(An International Journal of Geosciences)

Vol. 44, No. 1, 2023

WADIA INSTITUTE OF HIMALAYAN GEOLOGY

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 HIMALAYAN GEOLOGY
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Cover Photo: Recent subsidence events reported in the Joshimath region of Uttarakhand state in the Garhwal Himalaya of India.
(a) Joshimath town Inset Uttarakhand, (b) Damaged house with cracks, (c) Cracks reported in the field,
(d-f) Crack in houses and floor indicating the signatures of subsidence. (Source: Naresh Kumar)
Himalayan Geology, Vol. 44 (1), 2023, pp. 117-129, Printed in India

Gravity survey to delineate the subsurface extension of the Khair-i-Murat Thrust under
the Sub-Himalayas, Kohat-Potwar region, Pakistan

AAMIR ALI1*, ASAM FARID2, UMER FAROOQ AWAN1, YAWAR AMIN 1, WAQAR ALI ZAFAR3,
ANEES AHMED BANGASH1, SAIF ULLAH4
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, 45320, Islamabad, Pakistan
2
Department of Geophysics, Arab Company for Laboratories and Soil, 31952, Al Khobar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
3
DNE, Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 45650, Islamabad, Pakistan
4
Department of Earth Sciences, Khalif University of Science and Technology, 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
*Email (Corresponding author): aamirali.geo@gmail.com, aakgeo82@qau.edu.pk

Abstract: A gravity survey was designed and performed on local geological aspects to delineate the subsurface extension of
the Khair-i-Murat Thrust (KMT) within the Sub-Himalayas, Kohat-Potwar region, Pakistan. A temporary station was
established and the gravity data were acquired in loops. We applied all the necessary reduction techniques to correct the
acquired gravity data within the context of the subsurface extension of KMT. Regional and residual maps were segregated
from the Bouguer anomaly map with the application of an upward continuation technique. Furthermore, a tilt derivative
was applied to the residual gravity field in order to highlight distinct structures. The tilt derivative of the residual gravity
field successfully delineates the subsurface extension of the KMT (≈ 4 km based on this survey data) and also distinguishes
secondary structures. These include two transform faults, splays associated with the KMT, and depressions with low
gravity anomalies representing the accumulation of alluvium deposits over time. A present-day stream channel follows
these depressions and cuts through the KMT via a transform fault. It was also observed that most of the Pliocene strata in the
Siwaliks Group have been eroded from the study area, exposing the thicker Miocene sediments (Rawalpindi Group)
deposited in the Indus foreland basin. Moreover, the interpretation of our gravity models suggests that the basement at an
approximate depth of 7-8 km was not involved in the deformation, revealing a thin-skinned tectonics style in the study area.
Keywords : Gravity anomaly, Tilt Derivative, Sub-Himalaya, Bouguer gravity anomaly

