem, the SXB and NCB of specimen
R70-2 should be manufactured en bloc. Q345B base material should be
used to enhance the ductility of the connection. To eliminate the effects
of weld fracturing on the mechanical properties of the connection, both
R70-2 and R70NCB40 were manufactured with the NCB and SXB in one
piece.
Specimen R70-1 failed upon fracturing of the weld at the weld
between SXB and NCB, the other two specimens showed elasto-plastic
deformation. The failure was caused by the fracture of SK and no
deformation of the upper and lower columns was found in any of the
specimens. The gap between the upper and lower columns of R70-
1 increased continuously under the tensile load, when the gap was
still small, a bang was heard, the specimen was damaged, and the
test was deemed complete. As shown in Fig. 10(a), the fracture of the

8
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al.
Fig. 10. Tensile deformation modes of connecting components.
weld between SXB and NCB of the self-locking connection caused the
connection to undergo brittle damage and the bending and shearing
deformation of SK and SXB was insignificant. To reduce the adverse
effects of the brittle fracture of the weld, the SXB and NCB of this
R70-2 specimen were cut and processed as a single unit. The gap
between the upper and lower columns of R70-2 increased as the load
increased, when the gap between the upper and lower columns became
9
Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774
larger, the test piece emitted a bang, and it was destroyed. The locking
cylinder was plastically deformed, the SXB was torn along the edge
of the NCB, the SXB and SK were bent and deformed, and finally
SK was sheared and damaged (Fig. 10(b)). Specimen R70NCB40 was
similar to R70-2 during the test, R70NCB40 was weakened in its NCB
to an equivalent 40% of the thickness of R70, the locking cylinder was
deformed plastically, the SXB and SK were deformed in bending and
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al.
Table 5
Locking tensile properties of the connection.
Specimens 𝐹y (kN) 𝐹u (kN)
R70-1 – 174.2
R70-2 245 287
R70NCB40 232 293.2
Note: F y is the load at yield of the locking tensile specimen, F u represents the ultimate load thereof, 𝜇 is the ductility factor thereof, T c is the
tensile design capacity of the specimen.
Fig. 11. Load–displacement curves.
shear, due to a significant reduction in load-carrying capacity of the
NCB compared to R70-2, the SXB was not torn, and significant tensile
necking occurred at the junction of the NCB and the SXB (Fig. 10(c)).
4.2. Analysis of the load–displacement curves
Relative displacement of upper and lower columns was measured
by an LVDT between the columns The load was obtained using the
MTS-SHT4605 microcomputer control electro-hydraulic servo-motor
universal testing machine; the load–displacement curves of the self-
locking connections are illustrated in Fig. 11. During the initial period
of load loading, the load–displacement curves of all three specimens
showed a linear increase, and the test demonstrated a small change
in relative displacement (above and below) during this period. As the
load was increased, Specimen R70-1 underwent weld fracture at 174.2
kN, and the load–displacement curve remained in its linearly increasing
section with no decay in tensile stiffness, and brittle failure of the
specimen. As can be seen from the load–displacement curves, R70-2
and R70NCB40 showed stiffness degradation and significant yielding
at 280 kN and 233 kN, respectively. As the load continued to increase,
the load–displacement curves for R70-2 and R70NCB40 reached peaks
at 287 kN and 293.2 kN respectively, followed by a sharp drop in load,
fracture of SK, and destruction of the specimens; the tensile ductility co-
efficients of R70-2 and R70NCB40 reached 1.41 and 3.95 respectively;
reducing the thickness of NCB could improve the tensile ductility of the
specimen to a significant extent. From the load–displacement curves
of R70-2 and R70NCB40 which can be found that the curves of the
two specimens are similar, and the thinning of the NCB in Specimen
R70NCB40 did not reduce its load-carrying capacity. From the mode
of deformation described herein, it was found that the junction of SXB
and NCB of Specimen R70-2 was torn. From the load–displacement
curve, it can be seen that R70-2 was loaded at the beginning, resulting
in significant stress concentration at the interface of SXB and NCB.
With increasing displacement, the stresses increased at the interface
Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774
𝜇 𝑇c (kN) 𝐹u ∕𝑇c Failure mode
– 25.1% Weld brittle fracture
3.4 693 41.4% Locking block shearing
3.97 42.3% Locking block shearing
between SXB and NCB, along with internal damage accumulation in
the steel that caused internal micro-cracks to continue to penetrate.
The stresses in the steel at the interface continued to increase without
degrading the macroscopic load-carrying capacity of the steel, and the
