MODULE 1 : HORMONES IN THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male reproductive system

The male reproductive system is in charge of producing male gametes (sperm cells)
and transferring them onto the female

Vas deferens: a tube that transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for
ejaculation

Urethra: a passage that carries sperm and urine out of the body

Epididymis: a long tube that rests on the back part of the testes and carries, stores,
and brings sperm to maturity

Testes: responsible for making testosterone and producing sperm cells

Scrotum: hangs behind the penis and contains the testes, acting as a climate control
system for the testes

Seminal vesicle: produces a fluid that makes up most of the volume of semen

Ejaculatory duct: a short duct that connects the vas deferens and the urethra

Prostate gland: produces a fluid that, together with sperm and seminal fluid, makes
up semen

Cowper’s gland: produces a small amount of clear fluid that lubricates the urethra
and neutralizes any acidity

Functions of the male reproductive system

-The external structures of the male reproductive system, including the penis and
scrotum, are visible on the outside of the body

-The testes produce testosterone and sperm cells

-The epididymis carries, stores, and brings sperm to maturity

-The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for
ejaculation

-The prostate gland and seminal vesicles produce fluids that make up semen

-The sperm cells and semen are ejaculated through the urethra during sexual
intercourse
 Female reproductive system

The female reproductive system produces female gametes (egg cells or ova) and
carries the baby throughout its development

Ovaries: produce egg cells and female hormones estrogen and progesterone

Fallopian tubes: tubes that carry egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus

Uterus: a muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and grows into a fetus

Cervix: the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina

Vagina: a muscular canal that serves as the birth canal and receives the penis during
sexual intercourse

Vulva: the external female genital organs

Functions of the female reproductive system

-The ovaries produce egg cells and female hormones estrogen and progesterone

-The fallopian tubes carry egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus

-The uterus provides a nourishing environment for a fertilized egg to grow into a
fetus

-The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina and allows for the passage of
menstrual blood and sperm

-The vagina serves as the birth canal and receives the penis during sexual
intercourse

-The vulva protects the internal reproductive organs and provides an opening for
menstrual blood and urine to exit the body

Role of hormones in the reproductive system

-Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine system and
regulate various functions in the body

-In the reproductive system, hormones regulate the development and function of the
reproductive organs, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy
Testosterone: produced by the testes and responsible for the development of male
secondary sexual characteristics and the production of sperm cells

Estrogen: produced by the ovaries and responsible for the development of female
secondary sexual characteristics and the regulation of the menstrual cycle

Progesterone: produced by the ovaries and responsible for preparing the uterus for
pregnancy and maintaining a pregnancy

Overall Studies

-The reproductive system is a complex system made up of various organs and

glands that work together to produce and transfer gametes and support the
development of a fetus

-The endocrine system plays a crucial role in the regulation of the reproductive
system through the production of hormones

-Understanding the reproductive system and its relationship to the endocrine

system is essential for maintaining reproductive health and preventing reproductive
disorders

Understanding the Male Reproductive System

-The male reproductive system includes the vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, seminal
vesicle, prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland

-The vas deferens is a tube that carries sperm from the testes to the urethra

-A vasectomy is a process that cuts the vas deferens to prevent sperm from being
released

-The ejaculatory duct is formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal
vesicles and urethra

-The seminal vesicle produces fructose, which nourishes the sperms and gives them
energy to move

-The prostate gland provides additional fluid to nourish the sperms and help them
swim

-The bulbourethral gland produces a lubricating fluid to neutralize any acidity in the
urethra and ensure the survival of the sperms

Understanding the Female Reproductive System

-The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, fimbriae, fallopian tubes,
endometrium, uterus, cervix, and vagina

-The ovaries are the site of oogenesis, the production of egg cells or ova, and
produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone

-The fimbriae are finger-like projections that help guide the egg cells into the
fallopian tubes

-The fallopian tubes are where fertilization occurs and carry the fertilized egg to the
uterus

-The endometrium is the lining of the uterus that thickens during the menstrual
cycle in preparation for a potential pregnancy

-The uterus is where a fertilized egg implants and grows during pregnancy

-The cervix is the narrow opening at the bottom of the uterus that connects to the
vagina and allows for the passage of menstrual blood and the baby during
childbirth