INTRODUCTION
Foreland basins are formed due to the collision of tectonic
plates, where one plate subducts below another, leading to the
development of a regional scale flexure in the subducting plate
(Dickinson 1974; Jordan 1981). The resulting foredeep basins
are wedge-shaped, marking their maximum thickness below
the adjacent mountain range (Aubouin 1965; Jordan 1995).
The collision of the Eurasian and Indian Plates resulted in the
formation of the Himalayan range and adjacent Indus foreland
basin (Yin & Harrison 2000; Yin 2006). This collision has
caused the subduction/thrusting of the Indian plate below the
Eurasian plate to generate volcanic arcs, lithospheric flexures,
foreland basins and axial belts both on its northern and western
margins (Kazmi & Jan 1997; Fig. 1). As a result of collisional
and transpressional movements in both the Indian and
Eurasian plates, the obduction of ophiolites occurred on the
northern and western continental margins of the Indian Plate
(Pivnik & Khan 1996; Kazmi & Jan 1997). Regional
lithospheric loading generated the lithospheric flexures
leading to the development of the Himalayan foreland basin
(Hammer et al. 2013; Farid et al. 2018). The western
Himalayan foreland basin (also called Indus Basin) is
subdivided into Upper and Lower Indus Basin. The Upper
Indus basin in north Pakistan is one of the oldest basins
explored for hydrocarbons (Khan et al. 1986; Jadoon et al.
1999).
The Upper Indus Basin comprises the Kohat-Potwar sub-
basin (sub-divided by the Kalabagh fault) and Punjab plains
(Kazmi & Jan 1997). The Potwar Plateau is further
categorized into Northern Potwar Deformed Zone (NPDZ)
and Southern Potwar Platform Area (SPPA) which are
separated by Soan syncline (Searle & Kahn 1996; Fig. 2). The
NPDZ is characterized by folds, thrust faults, back-thrusts and
triangle zones (Jadoon et al. 1999). Multiple studies have been
conducted to explain the structural style of the NPDZ (Treloar
et al. 1992; McDougall et al. 1993; Jamshed 1995; Jaswal et
al. 1997). However, the structure and tectonics of this zone are
still largely unexplained. One of the basic methods used in
previous research is the seismic reflection technique, which
indicates that the Salt Range Formation of Pre-Cambrian age
played a significant role in shaping the structure of the Potwar
Plateau (Jadoon et al. 1999). The strata are detached from the
basement via a decollement within the Precambrian Salt
Range Formation. The NPDZ is also characterized by the
presence of roof thrusts (Jadoon et al. 1999) which merge with
this decollement zone. This zone is imbricated with emergent
and buried thrust fronts (Jadoon et al. 1997). Also within the
NPDZ, many thrust faults with surface expression end up
blindly into the subsurface and might be extended within the
subsurface. One such example is the Khair-i-Murat Thrust
(KMT).
The Khair-i-Murat Range has been studied in terms of the
spatial extension of the KMT, the geological effects of the
thrust fault on the Kanjoor Dam built in the region, and the
analysis of the outcropping Chorgali Formation, which is a
potential hydrocarbon reservoir. Zafar et al. (2018) delineated
the concealed segments of the KMT from the analysis of the
spatial distribution of radon within the soil and ground water.
Their investigation revealed a consistent trend between the
soil radon values in the exposed and the concealed part of the
KMT (Zafar et al. 2018). Resistivity and gravity surveys were
carried out by Zafar et al. (2020) at the northwestern end of the

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 Fig. 1. Tectonic map of Pakistan (Kazmi & Jan 1997). Blue rectangle map represents the study area.

KMT to study the reasons for seepage from the Kanjoor Dam
present in the study area. The surveys showed a variation from
very small to remarkably high resistivity values indicating
structural or lithological disturbances within the subsurface
(Zafar et al. 2020). This inference was further validated by the
residual map generated from the micro-gravity survey, which
showed disturbance in the gravity values due to shallow
surface features (Zafar et al. 2020).
Awais et al. (2020) investigated the dolomite content of
the exposed Chorgali Formation in the Khair-i-Murat Range,

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Fig. 2. Geological map of Kohat-Potwar fold belt within the Salt Range (Searle & Kahn. 1996). A red rectangle shows the study area.

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Potwar Plateau, Pakistan, using scanning electron
microscopy, X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy, chemical Alizarin red staining and petrographic
analyses. Their analysis showed that the precipitation of
dolomite associated with evaporites occurred in an arid
peritidal environment. Khan et al. (2017) applied an
integrated approach by combining field, petrophysical, and
petrographic data to study the effects of deposition and
diagenesis on reservoirs of the Chorgali Formation, within the
Chorgali Pass, Khair-i-Murat Range. Nevertheless, there is
almost no research work available for the subsurface
extension of KMT using gravity data.
In this study, a gravity survey was planned and
successfully executed to delineate the subsurface geometry
associated with the KMT (Searle & Kahn 1996; Fig. 2). The
survey was designed along 14 profiles with a station spacing
of 250 m. The Salt Range Formation of the Precambrian age
acted as a main detachment for some of the largest structures in

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column summarizing the formations and unconformities present in the region (Jadoon et al. 1999).

