THE NATURE AND PSYCHOLOGY OF READING

Reading means many things to many people. It can be one of the most
rewarding preoccupations of the individual, expanding his horizons and making it
possible for him to partake of man’s accumulated experiences and achievements though
the ages.
Reading is an active dialogue between the author and the reader, and is the
basic tool for learning in all subjects. It is a skill that helps man to discover the answers
to questions about existence. It stimulates him to further efforts to unravel the
mysteries of nature. Moreover, it takes man into the world of thought and imagination,
an adventure which enables him to acquire a clearer, deeper understanding of reality.
Reading expert explain that reading is a subtle and complex process that
involves five stages: sensation, perception, comprehension, application, and integration.
It is a process of thinking, evaluating, imagining, reasoning, problem solving. The
efficient reader is expected to be able to perform these mental activities with
reasonable proficiency.

Step 1: Word Perception

The ability to pronounce the word as a meaningful until.
Step 2: Comprehension
The skill in making individual words construct useful ideas as they are read in
context.
Step 3: Reaction
A judgment on what the author has said.
Step 4: Integration
The ability to assimilate idea or concept into one’s background of experiences so
that it is useful as part of the individual’s total experiences.

Word perception involves sensation. The eyes see the printed symbols with the
aid of light rays that strike the retina. Together the eyes move in a swift and well
coordinated manner, jumping from word to word in a series of fixations. Reading takes
place when they are constantly in motion.
The distance or the number of words between fixation points is called the span
of perception or recognition span. A good reader makes few fixations and fewer
regressions or backward eye movements. Therefore, his perception span is much longer
than that of a poor reader. Word perception also involves the identification of the
printed symbol and the meaning intended by the author. For example, the reader
identifies the combination of the letters c-a-t as cat and not as cot or cut. The printed
word, then, acts as a trigger to release a meaning which the reader already possesses.
To do this task known as a decoding process, one should possess certain skills. These
skills include the ability to

1. use sight vocabulary and configuration memory

2. use context clues to determine pronunciation and meaning
3. determine pronunciation and meaning through an analysis of the structure or
parts of a word consisting of its root and affixes, and inflected, or derived in
form
4. relate the sound of the spoken word to its visual or graphemic symbol, a
process referred to as phonetic analysis; and
5. use a dictionary to determine pronunciation and meaning of word resistant to
analysis through the use of other skills.

Comprehension requires the fusion of meanings of separate words into a chain of

related ideas. On the literal level, one reads to understand the passage-it main thought,
specific details, sequence, and directions to be followed. The implied level involves
making inferences, sensing relationships, drawing conclusions, and recognizing the
author’s purpose, tone, and feeling. These skills help the reader to grasps the total
meaning of the passage.

Reactions include the ability to judge accuracy, quality, or worth. These

judgments are the result of critical reading and experience. On the emotional level,
reaction requires value judgments, background experience, and the ability to recreate
sensory images. Reaction occurs only when comprehension is fully realized. One’s
reaction is affected by culture. Our reaction toward divorce and free love in different
from the reactions of people of western countries. Culture controls the quality and
quantity of experience available to the reader. Thus, experience becomes the
foundation stone of the reading process.

Assimilation/Integration is determined by the reaction of the reader. If ideas are

accepted, they become a part of his total experience. They are integrated with all
previous experience. On the other hand, wrong concepts are corrected and new
insights are acquired in problem solving.

Rates refers to the speed of recognition, comprehension, reaction, and

assimilation. Rates are flexible. They vary according to the reader’s purpose and the
difficulty of the materials.
Checkpoint
Below are definitions of some terms relates to the reading process. Match them
with the terms in the Word box. Write the letter in the blank before the number

WORD BOX

a. rate g. integration
b. decoding h. phonetic analysis
c. reading i. structural analysis
d. perception j. context clues
e. comprehension k. efficient reader
f. reaction

_______1. A basic tool for learning in all subject areas.

_______2. The ability to recognize and pronounce the word as a meaningful unit.
_______3. The ability to judge accuracy, quality, or worth.
_______4. The fusion of meanings of separate words into a chain of related ideas.
_______5. The ability to assimilate idea or concept into one’s background of
experience.
_______6. The speed of reading which varies according to the reader’s purpose.
_______7. Analysis of word structure according to its roots and affixes.
_______8. Analysis by relating the sound of the spoken word to its visual or graphemic
symbol.
_______9. One who evaluates, challenges, and criticizes reading materials.
______10. The process of changing the printed word or symbol into ideas or
meaningful units.
PROCESSES THAT AFFECT READING

1. Reading is a social process. It is affected by one’ attitudes, loyalties, conflicts,

and prejudices. It is augmented by social acceptance, self-reliance, and
cooperation in a group.
2. Reading is a psychological process. How one feels about oneself and about
others affects the reading process. Emotional stability determines one’s comfort
in the reading situation. Defense mechanisms like inhibitions, repression,
projection, aggression, rationalization, and nervousness are response to anxiety
in all types of situations.
3. Reading is a psychological process. One must be able to focus on a line of print
and move along the line to make return sweeps, note likenesses and differences,
and discriminate figure-ground relationship. One needs skills in auditory and
visual discrimination, verbal expression, syntactical maturity, eye-hand
coordination, and motor skills to execute all the mechanical skills associated with
reading.
4. Reading is a perceptual process. It utilizes perpetual clues: size, shape,, color,
combinations of sounds and letters, figure-ground relationships, relationships of
the parts of a whole, ordering, and sequencing.
5. Reading is a linguistic process which requires sound-symbol relationships,
understanding of intonation, stress, rhythm, pausing, and tone sequences.
Reading is dependent on context meaning and grasping the ideas in whole
thought units. It requires acceptance of social variations in language, non-
standard usage, figurative language, and slang.
6. Reading is an intellectual process dependent on vocabulary, memory, verbal
reasoning, perceiving relationships, generalizing, critical judgment, and
accommodation to extreme individualized differences.