-The vagina is the passageway for menstrual blood, and is where intercourse occurs
and the penis is inserted during sexual activity

Note:

The male reproductive system is responsible for the production and transportation
of sperm, while the female reproductive system is responsible for the production of
egg cells, menstruation, and pregnancy. * Both the male and female reproductive
systems include glands that produce fluids to nourish and protect the sperm and
egg cells. * The speed of light is a constant and does not change based on the
medium it is traveling through. * The process of oogenesis and spermatogenesis are
similar in that they both involve the production of reproductive cells, but they occur
in different locations and at different times in the reproductive cycle. * The female
reproductive system has many more parts and functions compared to the male
reproductive system, as it must support the growth and development of a fetus
during pregnancy.

Endocrine System & Female Reproductive System

-The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce hormones, which are
chemical messengers that regulate many of the body’s functions. The female
reproductive system includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina

Fimbriae and Fallopian Tubes

-The fimbriae are finger-like structures at the end of the fallopian tubes that pick up
the ovum or egg cell from the ovary

-The fallopian tubes, also known as oviducts, are the passage from the ovary to the
uterus and the site of fertilization

Endometrium and Uterus

-The endometrium is the lining of the uterus that nourishes the embryo and is shed
during menstruation

-The uterus is the site of egg implantation and is made up of muscle, allowing it to
expand during pregnancy

Cervix and Vagina

-The cervix is the muscular opening of the uterus that can expand and is the site of
sperm entry into the uterus

-The vagina is the entrance of the penis and is also called the birth canal

Hormones in the Reproductive System

-Hormones play a crucial role in the development and function of the reproductive
system

-In females, hormones regulate the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, while in males,
hormones regulate the production of sperm and the development of secondary
sexual characteristics

Differences between Male and Female Reproductive Systems

-Females have two ovaries that alternate to produce one egg per month, while males
produce millions of sperm in every ejaculation

-The egg is much larger than the sperm and has a longer pathway to travel, while
the sperm is smaller and has a shorter pathway to travel

Understanding Hormones and the Endocrine System

Hormones are chemical messengers in the body that help maintain homeostasis.
They are produced by different glands that make up the endocrine system.
Examples of hormones include estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. The
pituitary gland is known as the master gland as it directs the entire endocrine
system. The pituitary gland is connected to the nervous system, brain, circulatory
system, and other parts of the endocrine system. The pituitary gland sends signals to
other glands in the endocrine system to produce hormones. Hormones have
different effects on the body, such as uterine contraction, lactation, water
reabsorption, and metabolism. The fsh, lh, and hormones produced by the testes and
ovaries are the focus as they relate to the reproductive system. In males, fsh signals
sperm production, while lh stimulates the production of testosterone. Testosterone
is the most important male hormone as it regulates sex differentiation, male sex
characteristics, spermatogenesis, and fertility.

The Role of the Pituitary Gland in the Endocrine System

-The pituitary gland is the master gland that directs the entire endocrine system. It is
connected to the nervous system, brain, circulatory system, and other parts of the
endocrine system. The pituitary gland sends signals to other glands in the endocrine
system to produce hormones. The size of the pituitary gland is small, but it plays a
significant role in the endocrine system.

The Relationship between Hormones and the Reproductive System

-The fsh, lh, and hormones produced by the testes and ovaries are the focus as they
relate to the reproductive system. In males, fsh signals sperm production, while lh
stimulates the production of testosterone. Testosterone is the most important male
hormone as it regulates sex differentiation, male sex characteristics,
spermatogenesis, and fertility.

Hormonal functions in human reproduction

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) signals the development of egg cells for females
and sperm cells for males

Luteinizing hormone (LH) signals the production of testosterone in males and

estradiol (estrogen) and progesterone in females. Estradiol is an example of an
estrogen and is responsible for the development of female sex characteristics.
Progesterone is a hormone that prepares the body for potential pregnancy

Role of hormones after ovulation

-After ovulation, the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone. If the egg is not
fertilized, the levels of estrogen and progesterone will decrease, leading to
menstruation

Importance of hormones in human reproduction

-Hormones play a crucial role in the development and function of the reproductive
system
-They regulate the growth and maturation of egg and sperm cells, and prepare the
body for pregnancy

MODULE 2 : FEEDBACK MECHANISM OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

