TOPIC 1:

LINES AND ANGLES

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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
1. Apply geometric concepts and construct geometric
proofs using both direct and indirect reasoning to form or
verify conjectures about plane figures.
2. Communicate mathematical ideas both in written and in
oral form.

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 1.1 SETS AND REASONING
1.1.1 SETS
Set is any collection of objects where the objects in
set are called as elements.

Let X and Y be two sets, then X is a subset of Y if

every element in X is also an element Y denoted
by X  Y . We also say that X is contained in Y
or Y contains X.

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The union of X and Y, denoted by X  Y , is the set
of all elements which belong to X or to Y, that is
X  Y  { x : x  X or x Y } .
The intersection of X and Y, denoted by X  Y , is
the set of all elements which belong to both X
and Y, that is X  Y  { x : x  X and x Y } . If X and
Y do not have any elements in common, then X
and Y are said to be disjoint or nonintersecting,
denoted by X  Y   .
Venn-diagram is a pictorial representation of sets
in which sets are represented by enclosed areas
on the plane.
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Example 1:
1. X = {1,2,3} can be said as ‘X is a set of elements
1,2 and 3’ or ‘1,2 and 3 are the elements of set
X, denoted by 1,2,3  X ‘. The Venn-diagram for
X,

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2. A = {a,b,c,d}. So, e  A and read as ‘e is not an
element in A’.
3. A = {1,2,3} and B = {counting number}. Then,
A  B.

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4. T = {all triangles} and P = {all polygons}. Then,
T P

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1.1.2 STATEMENT
Statement is a set of words and/or symbols that
collectively make a claim that can be classified
as true or false.
Example 2:
1. 4 + 3 = 7 is a statement.
2. 7 < 3 is a statement.
3. Look out! is not a statement.
4. Where do you live? is not a statement

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Negation of a statement is the opposite of the
original statement. If the given statement is true,
then its negation is false and vice versa.
Negation is denoted by ‘~’ and read as ‘not’. If P is
a statement then the negation of P is denoted by
~P.
The truth value of negation is as follows,

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Example 3:
1. Given that P : 4 + 3 = 7. So, ~P : 4 + 3 ≠ 7.
2. Given that Q : All fish can swim. So, ~Q : Some
fish cannot swim.

Compound statement is a statement that

contained two or more statements separated by
logical connectors.

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A conjunction is a compound statement formed by
using the word ‘and’, denoted by  , to join two
simple statements. Let p and q be two
statements. The conjunction statement of p and
q is denoted by p  q .
The truth value of p  q is as follow,

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Example 4:
1. Let p : Amy played netball.
q : Ali played soccer.
p  q : Amy played netball and Ali played
soccer.

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A disjunction is a compound statement formed by
using the word ‘or’, denoted by , to join two
simple statements. Let p and q be two
statements. The disjunction statement of p and q
is denoted by p  q .
The truth value of p q is as follow,

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Example 5:
1. Let p : She runs slow.
q : He walks fast.
p q : She runs slow or he walks fast.
A conditional statement (or implication) is a
statement that is usually expressed with ‘If
…then …’. The conditional ‘if p then q’ is
denoted by p  q and as well read as ‘p implies
q’.

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The truth value of p  q is as follow,

Example 6:
1. Let p : Sarah is absent.
q : Sarah has a make-up assignment to
complete.
p  q : If Sarah is absent then she has a make-
up assignment to complete.
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1.1.3 REASONING
Reasoning is a process based on experience and
principles that allows one to arrive at a
conclusion.
Three types of reasoning: a) intuition
b) induction
c) deduction

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Intuition : an inspiration leading to the statement of
a theory.
Induction : an organized effort to test and validate
that theory.
Deduction : a formal argument that proves the
tested theory.

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Law of Detachment
Let P and Q be simple statements and assume 1
and 2 are true. Then, a valid argument having
conclusion C has form

Otherwise, invalid argument.