All the foregoing discussions emphasize the fact that reading is a complex
process. It is composed of skills and abilities ranging from simple recognition of
words to association of past experiences and the printed form, grasping meaning,
interpreting, and applying the ideas gained from the printed page. It makes use of
our senses, our knowledge and competence in our own language, and culture as
well as those of other people. William S. Gray (1956) spells out these manifold skills
and abilities needed in the successful reading act.

Checkpoint

Write the letter of the skill, ability, or process referred to by the following
definitions or descriptions. Choose your answer from the Word Box. Write the letter of
the correct answer in the blank provided.

______ 1 The reader recognizes the words and grasps the ideas presented.
_____ 2. He reflects on their significance, relates them, and sees their implications.
_____ 3. He reacts thoughtfully by weighing its values and the soundness of
judgments or conclusions.
_____ 4. He uses the ideas to solve problems or to direct his own activities.
_____ 5. It shows how one fells about himself and how others affect his reading
performance.
_____ 6. They are skills in auditory and visual discrimination, verbal expression, and
eye-hand coordination.
_____ 7. It utilizes cues such as combination of sounds and letters, size, shape, and
color.
_____ 8. It is dependent on vocabulary, memory, verbal reasoning, generalizing, and
critical judgment.
_____ 9. It requires sound-symbol relationships, understanding of intonation, stress,
rhythm, and tone sequences.
_____ 10. It is affected by one’s attitudes, loyalties, conflicts, and prejudices.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING

EYE MOVEMENTS

Reading makes constant use of the eyes. Studies on eye movements show that
the eyes should move rhythmically and regularly along the printed line if reading is to
be effective. However, the eyes perceive printed words during a series of pauses or
fixations. When the eyes stop at any given point along a line of print, only five letters
immediately around the fixation point are seen with 100 percent acuity. Beyond that,
word and their letters are seen with decreasing clarity. Vision is also reduced while the
eyes are in motion, hence, recognition is quite difficult when the eyes are moving.
Photographs show that reading involves these eye movements: fixation, interfixation,
return sweeps, and regression.

Fixation is the vertical mark made when the eyes stop and the film continues to
move. Good readers have fewer fixations than poor readers.
Interfixation is the short horizontal line caused by the eyes which move from
one stopping point to another.
Return sweeps are long slanting lines resulting from the quick swinging back of
the eyes from the end of the line to the beginning of the next line.
Regressions are backward or right-to-left movements made in a reverse
direction. Usually, readers regress as a result of habit, although some do so to double
check a point. Even good readers make some regressions, but they are usually fewer
than those made by the poor ones.
Span of recognition or perception span is the number of words taken every
times the eyes stop. It is synonymous with the length or distance recognized within one
fixation.
Duration of fixation is the length of time the eyes pause. Most readers make
an average of four eye stops per second, but poor readers require more time to pause
in order to see accurately. A person who makes fewer fixations has longer duration.
Many teachers believe that readers can accelerate reading growth by widening
the span of recognition through phrase reading or chunking. As the span widens, the
number of fixation decreases resulting in increased reading rate. One should read ideas,
not words. For example, the phrase on the hilltop should not be read as three words
but as a single unit picked up at one pause or fixation.
First grade teachers must remember that six-and seven-year-old have
hyperopia or farsightedness. All children from birth and for some time thereafter
are normally farsighted. Consequently, initial reading should be from the blackboard
and chart, before book reading is attempted. As the years go by, the eyes mature and
the condition gradually corrects itself. Better eye coordination is achieved, thus enabling
the nine-year olds to read smaller print at the usual book distance.

SENTATION AND PERCEPTION

The most basic stage of reading revolves around the ability to identify and
recognize words, because the word represents the smallest unit of visual identification
and meaningful recognition. While it is true that we recognize letters, these letters do
not convey meanings. How can the reading act take place if letters are identified in
isolation?
Sensation and perception occurs when the eyes are so aimed that light from the
printed symbols hits the foveal areas of the retina. These light patterns hit the closely
packed sensory cells of the retina. In turn they induce chemical changes which start
patterns of nerve currents in the optic nerve fibers. Nerve currents from both eyes
travel up to the optic nerve to a center in the mid-brain. Here the impulses are
combined and carried to the gray matter of the cerebral cortex. When the word is
familiar, traces of past experiences are aroused and associated with traces of the
spoken and heard word. Each association between symbols and concepts enables the
reader to perceive the word. Only when one is clearly aware of the spoken and heard
equivalent and its concept or meaning does perception take place. Reading is,
therefore, a continuous cycle of excitation and reaction in which each moment of
perception produces a feedback effect that sets the reading for the following
perception.
In this connection, Stanford E. Taylor (1975) contends that readers react to the
total word pattern, although less consciously to familiar word parts. Accuracy of
reaction depends much upon our learned visual discrimination ability. Translating
printed symbols into sound assist in identifying word. Thus, when a child starts to learn
to read, he recalls from his stock-pile of heard or spoken words and associates them
with the letters. Taylor concludes that reading experiences should be provided to
introduce children to additional meanings and new relationships with old or known
words. These experiences should acquaint them with new words and help them develop
the ability to use context clues in understanding words.

Fill in the blank with the correct word or phrase.

1. Studies show that the eyes should move _______ and regularly along the
printed line if reading is to be effective.
2. The eyes perceive words only during a series of pauses or ________.
3. When they eyes stop at any given point along a line of print, only ________
letters immediately around it are seen with 100 percent sharpness.
4. Very brief of short pauses between words are known as ___________.
5. The fast accurate movements of the eyes from the end of one line to the
beginning of another line are called ___________.
6. The backward movement of the eyes to reread or double check a word or a
phrase is commonly known as __________.
7. The number of words recognized within one pause of fixation is called
_________.
8. Reading by phrases or meaningful units which improves speed and
comprehension is known as __________.
9. Since six-and seven-year-olds have ___________ or farsightedness, initial
reading should begin with exercises on blackboard and charts.
10. Sensation and _________ occur when the eyes see the printed symbols and
send nerve currents to the brain for its reaction.
WHAT DEVELOPMENTAL READING MEANS

Developmental reading refers to a comprehensive reading program which

consists of several periods or stages. These periods usually coincide with the individual’s
developmental stages growth. It is believed that one progresses gradually in acquiring
and developing certain skills.