load displacement of the self-locking connection continued to increase.
Furthermore, with increasing axial displacement, micro-cracks within
the steel at the interface completely penetrated, exhibiting significant
macro-cracks and degrading the axial tensile stiffness of the self-locking
connection. Finally, as the displacement continued to increase, the steel
continued to tear, reducing the axial tensile stiffness and load-carrying
capacity of the self-locking connection until failure of the connection
due to the shear damage of the SK. The junction of SXB and NCB of
R70NCB40 was not torn, and the stiffness of NCB was significantly
weakened due to the reduction of the thickness of NCB, and the tensile
necking of NCB occurred before the SXB reached its ultimate shear
strength, which transferred the possible stress concentration in the SXB
to the NCB in advance.
4.3. Strain distribution and evolutionary patterns
The strains for the three specimens obtained from each of the 14
strain gauges are shown in Fig. 12. Fig. 12(a) demonstrates the strain
on the upper and lower modular columns: both are low and increase
in a quasi-linear manner, indicating that the upper and lower modular
columns remain within their elastic limits, which is consistent with the
weakened specimen design. As can be seen from Fig. 12(b), R70-1 and
R70-2 have a larger thickness of NCB and the strains in the NCB are
elastic and increase linearly. The NCB of R70NCB40 is weakened, the
NCB continues to increase linearly up to 220 kN and it is within its
elastic limit; as the load is increased, the strain on the NCB increases
rapidly, the NCB yields with a significant plastic deformation, which
coincides with the experimental phenomenon: the tensile deformation
and necking of NCB occur at the interface with SXB. Fig. 12(c) shows
the strain on the SK, where the two strain gauges (KY-1 and KY-3 or
KY-4 and KY-6) at the distal end of the deflection point of the SK on
Specimen R70-1 have a small, quasi-linear increase in strain, and the
change in strain at the deflection point (KY-3 or KY-5) is larger, indicat-
ing that although the overall self-locking connection remains within its
elastic limit, and the SK is still deformed. The strains in the SK of Spec-
imen R70-2 and Specimen R70NCB40 implied that both symmetrical
SKs had undergone a significant plastic deformation. Fig. 12(d) shows
the strains in SXB, where the strain gauge wire of SXB was damaged
during the test of R70-1 resulting in a loss of data; the trends in the
strain of SXB of R70-2 and R70NCB40 are the same, and the strains
of XY-1 and XY-2, XY-3, and XY-4 are similar, indicating that SXB
is symmetrically stressed along the long and short axes respectively.
Along its long axis, the SXB exhibits compression deformation, which
manifests itself as the long axis edge of SXB buckling upwards, and in
the short axis, tensile deformation occurs, and the deformation pattern
is consistent with the deformation of the SXB in the test. Fig. 12(d) (2)
indicates that SXB of R70NCB40 is the first to bend and yield in the
long axis at about 165 kN and the first to bend and yield in the short
axis at about 195 kN, which is in line with the bending deformation of
SXB in the test.
10
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al.
Fig. 12. Self-locking connection components.
5. Finite element model (FEM) and analysis
5.1. Detailed FEM development and validation
Herein, the large general-purpose analysis software ABAQUS was
used to model and calculate, and the material proprieties, numerical
geometric parameters and boundary conditions were kept consistent
with the tests, and ABAQUS/Standard was used for the calculation of
the model. The geometric model includes upper and lower columns,
NCJ, SPLJB, GDHB, NCB, and stiffening ribs of NCB, SXB and SK
(Fig. 13). The material was modeled using the von Mises yield criterion,
with bilinear plasticity (Fig. 14). The ABAQUS/Standard model uses
11
Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774
C3D8R cells, with no fewer than three layers of elements in each com-
ponent thickness direction. The sensitivity analysis of the mesh density
was conducted, and the optimal mesh density was selected for each
component to ensure accuracy of the results and reduce the calculation
burden: an element size of 4 mm was adopted for SK/SXB/NCB and
GDHB, and one of 10 mm for the Column/SPLJB and NCJ (Fig. 13). The
‘‘tie’’ constraint was used for the welded parts between the components,
and the contact between the components in the model was set to
‘‘surface to surface’’ contact, where the contact property behavior was
set to ‘‘hand to hand’’, the tangential behavior friction equation was set
to the penalty function with 𝜇 = 0.3. The reference point was set at the
center of the upper and lower column end sections of the finite element
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Fig. 12. (continued).