Introduction

Discussion of Mojo 2 of Grade 10 Science: Mechanisms in Female Reproductive

System

Learning competency: Describe the feedback mechanisms involved in regulating

processes in the female reproductive system

Review of the female reproductive system

Important terms

Menstruation: The process in which blood and other tissues are shed from the
uterus and leave the body through the vagina

Menstrual cycle: A cycle that occurs every 28 days, starting with menstruation and
followed by the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase

Menarche: The start of menstruation, usually happening between ages 11 to 15

Menopause: The period during which ovaries can no longer produce egg cells,
usually occurring between ages 45 and 55

Summary of the menstrual cycle

Four phases: Menstruation, follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase

Hormones involved: Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone

(FSH)

Ovarian cycle: Development of an ovum or egg cell from a follicle into a corpus
luteum

Hormones produced by the ovary: Estrogen and progesterone

Flow phase (days 1-5)

-Decrease in levels of estrogen and progesterone

-Fall in the levels of LH and FSH

-Breakdown of the uterine lining

-Start of menstruation

Follicular phase (days 6-14)

-Rise in levels of FSH

-Development of follicles in the ovary

-One follicle becomes dominant and continues to develop

-Increase in levels of estrogen

-Maturation of the egg cell

Ovulation (day 14)

-LH surge

-Rupture of the dominant follicle and release of the egg cell

Luteal phase (days 15-28)

-Formation of the corpus luteum

-Secretion of progesterone and estrogen

-Preparation of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg

-If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, leading to a decrease
in levels of progesterone and estrogen, and the start of a new menstrual cycle

Understanding the Menstrual Cycle

-The menstrual cycle is a series of changes that a female’s body goes through to
prepare for a possible pregnancy.

-The length of the cycle is unique to each female and can vary from 21 to 35 days.

-The cycle is divided into different phases: Flow Phase, Follicular Phase, Ovulation,
and Luteal Phase.

Flow Phase

During the Flow Phase or menstruation, the endometrium is shed from the uterus.
This phase lasts for 3-7 days and is the time when menstrual fluid comes out of the
vagina. During this phase, the follicle starts to grow in the ovary and estrogen and
progesterone levels are low.

Follicular Phase
The Follicular Phase happens from days 6 to 13 of the cycle. During this phase,
follicles grow and mature, and estrogen is secreted. The luteinizing hormone (LH) is
stimulated by the pituitary gland, causing the follicle to burst and release the egg
cell.

Ovulation

Ovulation is the one-day event when the egg cell bursts from the follicle and travels
to the oviduct or fallopian tube. This is the most important day for expecting
families as it is the only time pregnancy is possible. The luteinizing hormone (LH)
levels are very high during ovulation, causing the egg cell to burst out from the
follicle.

Luteal Phase

The Luteal Phase happens after ovulation and lasts for 12-16 days. The luteinizing
hormone (LH) causes corpus luteum to develop from a follicle, which secretes
estrogen and progesterone. The high level of progesterone maintains the thickened
endometrium, but if the egg is not fertilized, the endometrium is shed, leading to the
next Flow Phase

Illustration of the Female Reproductive System

-Picture shows an ovary with a follicle and a corpus luteum

-Follicles contain egg cells, as they mature they release the egg cell

-An empty follicle becomes a corpus luteum

Phases of Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation: endometrium is shed

Follicular Phase: follicles mature with egg cell

Ovulation: egg cell is released

Luteal Phase: endometrium thickens to support pregnancy

Hormones in Female Reproductive System

-GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from hypothalamus to release LH and

FSH from pituitary gland

Estrogen and Progesterone from ovaries

Feedback Mechanisms
-Process that influences the level of hormones to maintain homeostasis

Positive Feedback Mechanism: stimulates the increase of a hormone (example:

before ovulation, estrogen stimulates the production of GnRH and LH)

Negative Feedback Mechanism: inhibits or decreases the production of a hormone

(example: after ovulation, corpus luteum releases progesterone which inhibits the
production of FSH and LH)

Understanding Feedback Mechanisms in the Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle is regulated by feedback mechanisms involving gonadotropin-

releasing hormone (GnRH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing
hormone (LH), and estrogen and progesterone. Positive feedback mechanism: When
the level of estrogen increases, it triggers a surge in LH and FSH, which leads to
ovulation. This is an example of a positive feedback mechanism, where the increase
in one hormone leads to an increase in another hormone. Negative feedback
mechanism: After ovulation, the levels of progesterone and estrogen increase, which
inhibits the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH. This is an example of a negative
feedback mechanism, where the increase in one hormone leads to a decrease in
another hormone.