According to Havighurts (1981) a developmental task is a specific responsibility

that the individual faces at certain stages of life in order to be well-adjusted grows out
of the interaction of physical maturation, social demands, and the values and
aspirations of the individual. It implies that one performs skills on materials of
increasing difficulty from low to middle and advanced levels.

The reading periods are shown below:

DEVELOPMENTAL READING

Reading Beginning Rapid growth Refinement

readiness reading (grades (grades III-IV) and wide
(nursery, I & II) reading (grades
kindergarten) VI-high school
& college)

READING READINESS

The period when the child gets ready to read is referred to as the reading
readiness stages. With the guidance of his teachers, the child acquires a functional
listening and speaking vocabulary. He engages in varied activities using real or concrete
objects like toys, picture books, and alphabet blocks. He acquire skills in auditory and
visual discrimination, motor-ocular coordination, and critical thinking. To the child,
listening to stories and reading rhymes and poems are enjoyable experiences.
Gradually, the child acquire a basic sight vocabulary through the use of picture, action,
configuration, and context clues. He learns to attack words through the use of phonetic
and structural analysis. Through well-structured lessons, the child acquires readiness in
language, reading, science, mathematics, the arts, and social studies, these interesting
experiences prepare him for the next period of his development
BEGINNING READING

The initial process of learning to recognize words, phrases, and sentences as symbols
for ideas is known as beginning reading. For instance, a child develops the concept
of bus after he has seen one, ridden in one, or drawn one. He may even own a toy bus.
Then he needs to known that the word symbols bus stands for the same idea.
Beginning reading includes: (1) getting acquainted with an idea or experience; (2)
seeing how the combination of symbols that stand for the idea looks; and (3)
remembering how the combination symbols may be distinguished from other
combinations.
In beginning lessons only a few words are introduced, although constantly and in
new situations. Reading will be both silent and oral even if many teachers prefer the
oral word in initiating the child into the reading process. Young children enjoy
expressing themselves orally in reading. Oral expression enhances the ability of the
child to remember words and aids him in achieving correct pronunciation and clear
enunciation. Betts (1967) says that the child should have a reading vocabulary of about
200 words before he attempts the first reader. No matter how controlled and repetitive
vocabulary may be presented in reading materials, these should be set in interesting
and meaningful situations.

PERIOD OF RAPID GROWTH OR EXPANDING POWER

Most children will have mastered the techniques of reading the stage of rapid
growth or expanding power. However, interesting materials should be used in
developing vocabulary, comprehension, locational, and simple organizational skills.
Lessons in basic readers are followed by comprehension check-ups in the form of
teacher-made exercise. Textbooks in science or social studies also help in finding
answers to problems. at this point, free reading is also encouraged. The learners use
skimming and scanning techniques as they go over the table of contents, glossary, and
index of the book. They use the dictionary to locate the meaning of new words.
Moreover, they make summaries, book reports, and outlines.

PERIOD OF REFINEMENT OR GROWTH IN THE USE OF THE READING TOOL

Learners do a great deal of serious and interpretive reading during their period
of refinement or growth in the skill. Reading becomes a tool for purposeful study in
other subjects. Lessons will vary with the learner’s needs and the teacher’s purpose.
Hence, there will be practice on the finer skills like wide reading for pleasure; doing
research for solutions to problems in science, social studies, mathematics, and practical
arts; or reading orally to entertain others. More independent reading not only in the
classroom but also in the library will be enhanced if the learner has acquired adequate
skills in using general references books such as encyclopedia, dictionaries, atlases,
books of facts, and world almanacs. Better readers know other source of data such as
government agencies or private companies that put out annual reports. They can take
down notes and organize them efficiently.
Skills in vocabulary, comprehension, literary appreciation, the use of references
in the library, and creative interpretation are carried on to high school where both
intensive and extensive reading are needed in all the subject areas.
Developing reading in college refers to the refinement of vocabulary,
comprehension, literary appreciation, and study skills which are needed in both
intensive reading.
 Extensive reading is the recreatory type one does as he curls up in his favorite
chair and leisurely enjoys his favorite book, magazine, or newspaper.
Intensive reading is the detailed, careful reading one does in class or in the
library. It takes a great deal of effort and concentration since it calls for an application
of various skills: vocabulary, comprehension, functional, creative, and study. The
vocabulary skills consist not only of the type used in general reading but also of the
technical or social and specific vocabulary in science, mathematics, social studies, and
the arts. General skills in reading include getting the main idea and anticipating point of
view. Functional skills consist of scanning for a particular purpose such as looking for a
friend’s address in the telephone directory. Intensive reading emphasizes study skills
like library and locational skills to enrich comprehension, retention, and speed.

Checkpoint
Enumerate in proper sequence the four reading periods:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Developmental reading in college refers to the refinement of four major skills,
namely:
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. The detailed careful we do in class or in the library is called __________ reading.
10. The recreatory type where we sit in our favorite chair and leisurely read our favorite
book, magazine, and newspaper is known as ___________ reading.

LEVELS OF COMPREHENSION

An attempt to divide the sources of reading comprehension has resulted in a

categorizing scheme that gives four important components: literal comprehension,
interpretative comprehension, critical analysis, and application and creation.

1. Literal comprehension is understanding facts or ideas extracted from the

explicit or stated information given in the text. These facts are answer to
questions often identified as the “wh’s” (e.g., who, what, when, where).
2. Interpretative comprehension is understanding ideas extracted from
implicit information in the text. Understanding is inferential because the facts
are not stated; instead the reader has to “read between the lines.” When a
wh question measures interpretative comprehension.
3. Critical analysis is applied when comprehension of a reading material
involved not only the ideas directly stated and the inferences made on these
stated facts but also judgments or conclusions. Examples of such judgments
are the analyses of the characters in a selection or of the author’s style. Thus,
experiences or ideas the reader already possesses plus his attitudes and
standards are involved in comprehension.
4. Application and creation are often called “reading beyond the lines.” The
reader puts together what he has learned from the selection (integration) and
then uses this knowledge in a relates situation (application). An imaginative
reader may find inspiration in the selection he has read and use it as his
“germ of thought” that grows into a story or a poem of his own (creation).
Or, he may want to share his experiences with others by reading the
 selection using his voice and face to aid in interpreting the story. He may
even enact it on stage. Thus, a selection can be the springboard for
something new.