Note that  means ‘therefore’.

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 Example 7:
Determine the following argument is valid or invalid.
1.

Solution:
Let p : It is raining.
q : Tim will stay in the house.
We have,

Thus, valid argument.

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2.

Solution:
Let p : A man lives in Kuala Lumpur.
q : A man lives in Malaysia.
We have,

Thus, invalid argument.

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 1.2 GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT
Namely A, B and C are three points. When A, B
and C are on the same line, then they are said to
be collinear.
Line segment is part of a line that consists of two
distinct points on the line and all points between
them. Suppose line AB has a line segment, that
is indicated by AB .

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From the diagram below, let AC be the line
segment of ABC . Then,

1. If AB = BC, then
a. Point B is the midpoint of AC.
b. AB  BC and read as ‘AB congruent to BC ’.
2. AC and DE are intersect at point B.

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Consider the diagram below. Then,

1. ABC  CBD .
2. ABD has been bisected, i.e. a line segment (or an
angle) is separated to two parts of equal measure
(Note : trisect means a line segment (or an angle) is
separated into three parts of equal measure).
3. DBF is a straight angle, i.e. any angle having 1800
measure.
4. EBF is a right angle, i.e. any angle having 900
measure.
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Let figure below represent a circle.

1. Point O is the center of a circle.

2. OA is the radius (plural : radii) of a circle.
3. AB is an arc of a circle.

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Exercise 1.2
Answer the following questions accordingly.
1. a) How many endpoints does a line segment have?
b) How many midpoints does a line segment have?
2.

Find
a) ABC if 1  32 and  2  39 .
0 0

b) 1 if ABC  68 and 1   2 .
0

c) x if 1  x , 2  2 x  3 and ABC  72 .
0

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 1.3 DEFINITION AND POSTULATES
Note that axiom or postulate is a statement that is
assumed to be true.
Theorem is a proved statement.
Four parts of mathematical system:

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Characteristics of a good definition:

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Postulate 1.3.1:
Through two distinct points, there is exactly one
line.
Postulate 1.3.2: Ruler Postulate
The measure of any line segment is a unique
positive number.
Postulate 1.3.3: Segment-addition Postulate
If X is a point on AB and A-X-B, then AX + XB =
AB.

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Postulate 1.3.4:
If two lines intersect, they intersect at a point.
Postulate 1.3.5:
Through three noncollinear points, there is exactly
one plane.
Postulate 1.3.6:
If two distinct planes intersect, then their
intersection is a line.

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Postulate 1.3.7:
Given two distinct points in a plane, the line
containing these points also lies in the plane.
Theorem 1.3.1:
The midpoint of a line is unique.
Postulate 1.3.8:
The measure of an angle is a unique positive
number.
Postulate 1.3.9: Angle-addition Postulate
If a point D lies in the interior of an angle ABC,
then ABD  DBC  ABC .
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1.4 LINES AND ANGLES
Definition: Perpendicular lines
Perpendicular lines are two lines that meet to form
congruent adjacent angles. If two lines m and p
are perpendicular, they denoted by m  p .
Theorem 1.4.1:
If two lines are perpendicular then they meet to
form right angles (right angle denoted by □).

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An angle is the union of two rays that share a
common endpoint.
Two angles are said to be adjacent if they have a
common vertex and a common side between
them.
Congruent angles are two angles with the same
measure.
The bisector of an angle is the ray that separates
the given angle into two congruent angles.

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Two angles are complementary if the sum of their
measure is 900. Each angle in the pair is known
as the complement of other angle, i.e. 1   2  900 .

Two angles are supplementary if the sum of the

measure is 1800. Each angle on the pair is
known as the supplement of other angle, i.e.
1   2  1800 .

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Vertical angles are the pair of nonadjacent angles
in opposite directions when two straight lines are
intersect.
Theorem 1.4.2:
If two lines intersect, then the vertical angles
formed are congruent.