MODULE 3 : THE POWER AND CONTROL OF THR NERVOUS SYSTEM

Topic: The Nervous System

-The nervous system is the major control system for homeostasis and the main
processing center for the body

-It is divided into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system

-The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord

-The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves that connect from the
central nervous system to the rest of the body

Central Nervous System

-It acts as the body’s control center and coordinates body activities
Peripheral Nervous System

-It has two subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system

-The somatic nervous system is responsible for the voluntary control of the skeletal
muscles

-The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the involuntary control of the
internal organs

Somatic Nervous System

-It is responsible for the voluntary control of the skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

-It is responsible for the involuntary control of the internal organs

-It has two subdivisions: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic
nervous system

Sympathetic Nervous System

-It prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

-It helps the body to relax and conserve energy

Note:

-The nervous system is responsible for coordinating and regulating feedback

mechanisms in the body to maintain homeostasis.

Understanding the Nervous System: Somatic vs. Autonomic

-The nervous system is divided into two parts: the peripheral nervous system and
the central nervous system

-The peripheral nervous system is further divided into the somatic nervous system
and the autonomic nervous system

Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system is responsible for voluntary activities of the body.
Examples of voluntary activities include walking, reaching for something, and
moving your legs or arms. The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that are
distributed throughout the body

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is responsible for involuntary or automatic processes

in the body. Examples of involuntary processes include heartbeat and breathing. The
autonomic nervous system is made up of nerves that are concentrated near the
spinal cord

Subdivisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

-The autonomic nervous system has two subdivisions: the sympathetic nervous
system and the parasympathetic nervous system

-The sympathetic nervous system is activated during times of stress, such as the
fight or flight response

-The parasympathetic nervous system controls the body during times of rest or
relaxation

Central Nervous System

-The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord

-The spinal cord connects the brain to all parts of the body and is responsible for
processing information
The Brain

-The brain is divided into three main sections: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the
brain stem

-The cerebrum is responsible for memory, intelligence, language, and other

conscious activities

-The cerebellum is responsible for muscle coordination

The Cerebellum and Movement

-The cerebellum is the part of the brain that is larger in people who move a lot

-The cerebellum controls muscle movement and coordination

-The brain stem is responsible for involuntary activities such as heart rate and
breathing

The Neuron

A neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic unit of the nervous system. Information enters
the neuron through the dendrites and leaves through the axon. The terminal buttons
at the end of the axon connect to the next neuron through a space called the synapse.
Some neurons can be as long as one meter, especially if they are motor neurons

How the Nervous System Processes Information

A stimulus is something in the environment that incites activity. Sensory neurons

connect the sensory organs to the central nervous system. Interneurons or relay
neurons pass the message from one neuron to another. The central nervous system
decides what to do and translates that information into a response in the form of
electrical signals

Types of Neurons

-Sensory neurons connect the sensory organs to the nervous system

-Motor neurons connect the nervous system to the muscles

-Interneurons or relay neurons connect the sensory neurons and the motor neurons

MODULE 4A : DNA VS. RNA

Introduction to DNA and RNA

-In this video lesson, we will discuss the structure and differences between DNA
and RNA.

-DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid) are types of nucleic
acids.

-Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the
primary information-carrying molecule in cells and make up genetic material.

-DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive, and
reproduce, while RNA carries messages within the cell.

Building Blocks of DNA and RNA

Both DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides, which are organic molecules that
serve as the building blocks of DNA and RNA.

A nucleotide is made up of a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar, and a

nitrogenous base.

Differences between DNA and RNA

DNA is double-stranded, while RNA is single-stranded. The sugar in DNA is called

deoxyribose, while the sugar in RNA is called ribose. In DNA, the nitrogenous bases
are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. In RNA, thymine is replaced with
uracil. DNA is found inside the nucleus of a cell, while RNA can go inside the
nucleus but stays primarily in the cytoplasm.

Nucleobases Pairing

-In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine.