Checkpoint
Identify the following:

_____ 1. The level of comprehension wherein the reader puts together what he has
learned from the selection.
_____ 2. Comprehension of a reading material which involves not only the ideas directly
stated but also inferences, judgments, and conclusions.
_____ 3. Understanding facts or ideas extracted from the explicit or stated information
given in the text.
_____ 4. Understanding ideas extracted from implicit information in the text.
_____ 5. Reading beyond the lines.
_____ 6. Level of comprehension often identified with who, where, and when
questions.
_____ 7. Why and how questions which ask the reader to read between the lines.
_____ 8. Reading skills which consist of scanning for a particular purpose such as
looking for a friend’s address in the telephone directory.
_____ 9. Skills which includes getting the main idea and anticipating point of view.
____10. One who finds inspiration in the selection he has read and uses it as his “germ
of thought” to develop his own story or poem.

THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF READING

Reading can be classified according to the rate or speed at which a person reads
as well as to his purpose in reading.
For certain reading tasks, skimming and scanning are most appropriate. To get
the gist of something, the reader needs to be able to skim materials quickly .
Skimming is reading by the sign posts or clues in the selection. It is fast reading in
which the reader reads headings and topic sentences and spot-reads parts of
paragraphs. By identifying these markers, he skips materials which are not of
immediate interest to him. Skimming can also be very effective as a preliminary step to
reading a selection more thoroughly. It gives the reader an overview of the material.
Scanning, on the other hand, is glancing through a page to locate a particular
kind of information. For example, a student may scan through names in a telephone
directory to locate a friend’s name, or scan a paragraph to find where an event took
place. Scanning requires the reader first to identify key words or phrases related to the
information sought and then to focus attention on just those words as he glances over
a page.
Idea reading is rapid reading for the main idea. Moving swiftly, the eyes catch
large phrases at each glance and register in the brain only the most significant words in
those phrases. Idea reading means making quick decision, as to the relative importance
of the different clues and rapidly associating them with ideas assimilated in previous
experiences.
In study reading the learner gets a maximum understanding of the main ideas
and their relationships. The SQ3R reading formula is a good example of the procedure.
It is used especially in science, mathematics, social studies, and arts. S stand for
Survey, Q for Question, and 3R’s for Read, Recite, and Review.

Techniques involved in study reading are:

 1. Preliminary skimming
2. Thinking and questioning oneself before reading
3. Concentrating on small units at a time with breaks for thinking and more taking
between units
4. reviewing the basic ideas before close reading

In critical reading the reader stops to consider the facts carefully. It is not
necessary to read fast because rapid reading of the main ideas might lead to false
conclusions. This is the kind of reading used on periodicals, books, and advertising
materials which are loaded with propaganda devices to sway opinions or sell products.

Critical reading requires the reader to

1. go back and consider carefully the source of the reading materials and
the possible biases or ulterior motives its author or publisher might
have
2. consider facts about the author, his background, and knowledge of the
subject
3. watch out for inconsistencies and for false analogies
4. be aware of emotionally loaded words whish appeal to basic emotions
and stir up strong reactions.

Analysis reading is the type that demands careful attention to each word and
its relative importance in relation to other words in the sentence or paragraph. Reading
mathematical theorems and problem, scientific formulae, and certain definitive
statements of key ideas require a questioning mind.

GUIDELINES TO EFFECTIVE READING

How many one read efficiently? The college student must have a clear picture of his
reading goals. For successful reading, he should:

1. Improve reading comprehension and rate. Acquire the skills needed to read
materials that vary in difficulty. Adjust his reading speed to suit his purpose
and then the nature of the material he reads.
2. Prepare for specific uses of reading: extensive and intensive. Skills in reading
newspapers and novels may differ from those needed in reading experiments,
reviewing for examinations, or preparing terms papers.
3. Grasp learning content so as to gain information on various fields: the
humanities, the arts, the sciences, etc. A good socializer or conversationalist
keeps himself informed of the latest events in his community, his country,
and the word.
4. Use reading to improve skills in listening, speaking, and writing.
5. Be an independent learner through the use of effective study habits at home
and in school.
6. Refine critical thinking skills by evaluating and appreciating what he reads.
7. Have fun by reading. Read different materials that bring him pleasure, make
him laugh, and
Checkpoint
A. Identify the kind of reading referred to in the following statements. Write your
answer in the blank after each statement.

1. The kind of reading used on periodicals and advertising materials which

are loaded with propaganda devices designed to sway your opinion:
________________
2. The type that requires careful attention to each word and its relative
importance in relation to other words in the sentence or propaganda:
__________________
3. Reading by the signposts or the clues in the selection: _____________
4. Making quick decisions as to the relative importance of the different clues
and rapidly associating them with ideas assimilated in previous
experiences: ______________
5. The learner gets a maximum understanding of the main ideas and their
relationships: _____________
6. A preliminary step to reading something more thoroughly: ___________
7. Used for materials that contain few heading and cues and those that
require more concentration such as long articles in magazines:
________________
8. The type needed in understanding mathematical theorem and problems,
scientific formulae, and certain definitive statements of key ideas:
_______________
9. Concentrating on small units at a time with breaks for thinking and note
taking between units:______________
10. The kind of reading which makes the reader stop to consider all the facts
carefully: ______________

B. Fill in the blank with the correct word.

The SQ3R reading formula which is used in study reading has been very effective
in the content fields.

1. S stands for ____________ or getting a brief overview.

2. Q means reword or restate statements in the form of ____________.
3. R1 stands for ___________.
4. R2 stands for ___________.
5. R3 means to go over the material once more or ________________.