model and the ‘‘coupling’’ was used to couple the column end sections
to the reference point, and the reference point of the lower column
section was fixed. The loading point was set at the reference point of
the upper column end section, and displacement loading was applied
in the vertical direction. Table 6 lists the technological parameters in
ABAQUS as used in the present FEM. As the welds are not the focus of
the present topic, the numerical model does not consider weld failure.
Fig. 15 shows the load–displacement curves obtained from the FEM
and physical tests respectively. Fig. 16 presents the comparison of the
deformation pattern at ultimate load between the physical tests and
the numerical models. For Specimen R70-2, Fig. 16(b) displays the
stress nephogram at different stages of SXB and NCB, which shows
that a local failure occurs at the interface between SXB and NCB in
the tensile elastic phase of the mechanical behavior of the connection. Fig. 13. Finite element refinement model.

12
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Table 6
Technological parameters (in ABAQUS).
Method of Element Contact Mesh size Boundary Loading Material
calculation type conditions properties.
Surface-to- Normal Hard SK/SXB/ 4 mm RP-1 𝑈z = 40 mm
Surface contact NCB/GDHB
Uz (RP-1) = See Table 4
Standard C3D8R Tangential 𝜇 = 0.3
Column/ 40 mm and Fig. 14
Welded Tie 10 mm RP-2 Fixed
SPLJB/NCJ
RP-1/RP-2 Coupling

Table 7
Locking cylinder parameters of the finite element model.
Model no. Method of Test Component 𝐹SX ∕𝑇C *ℎp ∕ℎp *ℎc ∕ℎc *ℎi ∕ℎi *𝑙k ∕𝑙k
calculation specimen parameters
∙R70 Standard R70-1 I15P13.2C13.2 0.3 1 1 1 1
∙R70NCB40 Standard R70NCB40 I9P13.2C13.2 0.3 1 1 0.6 1

Note: F SX is the tensile load capacity of locking cylinder; I represents the thickness of the NCB, P is the thickness of the SK, and C is the thickness of
the SXB (Fig. 6).

Combined with the load–displacement curve of the self-locking

connection, the yielding load and ultimate load histograms of the test
and finite element are given in Fig. 17. The yield load of Specimen
R70-2 (245 kN) was higher than that of Specimen R70NCB40 (232
kN), but the reserve load capacity of R70-2 (42 kN) was significantly
lower than that of R70NCB40 (61.2 kN), and R70NCB40 demonstrated
a better ductility. R70NCB40 exhibited significant yielding at lower
loads, which could provide an early warning of impending failure of the
structure. The differences between the finite element analysis results
and experimental values are: yielding load (2.6%) and ultimate load
(−4.8%) are within an acceptable range (10%). Moreover, the yield
load of R70NCB40 is not significantly reduced by the reduction of the
thickness of NCB, and the reserve load capacity is slightly increased
after yielding; Fig. 16 shows that the reduction of the thickness of
NCB avoids the risk of the SXB being torn and better balances the
deformation of each component of the locking cylinder.
Fig. 14. Bilinear reinforced material model.
5.2. Analysis of the mechanical behavior of key components

