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Lecture 2
Learning goals
Propositional Language
Learning goals
Propositional Language
𝐴 not 𝐴
1 0
0 1
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 and 𝐵
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 or 𝐵
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
𝐴 𝐵 if 𝐴 then 𝐵
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 iff 𝐵
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Is a connective symmetric?
▶ And, Or, and Equivalence are symmetric. The order of the
two propositions does not affect the truth value of the
compound proposition.
▶ Implication is not symmetric. If A then B, and if B then A
have different truth values.
Learning goals
Propositional Language
▶ Proposition symbols: 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, … .
▶ Connective symbols: ¬, ∧, ∨, →, ↔.
Oral reading of logical connectives
¬ not negation
∧ and conjunction
∨ or (inclusive) disjunction
→ if, then (imply) implication
↔ iff (equivalent to) equivalence
▶ Punctuation symbols: ( and ).
Definition (𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ))
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ) is the set of expressions of 𝐿𝑝 consisting of a
proposition symbol only.
Definition (𝐹 𝑜𝑟𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ))
An expression of 𝐿𝑝 is a member of 𝐹 𝑜𝑟𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ) if and only if its
being so follows from (1) - (3):
1. 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ) ⊆ 𝐹 𝑜𝑟𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ).
2. If 𝐴 ∈ 𝐹 𝑜𝑟𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ), then (¬𝐴) ∈ 𝐹 𝑜𝑟𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ).
3. If 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝐹 𝑜𝑟𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ), then (𝐴 ∗ 𝐵) ∈ 𝐹 𝑜𝑟𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ) where ∗ is
one of the four binary connectives.
Note that 𝐹 𝑜𝑟𝑚(𝐿𝑝 ) is the minimum set that satisfies the
three conditions above.
Parse tree:
(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ((¬𝑝) ↔ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟))
𝑝 𝑞 (¬𝑝) (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
(((¬𝑝) ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ (¬𝑟)))
¬, ∧, ∨, →, ↔
Each connective on the left has priority over those on the right.