The content fields referred to in which the formula is used include:

6. _____________
7. _____________
8. _____________
9. _____________
10. _____________

WORD BUILDERS
Studies have shown conclusively that men in executive positions in industry,
government, the arts, the science, and education have much larger vocabularies than
their subordinates. A wide vocabulary, however, cannot be attained in a short time. It
takes systematic practice to improve the range, depth, and variety of words.
The term vocabulary comes from the old Latin word vocabulum, meaning
“designation or name.” Webster’s New International Dictionary defines vocabulary
as “a list of words and phrases usually alphabetically arranged.” It is also defined as “a
range of emotions by which one can experience or explain ideas or felling.”
Various study methods can be used to improve the vocabulary. These are
identified as The C’s of Vocabulary.

A. Collocations. To collocate is “to group or place together in some

system or order.” When a word is learned, it can be thought of in
terms of other words it is combined or chunked with. Each word or
phrases it is grouped with helps create a different shade of meaning.
An unabridged dictionary or a thesaurus is a very good reference for
this kind of study

Example: sweet

sugar is sweet sweet potato at one’s sweet will

sweet face boiled sweets keep someone
sweet
sweet talk sweet tooth sweet smell
sweet voice sweet milk sweets of success
sweetheart sweet music sweet child

B. Clines. A cline is “a graded sequence of difference within a species.”

It comes from the Greek klino meaning “to slope.” Words in a cline
would fit into the same statement, but each would have a different
meaning.

Example:

The water is _________________.

Words that would fit into the sentence are: hot, cold, warm which
imply temperatures of varying degrees. These words would be clined
as follows:

HOT

WARM
COLD

Other words may be included in the same cline: boiling, lukewarm, very hot, very
cold, freezing. Careful clining of these words should help one to see clearly6 the precise
meaning of each when used in a text.

BOILING

VERY HOT

HOT

WARM

LUKEARM(TEPID)

COLD

VERY COLD

FREEZING

Question: It is possible to have other words added to this cline? Consult your
textbook or science teacher.

C. Clusters. A cluster is a group of similar or related things. Such words

may not be clined because it is not easy to show a sequential degree
of meaning. Thus they may be written around a word which serves as
cover term. This is why the process is called clustering. The words
may be related because they are similar in meaning; they belong to
the same classification; they have some peculiar common
characteristics; or they are evoked the cover term is mentioned.

Examples;

1. attractive, lovely, beautiful, charming (synonyms)

2. fly, mosquito, ant, locust (insect-same group)
3. operating room, syringe, doctor, emergency room (words that are
evoked when you say hospital)
 Clustering can be shown in the following manner:

dexterity

proficiency efficiency

expertise versatility
SKILL
excellence know-how

mastery ability

competence

Many terms may be related or may be similar in meaning, but are not
interchangeable. Study the synonyms of SKILL again. Then read the paragraph below
and fill in the blank with the correct word:

The fingers of the virtuoso flew the piano keys with ________. His ________
was seen in the wide range of his repertoire-pieces from the old masters to modern
jazz. He has also shown ________ in teaching the young to love music. His _______ to
communicate with them is amazing. Part of his secret lies in his ________ of the
subject-music. Next Sunday. He will share his _________, this time with a group of
student teachers.*

D. Configuration. Configuration is the arrangement of the parts of

something. It refers to the information given through the size and
shape of the letters as well as through the length of the number of
letter there are in the word. Configuration clues are especially helpful
to children who are3 beginning readers.
E. Creativity. To create is “to cause or to come into existence.” This
study technique is characterized by originality of thought or by the use
of the imagination. This includes:

1. Neologism. These are newly coined words or phrases or

familiar words used in a new sense. For instance, a new
invention or discovery will mean a new term or name to
identify it. Today, the word bread has extended meaning:
“money.”
2. Loan word. Words of other languages are borrowed and
incorporates into the exiting vocabulary of another
language. The words halt (Germany), parka (Eskimo),
 tycoon (Japanese), boondok (tagalong) belong to this
group.
3. Names of persons and places. A word may come from
the name of the person or place associated with the word
it describes. For instance, pasteurize (from Louis Pasteur
who discovered the process) and hamburger (from a place
in Germany called Hamburg).
4. Words from literature. The names of characters and
places, and sometimes events have become the source of
a great number of words. For example, from Hercules
comes Herculean, from Mars comes martial, from Juno
come June. A person who has turned traitor is called a
Judas, a beautiful woman is called Venus (myth), and a
woman endowed with both beauty and brains is called
Portia (play by Shakespeare).
F. Context. The words and sentences which surround the unfamiliar
term are used as clues in getting its meaning as well as the way in
which it should be pronounced.
Example:

He is a gregarious character, always reading out to other and enjoying

their company.

a. Mature c. ignorant
b. Sociable d. happy

Ans. b. sociable (clues: reaching out to others; enjoying their

company)

G. Clipping. This refers to the shortening of words which can be

achieved through various processes. These processes are:

1. Acronymy. This is a process by which the beginning

letters are used to stand for the whole term which is
composed of several words. For instance, DECS stands for
Department of Education, Culture, and Sports.
2. Blending. This is the process of getting only a part of
each word in the phrase to form a new word. An example
of this is smog which comes from the words smoke and
fog and refers to the cloud-like thing arising from factories,
cars, and other smoke-producing machines.
3. Clipping. This is the process of shortening a word in
which only part of it represents the whole word. An
example of this is phone from the word telephone.

WORD ASSOCIATIONS

Understanding the relationship between words or ideas in a structure paves the way for
a better understanding of those words or ideas. These relationships or associations
many differ among people, even when they speak the same language and live in the
same community.
 Word relationships may be classifies as follows:

1. Similarity. This means words have the same meaning or a meaning that is about
the same. Care has to be taken in this classification because although certain
words may be similar in meaning, certain words fit into the context while other
will not. Synonyms fall under this class.

Example: talk-chat, speech, address, oration

Unmarried-spinster, bachelorette, old maid

2. Contrast. This means words are opposite in meaning. Words in contrast may be
referred to as antonyms.

Example: volatile-calm
Indigent-wealthy

3. Cause-and-effect.

Example: Because of the jeepney and bus strike, many people were stranded,
and
Some walked many kilometers just to get home.