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the crust. The strata overlying the Salt Range Formation were
pushed and uplifted along the thrust faults resulting in the
surface exposure of these formations throughout the Khair-i-
Murat Range.
GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING
The Indian Plate exhibited fast movement rates between 130
and 80 Ma after separating from Gondwana (Johnson et al.
1976; Kazmi & Jan 1997). The subduction of the Indian Plate
below the Eurasian Plate started in the Cretaceous, leading to
volcanism and the Kohistan volcanic arc (Searle 1991). This
subduction marked the conversion of the Indian Plate passive
margin into an active margin (Fig. 3). A volcanic arc collided
with the Eurasian Plate after subduction and completely
consumed the leading edge of the Indian Plate (Petterson et al.
1985; Kazmi & Jan 1997) resulting in head on collision of both
plates (Powell 1979).
The fast moving Indian Plate slowed abruptly around 50
Ma due to the continental-continental collision as indicated by
the obduction of the ophiolites along the Indian Plate margin
(Kazmi & Jan 1997; Farid et al. 2018). This emplacement of
thrust sheets and ophiolites led to loading the Indian Plate
margin generating the Indus foreland basin and associated
flexural bulge. Continental collision (Paleocene-Eocene) then
led to rapid uplift generating a regional unconformity marked
by the absence of Oligocene strata (Fig. 3). The collision also
caused regional fault systems, including the Main Boundary
Thrust (MBT) and Salt Range Thrust (SRT), which form the
northern and southern boundaries of the Potwar Plateau (Fig.
2).
The occurrence of the Precambrian evaporites facilitated
the development of thin-skinned tectonic features above the
basement (Butler et al. 1987; Jaume & Lillie 1988; Searle &
Kahn 1996). Together with the SRT, the Salt Range marked
the southern margin of the Himalayan fold belt. Authors such
as Treloar et al. (1992), McDougall et al. (1993), Jadoon et al.
(1995), Jamshed (1995), Jaswal et al. (1997) and Jadoon et al.
(1999) evaluated the complicated subsurface structures in the
NPDZ utilizing mainly seismic reflection data. Jadoon et al.
(1997) evaluated the structural geometries in the
neighborhood of the study area and interpreted a core wedge
above the Precambrian evaporites. Many back-thrusts have
been identified in the area exhibiting flat-ramp-flat geometries
and accommodating considerable crustal shortening.
Figure 1 shows the detailed tectonic map of Pakistan and
the study region. The present study region lies in the NE
Pakistan and has been marked by the blue rectangle in the map.
The stratigraphic succession of the study area is presented in
the stratigraphic column in figure 3, developed after Jadoon et
al. (1999). The oldest formation encountered in the region is
the Salt Range Formation, deposited in a restricted shallow
marine environment above the crystalline basement, and
comprising evaporites (halite and gypsum) and marl. Permian
rocks (Nilawahan and Zaluch Groups) directly overlie the
Precambrian Salt Range Formation with the contact marked
by an unconformity, as Cambrian-Carboniferous rocks are
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missing in the study area. The whole Mesozoic succession is
missing in the study area, during which the Indian Plate
passive margin was transformed into an active margin. The
Paleocene and younger sediments were deposited during the
ongoing collision between the plates. Essentially, the Potwar
Plateau developed during the Pliocene-Pleistocene (Kazmi &
Jan 1997), when the majority of the Siwaliks Group was
eroded, exposing the Miocene Rawalpindi Group at the
surface.
METHODOLOGY
Gravity survey and data analysis
The area was first investigated regarding the feasibility of
geophysical measurements before making a survey plan.
Accordingly, a survey plan was developed and a field
excursion was carried out from 22-28 February 2020 to
acquire data on 14 gravity profiles. The two consecutive
profiles were spaced by 1 kilometer, with each profile oriented
orthogonal to the KMT (Fig. 4). Data were acquired at 224
stations with a station interval of 250 m (Fig. 4, Table 1) using
the CG-5 AutoGrav spring gravimeter, with a resolution of 1
μGal for the gravity data acquisition. A temporary gravity base
station was established in the vicinity of the investigated area,
in the Gali Jagir village. Data were acquired in loops along the
profiles, starting and ending at the base station for 7 days.
Elevation for each station was estimated by keeping the mean
sea level as the reference (datum) using Magellan Triton GPS
with an accuracy of 3 m. An elevation model was developed
after taking the average of 3-5 readings at each station (Fig. 5).
The Oasis Montaj software was used to generate the
subsequent maps from the gravity data.
Table 1. Field equipment and parameters used to acquire the
gravity data.
Field Equipment and Parameters
System CG-5 Gravimeter
GPS Magellon Triton 400
Station spacing 250 m
Total stations 224
Total profiles 14
Profile spacing 1000 m
No. of Base stations 1
No. of cycles per reading 1
No. of readings per station 1
Recording time 60 sec
Gravity Data Reduction
Data reduction methods were applied for detailed analysis and
interpretation of the gravity models. This includes various
corrections, namely, drift, latitude, height and Bouguer
corrections resulting in free air and Bouguer anomaly maps as
mentioned below.
Drift Correction (D.F)
Drift Correction (D.F) was applied using Equation (1) given
by Dentith & Mudge (2014) as:
Fig. 4. Field layout of the study area with gravity stations indicated by red points and the two cross sections used for gravity modeling superimposed on a google
image. P1-P14 are the profiles along which the gravity data was obtained.