5.2.1. Analysis of the multi-stage force evolution of the self-locking connec-

Fig. 15. Load–displacement curves.
With the increase in deformation the failure-zone expanded, the steel at
the interface between SXB and NCB tore through all stages of loading
of the specimen. As the material properties do not take into account the
damage parameters of the steel, the steel does not tear and continues to
bear load after failure, thus the ensuing finite element analysis results
are greater than those measured experimentally (see Table 7).
tion
To ensure that the components of the locking cylinder can synergis-
tically develop their elasto-plastic strength, it is necessary to ensure that
no component is the first to experience significant stiffness degrada-
tion, simultaneous deformation of key components is preferred. Based
thereon, Specimen R70NCB40 gave full play to the plastic deformation
capacity of each component of the locking cylinder and showed a
good load-bearing capacity, and R70NCB40 was used as a reference
for the self-locking connection, the thickness ratio of the lock cylinder
components (i.e., ℎP : ℎC : ℎI ) of R70NCB40 is 1:1:0.68. A typical load–
displacement curve represented by R70NCB40 is presented in Fig. 18,
and the load–displacement curve is divided into three stages: an elastic
stage, elasto-plastic stage, and failure stage using the yield point of the
load–displacement curve and the ultimate load point as the boundary.
In the locking tensile elastic section, the von Mises stress nephogram
of the connection shows that the stresses in the components of the
connection are distributed more evenly and the plastic deformation
zone is small, only SXB and SK undergo slight bending, and the shear
surface of SK is not significantly deformed. As the load increases,
the load–displacement curve enters the elasto-plastic stage, the tensile
stiffness of the self-locking connection decreases significantly, the yield
region of the key component develops, the ability of the self-locking
connection to resist deformation decreases significantly, the von Mises
stress nephogram indicates that SK and SXB undergo a significant
plastic deformation, and the plastic region develops throughout the
section thickness, forming a plastic hinge along the edge of the NCB.
When the load reaches its peak, the connection enters the tensile
failure section and loses its ability to resist deformation, the plastic
deformation increases until SK is sheared off.

13
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Fig. 16. Stress-deformation: experimental-finite element analysis comparison.

5.2.2. Analysis of forces on key components side of SXB and NCB produces a combined bending moment and shear
Fig. 19 shows the force distributions on the SK, SXB, and NCB. The force, which is the most unfavorable location for the SXB (Fig. 19(b)).
SK was simplified to a simply supported beam subjected to uniform ① SK
load, the SXB was simplified to two symmetrical cantilever beams Shear stress at the support of SK.
subjected to uniform load and the NCB was simplified to a rod subjected
𝜏SK = 𝑃 ∕𝐴SK (4)
to axial force. According to the force-balance equation, the physical
equation and the geometric compatibility condition of deformation, the Bending moment at the mid-point A of SK.
force equation of each component could be determined separately. 2
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑞SK 𝑙SK−l ∕8 (5)
Due to the symmetry of the forces on the two SKs, the forces on
only one SK were discussed (Fig. 19(a)). The intersection of the short 𝜎SK = 𝑀𝐴 ∕𝑊x (6)

14
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Fig. 17. Yield load and ultimate load of a self-locking connection.

Table 8
Stress relationships for components of a self-locking connection.
Damage patterns of weak component Stress relationships
– 𝜏SK = 𝜎max = 𝜎NCB
Cut-off of SK 𝜎max < 𝜏SK , 𝜎NCB < 𝜏SK , 𝜏SK ≥ 𝑓𝑢
Tearing of SXB 𝜏SK < 𝜎max , 𝜎NCB < 𝜎max , 𝜎max ≥ 𝑓𝑢
Neck fracture of NCB 𝜏SK < 𝜎NCB , 𝜎max < 𝜎NCB , 𝜎NCB ≥ 𝑓𝑢

𝜎𝑀 = 𝑀S𝑋𝐵 ∕𝑊CC′ D′ D (11)