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Types of angles:

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Example 8:
Considering the diagram below,

a) 1 and3 as well as 2 and  4 are vertical angles.

b) 1 and  2 are one of the adjacent angles.
c) 1 and  2 are congruent iff 1   2 where A is the bisector.

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Example 9:
1. Given that1  300 . Find:
a. The complement of 1 .
b. The supplement of 1 .

Solution:

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2. Consider the diagram in Example 8. Find the value of 1 ,
 2 ,3 and  4 if,

Solution:
We know that 1   2  1800 . Then,

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By Theorem 1.4.2, we know that vertical angles are
congruent, then

Using simultaneous equation of (1) and (2),

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Substitute y = 200 into (1), then

Thus,

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Exercise 1.4
1. Two angles are supplementary. One angle is 240 more
than twice the other. Find the measure of each angle.
2. Two angles are complementary. One angle is 120 larger
than the other. Find the size of each angle by solving a
system of equations.
3. Given that ST bisect RSV where
i) RST  x  y
ii) TSV  2 x  2 y
iii) RSV  64
0

Find x and y.

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 1.5 GEOMETRIC AND FORMAL
PROOFS
1.5.1 GEOMETRIC PROOF
Properties of equality

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Further algebraic properties of equality

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Example 10:
Given APB on AB . Prove that AP = AB – PB
Solution:

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Properties of inequality

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Example 11:
15
1. Given -4y > 30. Prove that y  .
2
Solution:

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 1 2 1
2. Given that 2k   . Prove that k  .
3 3 2

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1.5.2 RELATIONS
Definition: Relations
Let A and B be sets. A binary relation, or simply relation
from A to B is a subset of A  B, where the relation is
denoted by R.
For each pair of a  A and b  B , exactly one of the
following is true.
i) (a, b)  R, we then say ‘a is R-related to b’, written as
aRb.
ii) (a, b)  R, we then say ‘a is not R-related to b’, written
as a Rb .

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In general, a relation connects two elements of an
associated set of objects.
Relation properties

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An equivalence relation is a relation that has reflexive,
symmetric and transitive properties.
Congruence of angles (or line segments) is closely tied to
equality of angle measures (or line segment measures)
by the definition of congruence.
Properties for the congruence of angles

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Example 12:
Consider the following diagram.

Given that AC intersects BD at O. Prove that  2   4 .

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Solution:

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1.5.3 FORMAL PROOF
Essential parts of the formal proof of a theorem:
1. Statement : States the theorem to be proved.
2. Drawing : Represents the hypothesis of the theorem.
3. Given : Describes the Drawing according to the
information found in the hypothesis of the
theorem.
4. Prove : Describes the Drawing according to the
claim made in the conclusion of a theorem.
5. Proof : Order a list of claims (Statements) and
justification (Reasons), beginning with the Given
and ending with the Prove; there must be a
logical flow in this Proof.

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Example 13:
Conduct a formal proof to prove that if two lines are
perpendicular, then they meet to form right angles.
Solution:

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Let a statement be represented by ‘if p then q’. Then,
The converse of a statement is ‘if q then p’.
The inverse of a statement is ‘if not p then not q’.
The contrapositive of a statement is ‘if not q then not p’.

Example 14:
Statement : A square is a rectangle.
Converse : A rectangle is a square.
Inverse : If it is not a square then it is not a rectangle.
Contrapositive : If it is not a rectangle then it is not a square.

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Exercise 1.5
1. Given that DEF on DF. Prove that DE = DF - EF.
2. Given that BD bisects ABC . Prove that
1
ABD  ABC
2
3. Prove that if a = b and c = d, then a – c = b – d .
3 1 5
4. Given that (1  x)   x . Prove that x  .
2 4 2
x 2 60
5. Given that  2  ( x  3) . Prove that x   .
5 3 7

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6.

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2019/2020