Fig. 5. Elevation variation of the study area. The eastern portion has a considerably higher elevation than the western portion.

D.F = D.R x Ts (1) Latitude Correction (L.C)

Where, Ts is the time difference between the base-station
time and the field-observation station time. All observed
gravity readings were corrected accordingly.
Rf – Ri
D.R = x S.C
Tf – Ti
Where, Ri is the initial base-station reading, Rf is the
final base-station reading, Ti is time of initial base-station
reading, Tf is the time of final base-station reading, and S.C is
the scale constant.''
The latitude correction (L.C) was estimated using Equation
(3) given by Dentith & Mudge (2014).
L.C = 0.81215 x sin  x X, (3)
(2) Where, X is the north-south distance of the respective
field station from the base station and  is the latitude value. As
the gravity values decrease from north to south in the northern
hemisphere, the addition or subtraction of latitude correction
depends upon the location of the observation station with
respect to the base station. The latitude correction will be
added to the observed gravity in case the observation station is

122
located south of the base station. Similarly, latitude correction the basement or in the overlying sedimentary rocks.
will be subtracted from the observed gravity in case the
To obtain the regional component of the gravity data, the
observation station is located north of the base station.
upward continuation technique was applied using Equation
Free-Air Correction (F.A.C) (7) given by Kebede et al. (2020) as:
Gravity values have an inverse relationship with the square
distance from the center of the Earth. Therefore, a correction is (7)
required for variation in gravity for elevation. This correction
is known as free-air or height correction. Free-air correction
(F.A.C) is given by Dentith & Mudge (2014) as described in Where, gp is the gravity anomaly of the anomalous
Equation (4). source at the upward continued surface point P, dm is the mass
F.A.C = 0.3086 x h (4) of the source body, xo, and yo are the coordinates for the
anomalous body at a point on mean sea level, and x, y, and z
Where, h is the elevation of the station from the mean sea are the coordinates for the anomalous body at a point on some
level (datum of the study). higher flat surface upward, to which the gravity anomaly has
Bouguer Correction (B.C) been transformed.
Due to the difference in elevation of the datum and In order to highlight the geological variations within the
observation stations, there is either an excess or deficit of subsurface, the regional component is subtracted from the
mass. This will result in over or under estimation of the total Bouguer anomaly field to obtain a residual Bouguer
medium density by the instrument. The Bouguer correction anomaly. The upward continuation at 1000 m results in a
(B.C) is applied to adjust the density variations resulting from smooth field reflecting the subsurface density variation in the
excess or deficit of mass given in Equation (5) (Dentith & deeper subsurface.
Mudge 2014): Tilt Derivative
B.C = 0.04193  x h (5) The tilt derivative (Miller & Singh 1994; Verduzco et al. 2004;
Fairhead et al. 2011; Ali et al. 2014) is defined by Equation (8)
Where,  is the average density of the strata in the study as:
area and is taken as equal to 2.3 g/cm3 based on data obtained
from nearby oil and gas wells (Table 2). The B.A was
Tilt Derivative = tan-¹ ( VDR
THDR ( (8)
estimated using the Equation (6) given by Dentith & Mudge
(2014) as: Where, VDR is the first order vertical derivative and
THDR is the total horizontal derivative. The variations in VDR
B.A = gobs + D.C  L.C  F.A.C + B.C (6) and THDR are dependent on the density of subsurface rocks
Where, gobs is the observed gravity value. and strata. It is a powerful derivative that effectively delineates
the structural edges from the Bouguer anomaly.
Table 2. Densities used in gravity modelling for various Gravity Modelling
lithologies taken from nearby oil and gas wells. Forward modeling was applied to two Bouguer residual
Lithology Age 3
Density (g/cm ) gravity cross-sections, one in the north-south direction and the
Siwaliks Group Pliocene 2.20 other in the northwest-southeast direction (Fig. 4). These
Rawalpindi Group Miocene 2.32 cross-sections were selected to complement our subsurface
Chharat Group Eocene 2.41 structural interpretation and to better define the depth of
Makarwal Group Paleocene 2.50 molasse sediments. Gravity modelling of the residual field is
Nilawahan and Zaluch Groups Permian 2.60 complex due to its non-uniqueness (Blakely 1995; Ali et al.
Salt Range Formation Precambrian 2.10 2014). The geological and geophysical data constrain the
Basement Precambrian 3.00
modelling of subsurface structures in the current study.
Outcrop geology along and close to KMT provided basic data
Regional-Residual Anomalies for subsurface geological formations. Nearby oil and gas wells
The Bouguer anomaly map is the combination of shallow and provided depth, thickness, and density for these geological
deep-seated structural effects. The deep-seated effects are formations. The required densities for gravity modelling are
known as ''regional anomalies'' and shallow effects are known shown in table 2. The depth of the Precambrian rocks is based
as ''residual anomalies''. If the regional effects are removed on regional studies (Jadoon et al. 1999) on the NPDZ, as no
from the Bouguer anomaly, the residual gravity anomaly map well-penetrated basement rocks within the study area. Finally,
can be obtained, representing the density contrast associated structural geometries were obtained by performing iterations
with the shallow geological bodies. A residual gravity map can and calculating the goodness of fit between observed and
reveal a better and more well-defined image of shallow calculated residual Bouguer anomalies, keeping the formation
geological features including the geological structures within densities constant along the sections.

123
 Fig. 6. Bouguer anomaly map generated from the acquired gravity data. The KMT has been marked on the map based on the measured gravity values.

Fig. 7. Distinction of regional and residual gravity anomalies. a) regional gravity anomaly map, b) residual Bouguer anomaly map suitable for interpreting
shallow structural features.