Warp height of BE:

4
𝑤B = 𝑞SXB−s 𝑙SXB−s ∕8𝐸SXB 𝐼SXB (12)

③ NCB
Stresses at the intersection of SXB and NCB are:
√
𝜎max = 𝜎M 2 + 𝜏2 (13)
SXB

𝜎N𝐶𝐵 = 𝐹 ∕𝐴NCB (14)

𝛥𝑙 = 𝐹 𝐿∕𝐸NCB 𝐴NCB (15)
Fig. 18. Typical load–displacement curve of a self-locking connection.
𝐹 = 4𝑃 (16)

where F is the vertical load on the self-locking connection, P refers to

The deflection at point A: the support reaction force at the solid end of SXB, CC’D’D denotes the
short axis profile area of SXB, 𝑞SXB is the uniform load on the unilateral
4
𝑤𝐴 = 5𝑞SK 𝑙SK−l ∕384𝐸SK 𝐼𝑆𝐾 (7) cantilever length of SXB, 𝑙SXB is the unilateral cantilever length of SXB,
The shear deformation at the support 𝑊CC′ D′ D is the moment on the mid-section of the SXB, 𝐴NCB denotes
the profile cross-sectional area of the NCB, and 𝐸SXB and 𝐸NCB are the
𝛥SK = 𝜏SK ℎSK ∕𝐺 (8) moduli of elasticity.
where P is the support reaction force of SK, 𝐴SK denotes the area of the
vertical profile of SK, 𝑞SK is the uniform load in the long axis profile at 5.2.3. Design suggestions
the interface between SK and SXB, 𝑙SK−l represents the support spacing The test results and numerical simulation proved that the mechani-
of SK (long axis of SK), 𝑙SK−s is short axis of SK, Wx stands for the cal properties of the self-locking connection R70NCB40 are optimal and
section moment of SK, 𝐸SK is the modulus of elasticity and G is the most economical as the full potential of all three key components of the
shear modulus, 𝐺 = 𝐸∕2(1 + 𝜇), with 𝜇 = 0.3. locking cylinder can be used. That is,
② SXB
Shear stress at support of point O. 𝜏SK = 𝜎max = 𝜎NCB (17)

𝜏SXB = 𝑃 ∕𝐴CC′ D′ D (9) When the dimensions of the locking cylinder did not satisfy the con-
dition described in Eq. (17), the tensile load capacity of the self-locking
The bending moment at interface OO’:
connection was determined by the weakest of the three components
2
𝑀 = 𝑞𝑙SXB ∕2 (10) (Table 8).

15
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 187 (2023) 110774

Fig. 19. Deformation pattern of the components under load.

Table 9
Axial tensile stiffness for a self-locking inter-module connection.
Specimens Tests FEM Theoretical
E (kN/mm) E (kN/mm) Error 𝜑 E (kN/mm) Error
1 134 −19.8%
R70-2 167 (R2 = 0.98) –
(0.78)–(0.88) 150 ∼ 167 (0)−(−10%)
1 128 −36%
R70NCB40 223 (R2 = 0.75) 210 (R2 = 0.92) −5.8%
(0.51)–(0.58) 201–223 (0)−(−10%)

For the tensile strength weakened connection without considering 6. Conclusion

the tensile deformation of the modular column, the relative displace-
ment of the upper and lower modular columns when the self-locking
connection resists tension can be obtained, 𝜑 in Eq. (18) is the overall
offset coefficient of SK (Fig. 19(a)).
𝑆 = 𝜙𝑤𝐴 + 𝛥𝑙 + 𝛥SK
Combining Eqs. (7), (11), (14), and (16) gives:
4 be drawn:
𝑆 = 5𝜙𝐹 𝑙SK−l ∕768𝐸SK 𝐼SK 𝑙SK−l + 𝐹 𝑙NCB ∕𝐸NCB 𝐴NCB + 𝐹 ∕4𝐺SK 𝑙SK−s (19)
To avoid the necessity of welding and bolting at construction site, a
novel plug-in self-locking inter-module connection for MSB involving a
locking cylinder consisting of two SKs, a SXB, and a NCB was proposed.
A series of mechanical tests and numerical simulations were conducted
(18)
to assess the mechanical performance and failure modes of the new self-
locking inter-module connection. The following key conclusions could