-In RNA, adenine pairs with uracil, and guanine pairs with cytosine

Importance of studying DNA and RNA

-Understanding DNA and RNA is essential to explaining how protein is made using
information from DNA and how mutations may cause changes in the structure and
function of a protein.

DNA structure

DNA is a double helix that spirals and has different nitrogenous bases. The different
nitrogenous bases are represented by colors: red is adenine, green is thymine, blue is
cytosine, and yellow is guanine. Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with
guanine. The building block of DNA is a nucleotide, which has a phosphate group, a
sugar, and a nitrogenous base. Adenine and thymine as well as cytosine and
guanine are held together by hydrogen bonds

Differences between DNA and RNA

In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and in RNA, adenine pairs with uracil.
Cytosine pairs with guanine in both DNA and RNA. Adenine and guanine are
called purines, while cytosine and thymine are called pyrimidines

Importance of understanding DNA structure

 -Understanding the structure of DNA is important for understanding how it works
and how it is used in the central dogma of biology

-This knowledge can be applied in various fields such as genetics, medicine, and
biotechnology

MODULE 4B : REPLICATION, TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

Introduction to the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

The Central Dogma describes the flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to
messenger RNA and to protein. Protein synthesis is the process of making proteins,
which are necessary for the proper functioning of cells. Proteins are made up of
amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins

Differences between RNA and DNA

RNA stands for ribonucleic acid and DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. Both
RNA and DNA are made up of nucleotides, which consist of a phosphate group, a
sugar, and a nitrogenous base. RNA and DNA have four different types of bases:
Adenine (A), Uracil (U) or Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C). In RNA,
Adenine pairs with Uracil, while in DNA, Adenine pairs with Thymine

Types of RNA

-Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic codes from DNA to ribosomes

-Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) primarily stays in the ribosome and helps in protein
synthesis

RNA (tRNA) transfers amino acids during protein synthesis

DNA Replication

Two identical DNA molecules are produced during DNA replication. The process is
semi-conservative, meaning that one strand of the parent DNA molecule is
conserved in each of the two daughter DNA molecules. Key players in DNA
replication include enzymes such as helicase, primase, DNA polymerase, and ligase

Breakdown of DNA Replication

DNA replication is the process of creating two identical copies of a DNA molecule.
The enzyme that causes the split is called helicase, it unzips the DNA by breaking
the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine). After the split, the different nitrogenous bases attach to each strand with
the help of the enzyme primase, which serves as the starting point for DNA
replication. The enzyme that builds the new strands is called DNA polymerase, and
the enzyme that glues the fragments together is called ligase. After DNA replication,
the DNA coils back again and there will be two copies of the original DNA

Example of DNA replication

Given a short DNA strand with the nitrogenous bases cgta gc880ta, after DNA
replication, the two daughter strands would be cgta gc880ta and cgta gc880ta, with
one part of each daughter strand coming from the old or the original strand and
another part being newly synthesized.

RNA Transcription

During RNA transcription, a region of the DNA that was replicated a while ago will
be converted to mRNA (messenger RNA). The enzyme responsible for this process
is RNA polymerase, which unzips the DNA and allows nucleotides of RNA to join
to one strand of DNA. In RNA transcription, adenine in DNA pairs with uracil in
RNA instead of thymine

Complementary bases for RNA transcription

-G pairs with C

-A pairs with U (uracil, not thymine)

Process of RNA transcription

-DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus

-mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm

Process of translation

-mRNA is used to dictate the amino acid sequence of a protein. tRNA molecules,
each with a specific amino acid attached, read the mRNA codons and bring the
correct amino acids to the ribosome to form a peptide chain

-The peptide chain eventually becomes a protein

Codon table

A chart or table is used to find the corresponding amino acid for each mRNA codon.
For example, the codon AAU corresponds to the amino acid asparagine. Another
example, the codon GCC corresponds to the amino acid alanine

Understanding a Codon Table

A codon table is used to determine the amino acid that corresponds to a specific
sequence of three nucleotides in an mRNA molecule. It is important to read the
codon, not the anticodon, when using a codon table. For example, the codon CUG
corresponds to the amino acid leucine