124
Fig. 8. Interpreted tilt derivative of the residual Bouguer anomaly overlaid on a google image. The derivative map reveals the KMT and associated structures. A
subsurface extension of ≈ 4 km can be observed for the KMT on the left side of the stream channel.
RESULTS
The Bouguer anomaly map comprises a range of amplitude
anomalies including both high and low gravity values (Fig. 6).
Higher gravity values were observed towards the east of the
study area and attributed to the presence of high-density rocks
(Permian-Eocene) along the KMT (Fig. 6). The gravity values
decrease towards the west (Fig. 6), where low-density rocks
(Miocene and younger) have greater thickness and are covered
with young alluvium.
The regional gravity map (Fig. 7a) also shows high
gravity values in the east and low gravity values in the west.
These are related to the existence of thick high-density rocks
(Eocene and older) at shallower depths in the east, and low-
density rocks (Miocene and younger) in the west. The residual
gravity map (Fig. 7b) distinguishes the structural features
represented by high and low gravity values. The KMT can be
identified based upon high and positive linear gravity
anomalies (magenta-red colours) due to the presence of high-
density rocks in the shallow subsurface (Fig. 7b). The medium
gravity anomalies (yellow-green colours) appear to correlate
with the surface exposure of Miocene and younger rocks (Fig.
7b). The low gravity anomalies (blue colour) are interpreted to
be associated with depressions representing the accumulation
of alluvium deposits (Fig. 7b).
Figure 8 shows the tilt derivative of the residual gravity
field and highlights multiple features based on the contrast in
gravity values. The striking feature in figure 8 is the linear NE-
SW trending high gravity values associated with the KMT,
along which high density rocks are pushed to a depth near the
surface. Many other high gravity values surrounding the KMT
125
are indicative of the local features associated with it. These
features are interpreted as splays/lineaments arising from the
KMT (Fig. 8). Other striking features are circular and semi-
circular low gravity anomalies associated with the
accumulation of alluvium. A present day stream channel
follows these low gravity anomalies and crosses the Khair-i-
Murat Range along the identified transform fault (Fig. 8). A
subsurface extension of ≈ 4 km can be observed for KMT on
the left side of the stream channel.
The reliability of gravity modelling depends upon
minimizing the differences between the observed and
calculated residual gravity. The best fit model solutions were
determined by reducing the root mean square (RMS) error
between calculated and observed gravity anomalies to less
than 20% of the total dynamic range of the observed gravity
anomaly data obtained for each profile. Figure 9 shows
relatively high gravity values towards the north and low
gravity values towards the south. Relatively low gravity
anomalies are modeled to be associated with the greater
thickness of the molasse sediments and the uplift of the Salt
Range Formation along the thrust faults (Fig. 9). Similarly, the
relatively high gravity values are associated with the presence
of high-density rocks in the shallow subsurface, uplifted along
the thrust faults (Fig. 9). Figure 10 shows variable gravity