( 3 )−1
𝐹 = 5𝜙𝑙SK−l ∕768𝐸SK 𝐼SK + 𝑙NCB ∕𝐸NCB 𝐴NCB + 1∕1.54𝐸SK 𝑙SK−s 𝑆 formance of lock cylinders are the NCB, SXB, and SK. The weld
( 3 )−1
𝐸 = 5𝜙𝑙SK−l ∕768𝐸SK 𝐼SK + 𝑙NCB ∕𝐸NCB 𝐴NCB + 1∕1.54𝐸SK 𝑙SK−s
As the modulus of elasticity of each key component of the lock-
ing cylinder changes continuously with increasing deformation, the
load–displacement relationship of the self-locking connection can be
accurately predicted when all three key components are in the elastic
phase. Eq. (21) describes the axial tensile stiffness of the plug-in self-
locking inter-module connection. The experimental and finite element
results are summarized in Table 9. It should be mentioned that the stiff-
ness degradation from the deformation of each component is ignored,
and deformation of each component modulus is within the elastic
range. By introducing an overall SK offset factor 𝜑, the theoretical
results agree with the experimental results to within an acceptable
tolerance.
• The critical components affecting the axial tensile locking per-
(20) fracture between SXB and NCB can lead to brittle damage to the
lock cylinders. Manufacturing the SXB and NCB together could
(21) avoid brittle fracture of the lock cylinder. In addition, the failure
behavior of the connection can be described as shear damage of
the SK;
• The brittle failure of welded R70-1 occurs during the elastic
stage of the axial tensile load–displacement curve (𝐹 = 174.2
kN). The one-piece cores of R70-2 and R70NCB40, show good
ductility in axial tension. The ultimate bearing capacities of R70-
2 and R70NCB40 are around 287 kN and 293 kN, respectively,
while the ductility coefficients of R70-2 and R70NCB40 are 1.41
and 3.95, respectively. The ultimate load capacities of the three
self-locking connections are 25.1% (R70-1), 41.4% (R70-2), and
42.3% (R70NCB40) of the design tensile load capacity of the
column section, respectively. In addition, this finding shows that

16
N. Yang, J. Xia, H. Chang et al.
the thickness ratio of different components of a locking cylinder
(i.e., ℎP : ℎC : ℎI ) is one of the critical parameters which can affect
the mechanical performance of the connector. The recommended
thickness ratio of different components of a locking cylinder (i.e.
ℎP : ℎC : ℎI ) is 1:1:0.68;
• The specimen with a relatively low tensile strength arising from
the deliberate reduction of the thickness of the NCB (i.e. R70N
CB40) exhibits a better mechanical performance through fully
using the plastic deformation capacity of different components of
the locking cylinder. The load–displacement curve of R70NCB40
can be divided into three stages: an elastic stage, elasto-plastic
stage, and a failure stage;
• Based on the experimental results, an empirical model was devel-
oped by introducing the SK offset factor 𝜑. It shows that the the-
oretical predictions agree reasonably well with the experimental
results.
7. Future work
This study mainly focuses on the locking and tensile performance
of novel plug-in self-locking inter-module connections. Further experi-
mental and numerical studies are required the more fundamentally to
understand the bending resistance of the self-locking connection of the
MSB.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Nianxu Yang: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation,
Software, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Fund-
ing acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
Junwu Xia: Validation, Supervision, Resources, Project administration,
Methodology, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation,
Conceptualization. Hongfei Chang: Visualization, Validation, Soft-
ware. Lihai Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Validation. Han Yang:
Data curation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (52074270) and Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Cen-
ter for Building Energy Saving and Construction Technology, China
(SJXTZD2106) and China Scholarship Council (202006425002).
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