Finding Amino Acids in a Codon Table

To find the amino acid that corresponds to a specific codon, locate the codon in the
table and read the corresponding amino acid. For example, the codon AAU
corresponds to the amino acid asparagine. This is because in the process of
translation, tRNA molecules with anticodons that complement the mRNA codons
bring the corresponding amino acids to the ribosome

Start and Stop Codons

-The start codon, such as AUG, signals the start of translation and indicates where
the ribosome should begin assembling the amino acids into a protein

-Stop codons, such as UAA, UAG, and UGA, signal the end of translation and
indicate where the ribosome should stop assembling the amino acids

The Central Dogma

-The central dogma is the process by which genetic information flows from DNA to
RNA to proteins

-Translation is the process by which the genetic information in an mRNA molecule

is used to assemble a specific sequence of amino acids to form a protein

MODULE 4: MUTATIONS

Introduction to Mutations

Mutations are changes made to an organism’s genetic material. They can be errors in
replication or transcription. Prior knowledge of DNA, RNA, and the central dogma
of molecular biology is necessary to understand the concept of mutation

Point Mutations

Point mutations are a large category of mutations that describe a change in a single
nucleotide of DNA. This can result in the DNA being different from the normal type
gene sequence. Types of point mutations: insertion, deletion, and substitution

Insertion
An extra base pair is added to a sequence of bases. Example of a disease caused by
insertion: beta thalassemia, a blood disorder that reduces the production of
hemoglobin

Deletion

An extra base pair is deleted from a sequence. Example of a disease caused by

deletion: cystic fibrosis, a hereditary disease that affects the lungs and digestive
system

Substitution

Bases are swapped for different ones. Example of a disease caused by substitution:
sickle cell anemia, where the base adenine is substituted by the base thymine,
resulting in a different mRNA sequence and consequently to a different amino acid

Genetic Disorders

-Genetic disorders are caused by an abnormality in the genetic makeup of an

individual. This abnormality can be caused by a chromosomal problem

-Example: karyotype, an example of a normal human karyotype is shown in the

video

Understanding Chromosomes and Genetic Disorders

A normal human karyotype consists of 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs. 22 pairs are

autosomes, while the last pair determines gender (XX for female, XY for male).
Distinctive facial features are present in individuals with genetic disorders.

Kridsha Syndrome (A5P Minus Syndrome)

Caused by a missing piece of chromosome 5. Characterized by distinctive facial

features, including a space between the eyes, low-set ears, small jaw, and rounded
face. Occurs in approximately 1 in 20,000 to 50,000 newborns.

Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

Caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. Characterized by intellectual disability,

characteristic facial appearance, and weak muscle tone in infancy. Occurs in
approximately 1 in 700 newborns.

Edward Syndrome (Trisomy 18)

Caused by an extra copy of chromosome 18. Characterized by abnormalities in
many parts of the body, low birth weight, and intellectual disability. Occurs in
approximately 1 in 5,000 newborns.

Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)

Caused by an extra copy of chromosome 13. Characterized by multiple and complex

organ defects. Occurs in approximately 1 in 10,000 newborns.

Jacobsen Syndrome

Caused by a missing piece of chromosome 10. .Characterized by delayed

development, including speech and motor skills. Occurs in approximately 1 in
100,000 newborns.

Kleinfelter Syndrome

Caused by an extra copy of the X chromosome (XXY). Characterized by interference

with sexual development and low levels of testosterone. Occurs in approximately 1
in 500 newborn boys.

Turner Syndrome

Caused by a missing X chromosome (X). Characterized by short stature and the

development of female characteristics being affected. Occurs in approximately 1 in
2,500 newborn girls.

Relating Genetics to COVID-19

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) or COVID-19

has genetic material made of RNA. In order to replicate and establish infection, it
must hijack a host cell and use its machinery to duplicate itself. Errors in the
duplication or replication process result in viruses that are similar but not exact
copies of the original virus, leading to variants

Types of Mutations and Genetic Disorders

-Mutations can be favorable or unfavorable

-Favorable mutations give organisms an advantage over others, ensuring their

survival

Examples of Favorable Mutations

-Covid-19 virus variants

-Bacterial drug resistance

-Resistance to arthrosclerosis or heart disease

-Genetic protection from malaria

-Tetrachromacy or the ability to see four colors

-Lactose tolerance

Examples of Unfavorable Mutations

-Sickle cell anemia

Conclusion

Mutations can have both positive and negative effects on organisms. Understanding
the different types of mutations and their effects can help in understanding and
addressing genetic disorders and diseases

MODULE 5 : EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

Introduction

Evolution is the change in inherited traits over successive generations in populations

of organisms. It allows organisms to adapt and survive in their environment.