patterns, including low and high gravity values. The lowest
gravity value is associated with the maximum thickness of
molasse sediments along the interpreted transform fault
(Fig. 10). The highest gravity value is along the KMT,
where high density rocks are pushed up to a shallow depth
(Fig. 10).
Fig. 9. Observed and calculated gravity anomaly for cross-section I (reference Fig. 4). Densities for various lithologies required for the gravity modelling are
provided in table 2. Uplift of the strata due to faulting and the basement at a depth of approximately 7-8 km can be observed.

Fig. 10. Same as figure 9 for cross-section II (reference Fig. 4) showing thrust faults, uplift of strata and the depth of the basement.

126
DISCUSSION component attributes applied to gravity data are highly
suitable for mapping linear geological structures and detecting
The interpretation of gravity data allows a better
the edges of a particular geological target (Oruç &
understanding of fault geometries, delineating the structural
Keskinsezer 2008). Gosh (2016) studied the subsurface
architecture and evolution of sedimentary basins (Ali et al.
geological heterogeneity in the northwestern part of the
2014). Before interpreting the gravity data, data reduction
Himalaya by applying 3D Euler deconvolution, tilt angle,
must be attained to obtain a processed Bouguer-anomaly data.
horizontal gradient, and horizontal tilt angle attribute to the
The Bouguer anomaly map is a powerful geophysical tool
acquired gravity data. Ali et al. (2014) generated the Bouguer
used for natural resource exploration (oil, mining etc.,), as it
gravity anomaly map for the onshore and offshore region of
reflects the distribution of rock density, enabling the
the United Arab Emirates. They applied vertical derivative,
identification of various tectonic features (Ayala et al. 2016).
total horizontal derivative, Euler deconvolution, and tilt
Residual and regional anomaly maps are generated from the
derivative attributes for structural interpretation and
Bouguer anomaly map to highlight the important structural
geological modeling. Oruç (2011) used the Euler
features. For example, Ghomsi et al. (2021) developed a
deconvolution and tilt angle map generated by taking the first
residual gravity map from observed gravity data for detailed
vertical gradient of the gravity anomaly data of the Kozakli-
analysis of geological and tectonic features using gravimetric
central Anatolia region to detect the depth of the uplifted
forward modeling based on seismic crustal models. Ganguli et
edges.
al. (2019) developed residual gravity, and magnetic anomaly
maps to analyze basin geometry, sediment characteristics, and The current study analyze gravity data using maps of
possible mineral deposition in the southwestern part of the Bouguer anomaly, residual anomaly, and tilt derivative to
Cuddapah basin. delineate the extension of the KMT and the structural features
associated with it. The Bouguer anomaly map distinguishes
Tilt derivative and magnitude of the horizontal

Fig. 11. Rose diagram of the lineaments extracted from satellite data application, a) depicts the regional thrust faults and location of the study area, b) depicts the
KMT and the orientation of the local structures formed due to stresses, c) depicts the frequency and direction of the type of features present in the study
area.