4. Part-whole. Here, a part of something may stand for the whole, or vice versa.
In
figurative language this would be called synecdoche.

Example: The sail was like a dot in the open sea. (sail stands for the whole ship)

5. Classification. Words belonging to the same genus may also be called grouping
because the relationship between the words is one of similarity of certain
characteristics.

Example: animal-(four legged beast) lion, elegant, horse stringed musical

Instruments-guar, violin, base.

6. Predication. This is the relationship between a noun and its verb, a doer and
its
action and the action and its receiver.

Example: Birds-fly; build-nests

Horse-neighs, gallops-across field

7. Derivation. This refers to words that grow out of other words. This means that
from one root word, many words can be formed by adding affixes, or even by
adding other root words to form compounds.

Example: friend-befriend, friendly, friendliness, boyfriend, girl friend

8. Sound. This means words have exactly the same sound or are similar in
Pronunciation.

Example: write, rite, right, wright (homonyms)

read / riyd / - read / red / (heteronyms)
cite-scythe (similarity, not sameness)
 TEACHING TECHNIQUES FOR EFFECTIVE READING

WHY READ?

Most of us read because it gives us the pleasure of knowing, feeling, acting, and
learning, or of escaping from our own limited worlds. We are able to go beyond
ourselves, to be other people, to be in other places, and to do other things. Through
the projection of ourselves and our relationships with other fellows, something about
the general truth of being a human being. It is this knowledge that is the most
important reward books have to offer; through it come compassion, sensitivity, insight,
taste and judgment.
Experts agree that reading is the golden key to the world of enlightenment and
enjoyment. In our daily lives, 80 percent of the things we do involves reading. We read
recipes in cookbooks, instructions on how to do things, labels of canned food and other
products, menus in restaurants, street signs and advertisements, and many other
printed forms in notices and announcements. To know more about places or things, we
read periodicals and nonfiction books. For our relaxation, we read fiction, comic books,
and light, humorous stories. When we study, we do a lot of reading.
Truly, though reading, we can ponder the mysterious of the world, explore
accumulated knowledge, and contemplate the unknown. From this search, we begin to
uncover some answers to questions and are stimulated to raise move questions and to
continue our pursuit of deeper understanding. Thus, reading is a valuable ingredient for
blending our inner psychological world with the outer social world and for emerging into
a new universe of thought, imagination and reality.

WHAT READING MEANS

Reading experts define reading in many ways. Their views about reading can be
summarized in the following paragraphs.
William Gray (1950), known as the Father of Reading, defines reading as a four-
step process:
1. Perception of the world
2. Comprehension of its meaning
3. Reaction to the meaning in terms of prior knowledge
4. Integration of the idea into one’s background of experience

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1976) describes reading as reasoning. He believes that

“power and speed of reading” can adequately explain the act reading. Power of reading
means the power to read, comprehend, and apply relatively difficult textbook material.
It includes the ability to grasp the central thought and the details, to get an idea that is
expressed in several sentences, and to interpret content and draw inferences, all from
single-text paragraphs. Speed of reading denotes the rate of comprehension on fiction
and factual materials.
According to Kenneth Goodman (1982), reading is a problem in language
processing, a psycholinguistic guessing game. The reader selects enough cues from the
printed page and predicts what the word precedes or follows another word to trigger
his/ her own appropriate language experiences. These may be graphic cues wherein the
shape and size of letters that form words and the length of the word itself in decoding
it. This is also done with the aid of sounding or use of phonic clues. Word order, or
syntax, and word meaning, or semantic cues, greatly help in comprehending the printed
passage. Goodman believes that reading involves an “interaction between language and
thought” He says that reading processes are cycles of sampling, predicting, testing and
confirming.
Smith (1978) described two types of information necessary in reading, namely,
visual information, which includes our understanding of the relevant language, our
familiarity with the subject matter, our general ability in reading, and our knowledge of
the word. The more non-visual information we have when we read, the less visual
information we need, and vice versa. According to Smith, “Skill in reading actually
depends on using the eyes as little as possible, . . . as we become fluent readers we
learn to rely more on what we already know, on what is behind the eyeballs and less on
the page in front of us.”

SOME CURRENT THEORIES ABOUT READING

Reading and Cognitive Development

Researches conducted by Jean Piaget and Lev S. Vygotsky (1981) have shown that
language and thought interact with and compliment each other, and that children go
through five stages of development.

Stage 1. Sensorimotor Period (birth to 2 years)

Children learn by adaptation to the environment. For example, a child learns that
it is impossible to go from one room to another if the door is closed – unless someone
opens the door. Children are interested in picture books at this readiness stage.

Stage 2. Preoperation or Preconceptual Period (2 to 4 years)

This is an active, exploratory period when children explore the world around
them, experiment with things in their environment, and imitate adults in the use of
things. They begin to develop concepts and associate words with pictures and images.
Reading interests involve a growing visual discrimination of objects and symbols.

Stage 3. Intuitive Thought Period (4 to 7 years)

Children are introduced to concept of number, weight, length and height. The
enjoy listening to rhymes and reading and reciting poems. They begin to identify
sounds and associate these with letters and symbols; these skills are classified as
reading readiness skills. Children can read simple words, phrases, and sentences at
ages 4 to 5. At this stage, they are still preoccupied with questions about the world of
things around them, with discovering new relationships, and with classifying or
categorizing things. At ages 6 to 7, most children can read preprimers and basal
readers.

Stage 4. Concrete Operational Period (8 to 11 years)

Children at this stage are capable of thinking about actions which they previously
were able to carry out only at a sensorimotor level. Actions have become internalized.
They can do a lot of reading with meaning, retell stories read, pick out key words or
topic sentences that give the main idea, note supporting details, determine cause-and-
effect relationships, and make inferences. This stage coincides with the periods of rapid
growth in re adding and in the use of the reading tool.

Stage 5. Formal Operations Period (11 to 14 years)

 At this final stage, preteeners are already capable of dealing with hypothesis and
propositions. They are no longer tied to concrete reality and are capable of establishing
and manipulating relations between things. They can cope with higher level critical
reading skills such as drawing conclusions, making judgments, and evaluating plot and
author’s style. For the bright pupils, reading has become truly analytic, interactive,
constructive and strategic. This stage is also the beginning of the period of refinement
and wide reading.