Traces of organisms that lived in the past and were preserved by natural processes
or catastrophic events. They document the existence of now extinct past species that
are related to present day species. Fossils are usually found in sedimentary rocks

Types of fossils: imprints, compressions, molds, casts, trace fossils, and mineralized
fossils

Age of fossils is determined through relative dating and absolute dating (carbon-14
dating)

Example of fossil records:

-Evolution of a horse

-Fossil record of whale evolution

Comparative anatomy

-Study of the similarities and differences in the structures of different species

Types of structures: homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures

Homologous structures
-Structures that are similar in different species because they have a common
ancestor

Example: the arm of a human, the wing of a bird, and the flipper of a whale

Analogous structures

-Structures that are similar in different species because they have a similar function

Example: the wings of a bird and the wings of a butterfly

Vestigial structures

-Structures that have lost their original function through evolution

Example: the appendix in humans

Embryonic development

Study of the development of an embryo from fertilization to birth. Similarities in the

embryonic development of different species provide evidence for evolution

Genetic information

Study of the genetic material (DNA) of different species. Similarities in the genetic
material of different species provide evidence for evolution

Understanding Homologous Structures, Analogous Structures, and Vestigial

Structures

-Homologous structures are body parts of organisms that may perform different
functions but are of the same origin

Examples: limbs of cats, whales, and bats; ulna, pulse, metacarpals, and phalanges

-Indicates that organisms evolved from common ancestors

-Related to the concept of divergent evolution

-Analogous structures are body parts of organisms that may perform the same
function but are of different origins

Examples: bird wings, insect wings, and bat wings

-Indicates that organisms evolved similar traits in spite of having distinct ancestors

-Related to the concept of convergent evolution

-Vestigial structures are body parts that are useless or left over from a previous
ancestor in which they were useful
Examples: pelvic bones of whales, wings of ostriches, cave fish eyes, human
appendix, wisdom tooth, bones in the external ear, and tail bones

Embryonic Development as Evidence of Evolution

Embryonic development is the process of an organism growing from a fertilized egg

to a fully formed individual. During embryonic development, similarities in the
embryos of different species can be observed. These similarities provide evidence
that all living organisms share a common ancestry

Examples of Embryonic Development Similarities

Human embryos have structures called pharyngeal pouches, which are also present
in fish embryos. Chicken embryos have a tail that eventually disappears, similar to
the tail of a reptile embryo. Embryos of different mammals, such as a dog, a cow,
and a human, have similar features in their early stages of development

Significance of Embryonic Development Similarities

Embryonic development similarities provide evidence for the theory of evolution.

These similarities suggest that all living organisms share a common ancestry and
have evolved over time

Evidence of Common Ancestors in Embryonic Development

Many organisms, such as lizards, tortoises/turtles, pigs, and humans, have similar
embryos in the early stages of development. These similarities support the idea of
common ancestors. For example, early stage embryos of different organisms have
gill slits, including humans

Genetic Information as Evidence of Evolution

Small mutations in DNA can eventually lead to the evolution of new species. For
example, a single insertion, deletion, or substitution can lead to major changes in
appearance, such as Young Klein Filter Syndrome, Young Sickle Cell Anemia, or
Cystic Fibrosis. Over time, these small changes can accumulate and lead to evolution

Comparing Chromosomes and Amino Acid Sequences

By comparing the chromosomes and amino acid sequences of different organisms,

we can see their similarities and differences. For example, humans and chimpanzees
have a 98.8% similarity in their DNA, but humans have 46 chromosomes and
chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes. When comparing amino acid sequences,
humans and chimpanzees have the same sequence for hemoglobin, while other
animals have different sequences.
 MODULE 6 : THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

Understanding the Theories of Evolution

The most essential learning competency is to explain the occurrence of evolution.