127
the relatively dense, older (Permian-Eocene) rocks from the
somewhat younger (Miocene and younger) rocks (Fig. 6).
This distinction can also be observed in the regional gravity
map (Fig. 7a) extracted using upward continuation. The
variation of gravity values depicted in the residual gravity map
(Fig. 7b) highlights the structural features in the sedimentary
rocks above the basement of the present region. The tilt
derivative attribute effectively delineates the subsurface
extension of the KMT, associated local structures (alluvium-
filled depressions, present-day stream channels, and splays of
the KMT), and any stratigraphic variations in the study area
(Fig. 8).
The strata are detached from the basement and along a
decollement formed in Precambrian evaporites serving as the
floor thrust. The investigated area is part of a core wedge
where Cambrian to Neogene strata is thrusted towards the
foreland between floor and roof thrusts (Figs. 9-10; Jadoon et
al. 1999). The Rawalpindi and Siwaliks Groups are thrusted
and exposed at the surface, with the Siwaliks Group being
completely eroded along the KMT. The overall interpreted
structure seems to be part of a greater thrusted fold/anticline.
In this study, the depth to the basement is interpreted to be 7-8
km on the gravity inversion sections (Figs. 9-10),
characterized by normal faults. It appears to be minimally
involved in the tectonics of the region (thin-skinned
tectonics). The gravity models show the maximum thickness
is associated with the Rawalpindi and Siwaliks Groups, as
both groups were deposited in the foredeep during the
development of the Indus foreland basin. However, some parts
of these rocks have been eroded due to later tectonic activity,
uplift, weathering and erosion. The identified transform faults
are interpreted to have a thrust component due to
transpressional movements (Fig. 10).
The overall direction of the applied stresses and the
resultant lineaments on the surface is mapped by the
application of a time efficient and computationally
economical novel algorithm based on RockWorks package
(see Fig. 11a-c). Results are presented as a rose diagram on a
o
scale of 0 to 360 azimuthal pattern. The lineament patterns
significantly correlate with the results presented in figure 8,
showing the subsurface extension of the KMT and the
associated structural features. Including these results in the
current study reduces the laborious efforts of mapping such
lineaments at the surface for detailed structural analyses of a
particular study area.
Seismologically, recent earthquake events and radon
anomalies near the KMT highlight its seismicity history
(Zafar et al. 2018). In particular, the NPDZ lies near the
densely populated cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. The
KM T has a significant surface expression between
Rawalpindi (20 km southwest) and the Galli Jagir village but
loses its surface expression near the Dulhal village. The
present study identifies the KMT using gravity techniques
(Fig. 8), and shows it to be buried west of Dulhal village along
with its splays, having no surface expression. The residual
Bouguer anomaly and the tilt derivative successfully
highlighted the subsurface expression and associated splays of
128
the KMT (Figs. 7-8). In addition, the tilt derivative also
highlighted the location of stream channels with relatively
high alluvial deposits (Fig. 8). As the NPDZ lies in an active
seismic zone of Pakistan, the current study has implications
for identifying the buried faults that may act as earthquake
sources.
CONCLUSIONS
This study was focused on delineating the subsurface
extension and features associated with the KMT in the Kohat-
Potwar region, Pakistan. Gravity data reduction into residual
Bouguer gravity and Tilt derivative successfully delineated
the subsurface extension of the KMT (≈ 4 km based on this
survey data) and associated structures. These delineated
structural features include two transform faults with a thrust
component (transpressional tectonics) displacing the KMT,
splays associated with the KMT, and depressions representing
the accumulation of alluvium followed by stream channels.
The overall structure resembles a large fold with thrust faults
creating duplex-type structures. It can be inferred from the
results of gravity modelling that the Miocene sediments
(Rawalpindi Group) with maximum thickness are exposed due
to the erosion of the Pliocene strata (Siwaliks Group) and are
believed to reflect the evolution of a developing foreland basin.
Furthermore, the identified basement with a depth of ≈ 7-
8 km is not involved in the overall deformation of the study
area. Towards the objective of the study to delineate the
subsurface extension of the major structural feature KMT, we
can improve the interpretation by applying the terrain/
topographic correction through high-resolution GPS and
DEM data. However, due to the limitations of this study, we
could not introduce the topographic correction up to a certain
radius (Hayford radius) in this paper. In the follow-up study,
we intend to use the global terrain correction formulation
existing in spherical harmonic expansion, which also contain
the far field effect of topography (Braitenberg 2021).
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the Directorate General
of Petroleum Concessions (DGPC), LMKR, Pakistan, for providing
well data and the Department of Earth Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam
University (QAU), Islamabad, Pakistan, which provided the basic
facilities for completing this work.
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 HIMALAYAN GEOLOGY
Vol. 44, No. 1, 2023
CONTENTS
Pages
ROHIT SINGH SAJWAN, VEENA JOSHI, NARESH KUMAR : Assessment of Thoron exhalation
from the soil samples of tectonically active Ghuttu Window region: Radiation health hazard perspective 1-11