Subtract Factor Theory

Holmes (1953) theorized that “ a multiplicity of skills and processes underlie
speed and power or reading.” The reader organizes them into working systems
according to his/ her purposes and the demands of the task. Holme’s view explains why
different methods of reading instruction work. Each emphasizes one or more
subsystems necessary for effective reading.

Whole-to-part- or Schema Theory

Researches by Weir (1962) and Brown (1964) suggest that language/ reading of
children moves from whole to part; that is, they perceive general schema before details.
Intonation patterns of the native language tend to emerge before lexicalization, offering
a clue that the word-sentence probably appears before the word. Oftentimes the child
knows a word in speech, writing, and reading context and yet not know the word in
isolation. It also suggests that the teacher must help the child in interrelating newly
acquired concepts with already existing or prior knowledge to help achieve the whole-
to-part concept.

Comprehension as Interaction
Research findings of Rumelhart (1976) and Singer (1953) revealed that
comprehension is the result in interaction between reader resources and text data.
Readers allocate attention among their knowledge resources and go back ad forth from
their knowledge to the data base of the text. One resource that a reader brings to the
text is world knowledge. Writers usually assume that the reader already knows
whatever is common knowledge. An example is “The cigarettes caused the forest fire.”
A particular type of world knowledge that teacher bring is the sequence of events in
everyday situations, such as procedures in a restaurant or supermarket. Schank and
Abelson (1977) call this type of knowledge scripts. They concluded that a reader
mobilizes a script or set of schemata for assimilating and recalling information.
However, readers vary in how their knowledge is structured and in their perspectives
for interpreting stories. To apply the interaction theory, we have to take reader
variation into account when we assess comprehension.
Hayes (1979) showed that analogies embedded in the text help students extend
their knowledge structure which they can use to comprehend new information. Thus,
from the interaction concept of reading comprehension, the teacher must
1. teach students the necessary knowledge structures, scripts and cognitive
framework for comprehending texts in the content areas of science, literature,
mathematics, social studies, arts and music.
2. consider that different cultural backgrounds will result in various kinds of
interpretation; and
3. teach students to active prior knowledge and integrate it with new information.

Theory on Text Data

The theory on text data states that texts have objective properties. Gray and
Leary (1935) were the first to find that word frequency and sentence length are
determinants of text difficulty. To make texts easier to comprehend, one should use
higher frequency words and shorter sentences. Note, however, that some complex
sentences are easier to understand when they show clearly the causal relationships.
Van Dyke and Kintoch (1977) found out that texts which were logically
organized could be processed more rapidly even by average readers. There texts
contain the following features:
1. Cohesion – a means of trying sentences together with the use of connectors and
conjunctions
2. Staging – a way of featuring information in the text
3. Content analysis – separation of content into events (participants and episodes)
and movements, setting, background and evaluation

Implications for teaching suggest that teachers must:

1. select texts that are well organized and precisely elaborated with causal
explanations;
2. use devices such as analogies for bridging prior and new knowledge; and
3. teach students to recognize and use the texts, organizational features, and
content categories in processing and recalling information.

Metacognition

John Flavell (1976) defines metacognition as an awareness of and an ability to

capitalize on one’s own knowledge and thought processes as they are applied to some
specific task. It is that general knowledge that guides readers in monitoring their
comprehension processes by selecting specific strategies to achieve goals.
Baker and Brown (1984) divided metacognitive activities into two different
clusters:
1. Student’s awareness of any incompatibility between available knowledge and the
task to be done
2. Active self-monitoring of cognitive processes while reading. The choice of
strategies varies according to goals: to read for meaning (monitoring
comprehension), for remembering (studying),or for organizing important in
preparing for a test (e.g., self – checking and understanding of the material).

Psycholinguistic Theory and Model

Goodman ,Smith, and Coady (1982) summarized their psycholinguistic model of

reading as follows:
1. Readers approach a text with expectations based on their knowledge of the
subject.
2. They use only a minimal sampling of the text in deriving meaning by relying on
their knowledge of the language, the subject, and the background as a
substitute or all the redundant features of the text.
3. Based on the sampling, they make predictions as to what message they expect
to get from the text.
4. They test their predictions as they progress into the material. They confirm or
revise these and make more predictions based on what they have been reading.
5. They recreate a replica of the textual message by using orthographic, syntactic,
and semantic clues.
6. They test its accuracy against previous information.
7. If the reconstruction agrees with their previous knowledge, they begin again the
cycle of sampling.
8. If inaccuracy or inconsistency occurs, they will adopt some compensatory
strategy such as rereading.
 According to this model, efficient reading is possible because the fluent reader
does not read word by word but in meaningful units. By looking at a sample of
the text, he/ she can predict the meaning of a larger part of it based on his/ her
sampling and prior knowledge of the subject at hand. He/ she then looks at
another part of the text to confirm his/ her prediction. The efficient reader is one
who guesses correctly with minimal text sampling.

Frank Smith’s Model

Frank Smith (1982) believes that “reading is primarily a meaning-making
activity.”
Starting with materials written in natural language patterns, the teacher
supplements them with flash cards and extra work on phonics while keeping the focus
on meaning.

Feature
analysis of- Letter Mediated Word Mediated Letter
visual identification identification identification
information

Immediate

Immediate

Smith places what the reader brings to the task as the center of his framework of
ideas. He suggests that reading comprehension can be regarded as the “reduction of
uncertainty” when tacit questions have been answered. He believes that there is a
reciprocal relationship between what the reader sees (visual information) and the
reader’s knowledge of the world (nonvisual information). If one cannot construct this
relationship, visual information cannot be processed. “Bottlenecks” occur when the
reader has to resort to mediated word or meaning identification.
Smith is against any approach that does not give priority to meaning
identification and which does not draw upon children’s natural and constructive patterns
of learning. He points out the “fallacy of phonics”, which draws attention to
relationships between letters and sounds.