Prior to this discussion, we have already discussed the evidences of evolution. The
two major scientists who contributed in the study of evolutionary theory are John
Baptist Lamarck and Charles Darwin

History of Evolutionary Thought

The first belief is catastrophism, proposed by Abraham Werner and Baron George
Kovir. Catastrophism states that the earth and geological events had formed
suddenly as a result of some great catastrophe. The second belief is
uniformitarianism, which tells us that the earth has always changed in uniform
ways and that the present is the key to the past. Large geological changes occurred
not in catastrophic events but in gradual accumulation of small geological changes
over long period of time

John Baptist Lamarck’s Theories

Lamarck developed one of the first theories on how species changed. He concluded
that organisms of higher complexity had evolved from pre-existing less complex
organisms. Lamarck’s theories include the theory of need, the theory of use and
disuse, and the theory of acquired characteristics. The theory of need states that
organisms change because they need to and for an organism to evolve a structure it
must need the structure. The theory of use and disuse states that organisms develop
specialized characteristics by the use and misuse of organs. The theory of acquired
characteristics states that if a parent acquires a body structure during its lifetime it
could pass on that characteristic structure to its offspring

Criticism of Lamarck’s Theories

During Lamarck’s time, a lot of experiments disproved his theories especially the
third theory which is the theory of acquired characteristics. For example, petals on
flowers do not change based on the color that breeders prefer

Introduction of Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin is the second major scientist who contributed in the study of
evolutionary theory. He proposed the theory of natural selection.

Understanding Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theories

Lamarck’s theory of evolution suggests that an organism can pass on traits acquired
during its lifetime to its offspring, but this has been disproven by examples such as
watching Bridgerton on Netflix or exercising frequently. Darwin proposed the
theory of evolution by natural selection, which became the foundation of modern
evolutionary studies. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection is based on
the idea that individuals with the most favorable traits for an environment survive
and pass on those traits, also known as “survival of the fittest”

Darwin’s Voyage on the HMS Beagle

Darwin traveled on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836 and collected many specimens
and documented his observations. He spent five weeks on the Galapagos Islands
and found finches with different sizes and shapes of beaks, which helped him
develop his theory of evolution by natural selection. It took him 20 years to organize
the data from his voyage and write his book, “On the Origin of Species”

The Theory of Natural Selection

The theory of natural selection has six main points: species overproduction,
competition, variation, adaptation, natural selection, and the survival of the fittest.
During Darwin’s time, they did not know about mutation, but variation in traits and
adaptation to the environment were key factors in the survival and reproduction of
certain individuals. Organisms that survive and reproduce are the parents of
succeeding generations. Favorable adaptations gradually accumulate in the species
and unfavorable ones disappear. Speciation is the process of formation of new
species

Comparison of Lamarck and Darwin’s Giraffes

-According to Lamarck, giraffes stretch their necks to reach food and pass on the
long necks to their offspring

-According to Darwin, during early times, there are giraffes with different varieties
such as long necks, medium length necks and short necks

Example of Natural Selection: Peppered Moths

Before the industrial revolution in Britain, peppered moths with white coloring were
common and black coloring was rare mutation. After the industrial revolution,
airborne pollution covered the trees with soot, making them dark colored.

MODULE 7 : BIODIVERSITY

Introduction to Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the differences or variations of organisms. It includes plants, animals,
fungi, viruses, and bacteria. Biodiversity shows that all living organisms are
interconnected

Food Chain and Energy Pyramid

A food chain shows the sequence of organisms feeding on one another. An energy
pyramid is a graphical representation of the flow of energy in a trophic level in an
ecosystem. A trophic level is a group of organisms within an ecosystem that occupy
the same level in a food chain or energy pyramid

Population

-A population is a group of living organisms belonging to the same species that live
in a certain geographical area. Examples of populations include a group of humans,
a school of fish, or a corn field

Population Growth

Population growth shows the trend of whether a certain population is increasing or

decreasing. Factors that affect population growth include natality, mortality,
immigration, emigration, and geographical space and availability of resources

Population Growth Models

The two models for population growth are exponential and logistic growth.
Exponential growth is a J-shaped graph where organisms reproduce at a constant
rate. Logistic growth is an S-shaped curve where organisms reproduce increasingly
but gradually decreases due to a finite amount of resources

Carrying Capacity

The carrying capacity is the maximum amount of population that a certain area can
support. Logistic growth depicts a more realistic model of population growth
because resources would be limited, causing the gradual decrease in population