HOSSEIN TABATABAEI, MOHAMMAD ABDIDEH : Modeling of Clay mineral distribution

and its effect on Chemical Wellbore Stability (Case study: South West of Iran) 12-20

SOHAN KUMAR, RAFIQUL ISLAM, PRADEEP SRIVASTAVA : A review synthesis on the

proxies to quantify the in-situ weathering in different climate-tectonic settings with special reference to
Himalaya 21-34

SHUBHAM CHOUDHARY, SHRUTI RANA, KOUSHIK SEN : Ultra-hydrous conditions and

local readjustment of magnetite in evolving carbonatitic magma at Sung Valley, Shillong Plateau:
Evidence from fluid inclusions in calcite and presence of manasseite, ferrohogbomite and amesite within
magnetite 35-46

JIA JINLONG, WANG YONGFA, CHEN LIN, LI ZHIGUO, LI ZICHENG, LIU ZILONG :
Effects of drying, CO2, H2O, and CO2-H2O treatment on the acoustic characteristics of marine shales 47-59

MASUMEH HAJ MANUCHEHRI, MEHRAN ARIAN, ALI SOLGI, ALI SORBI : Relative
tectonic activity classification in the Chalus drainage basin, north of Iran 60-70

RAMA HABIBI, MOHSEN POURKERMANI, MANUCHEHR GHORASHI, MOHMOUD

ALMASIAN, HADI JARAHI : The Effects of Quaternary Sediments on Earthquake Acceleration 71-80

MD. MEZBAH- UL- BARI, RUMANA YEASMIN : Paleoclimatic signatures in shales and
mudstones of the Miocene Surma Group and its equivalent Jamalganj Formation in the Bengal Basin,
Bangladesh: a review 81-96

SOHAIB AHMAD, NOOR ZADA AFRIDI, TUFAIL AHMAD, MUHAMMAD IMRAN

SHAHZAD, MUHAMMAD AWAIS : Formation of stress relief discontinuities due to removal of
normal load from foundation rocks, Tarbela Dam, Pakistan 97-105

CHINMAY HALDAR, KALACHAND SAIN : P-receiver function technique 106-116

AAMIR ALI, ASAM FARID, UMER FAROOQ AWAN, YAWAR AMIN, WAQAR ALI
ZAFAR, ANEES AHMED BANGASH, SAIF ULLAH : Gravity survey to delineate the subsurface
extension of the Khair-i-Murat Thrust under the Sub-Himalayas, Kohat-Potwar region, Pakistan 117-129

IHSAN ULLAH LONE, MEENAL MISHRA, RAKESH CHANDRA : Petrological studies of

Bukdang Ophiolite, Shyok Suture Zone, Trans-Himalaya 130-146

Published by Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, 33 General Mahadeo Singh Road, Dehradun 248001, India

ISSN 0971-8966