Based on this psycholinguistic model, Coady (1982) developed a model for

efficient reading among bilingual students. This involves successful interaction among
three factors: higher-level conceptual abilities, background knowledge, and process
strategies, as shown below.

CONCEPTUAL
ABILITIES BACKGROUND
(HIGHER KNOWLEDGE
LEVEL)

Intellectual Capacity Socio-cultural

knowledge of
English-speaking
Can Can Can communities
analyze infer synthesize
 PROCESS
STRATEGIE
S

Abilities and Skills

knowledge of letter-sound
Reconstruct meaning
correspondence
of
syllable-word information
text through
syntactic/word information
sampling based on
lexical or dictionary meaning
contextual meaning
cognitive strategies

CHECKPOINT
Read carefully and encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. Why do most of us read?
a. Reading makes us physically and mentally alert.
b. Reading reveals to us the general truth of being a human being.
c. Reading gives us the pleasure of escaping from our limited world.

2. Why is knowledge about being human the most important reward that books
offer?
a. It brings about compassion, insight and judgment.
b. It enables us to know, feel, act sand learn.
c. It blends our inner psychological world with the outer social world.

3. How does William Gray define reading?

a. Reading is reasoning, which can be explained by power and speed.
b. Reading is a psychological guessing game.
c. Reading is a four-step process involving word perception, comprehension,
reaction
and integration.

4. Why does Goodman believe that reading is a problem in language processing?

a. Reading processes are cycles of sampling, predicting, testing and
confirming.
b. The reader select enough cues – graphic, syntactic and semantic – to
trigger his/
her own appropriate language experiences.
c. Reading involves an interaction between language and thought.

5. How does Flavell define metacognition?

a. Metacognition is an awareness of and an ability to capitalize on one’s own
knowledge and thought processes.
b. Metacognitive activities can be divided into two different clusters.
c. Metacognition means general knowledge.

ANSWER KEY
 1. c 4. b
2. a 5. a
3. c

BUILDING WORD POWER FOR EFFECTIVE READING

Why Word Power?

Word power is closely related to academic success. Anderson and Freebody

(1981) report a strong relationship between vocabulary and academic performance, IQ
test results, and predicting reading comprehension across age groups and content
areas.

Condon (1968) explains that a word is a label for an internal reality. When you
create a label, you also create a set of new perceptions. For example, before taking a
course in astronomy, you might look at the night sky and see only a sea of stars. After
a few weeks of the course, you begin to see novas and galaxies. The creation of labels
and words is a tool we use to structure perceptions. New labels foster new concepts,
and perceptions. Indeed, when names are learned, we see what we had not seen
before, for we know what to look for.
Klausmeir and Sipple (1980) define concept knowledge in terms of word
knowledge. A concept is the socially accepted meaning of one or more words. The
number of words a student knows. Vocabulary knowledge implies a rich understanding
of the word. It means knowing a word by definition and associating experiences with
that word.
How can you characterize a rich understanding of a word? The answer lies in
understanding how information is stored in long-term memory, either episodic or
semantic. Episodic memory is specific. It contains events that have occurred. For
example, if you can recall your last birthday, you probably replay that event in your
mind as though it were a movie. On the other hand, semantic memory is more general.
It contains decontextualized information extracted from episodic memory. For example,
you might store general information about birthdays in your semantic memory (e.g.,
they occur once a year, they are pleasant because some relatives and friends remember
you). Word knowledge is made up of specific events that gradually transform to general
characteristics. Sometimes we associate specific events with abstract words that are
fairly general in nature. We may also include pictures of the event along with associated
memories of smells, sounds, tastes, sensations and emotions.
Underwood (1969) lists nine cues associated with information stored in long-term
memory:
1. Acoustic – recalling a word on the basis of its sound (e.g., gobble, goggle)
2. Affective – recalling information because of an associated emotion (e.g.,
remembering the day your team lost in the championship game because that
made you sad)
3. Context – recalling information because of the general context in which it
appeared
4. Frequency – recalling how often an event occurred (e.g., remembering that your
teacher said “Ah” every time she paused)
5. Modality – recalling an event because it made a strong impression on you
visually, auditorily, tacitly, (e.g., remembering the joint Christmas presentation of
the Bayanihan Dancers and the Madrigal Singers at the Cultural Center of the
Philipinnes)
6. Spatial – recalling were objects are in relation to one another (e.g., remembering
that you sat in front of a girl with short, curly hair in third grade)
7. Temporal – recalling when something occurred (e.g., remembering your first
dance in school)
8. Verbal – recalling information because of a word associated with it (e.g.,
remembering the events of a class excursion when you hear the words Super
Sunday)
9. Visual – recalling a mental image associated with information (e.g., remembering
the term fireworks because it elicits a strong image)

What Are Some Guiding Principles of Vocabulary Instruction?

Developing word power can be planned based on the following clear guidelines
and principles (Marzano 1988):
1. Wide reading and language-rich activities should be the primary vehicles for
vocabulary learning.
2. General language development must be encouraged as one of the most
important word-building strategies.
3. Direct vocabulary instruction should focus on words considered important to a
given content area or to general background knowledge.
4. Instruction should include many ways of knowing a word and speed training to
build automaticity in word recognition.
5. Instruction should provide for the development of a complex level of word
knowledge.
6. It should utilize various forms such as mental pictures, smells, tastes, kinesthetic
associations, semantic distinctions and linguistic references.
7. Instruction should emphasize s structure by which new words not taught directly
can be learned readily.
8. Instruction should be multifaceted, including associating new words with a
variety of contexts, creating contexts for words, contrasting words to discover
relationships, and using the words outside of class.
9. Instruction should be fruitful by grouping words in semantic categories and
teaching them in relation to one another.
10. Since frequently used words have multiple meanings, instruction should include
connotative, denotative, lexical, syntactical and figurative meanings.
11. A very economical and effective way of developing vocabulary is through the use
of programmed instruction.

References:

Villamin, Araceli M. et al Innovative Strategies in Teaching Communication

Arts.

Alcantara, Rebecca D. et al Teaching Strategies for the Teaching of

Communication