FACTORS IN CONSTRUCTING
Mental measurement is also known as
EVALUATIVE INSTRUMENTS
Post evaluation (subject itself)
POST evaluation (PRELIM EXAM)
What are Assessment Instruments?
When educators want to know a student's current
level of understanding in some domain of
knowledge, they typically administer some kind of
achievement test.
Similarly, when educators want to understand a
student's current level on some developmental
continuum, they administer a psychological test.
Both these types of tests will be referred to as
assessment tools or instruments. They are used to
quantify a student's level of knowledge or
development.
Quality of education has become very important
in today’s competitive environment. There is
definitely a need to adapt to change in the
educational process in order to improve.
Educational measurement requires the
establishment of a strong feedback loop with
evaluation being a continuous process and not just
left until the program of study.
Measurement - The process of measurement is an
essential part of the learning system. Measurement
is always done of a quality, attribute or variable of
a thing or a person. Psychologists and
educationists are mainly concerned with variables
and attributes. (IQ, EQ)
 Thorndike stated that ‘anything that exists
at all, exists in some quantity; and anything
that exists in some quantity is capable of
being measured’. Measurement of any kind
is a matter of determining how much or how
little, how great or how small, how much more
done or how much less than.
 The encyclopedia of educational research
explains measurement in more refined terms;
to measure means ‘ to observe or to determine
Types of measurement
1. Physical measurement is the measurement of
the object which has absolute existence. For
example, we measure the height of
individuals, the weight of rice etc. Hence, we
directly measure the height or weight of an
individual and all the measuring tools of
physical measurement start from zero.
Physical measurement is always accurate and
quantitative, and there are some set of tools for
physical measurement all over the world.
2.
‘educational measurement or psychological
measurement’. It is always relative and there is
no absolute zero in case of mental
measurement. For example, for measuring the
intelligence of a person we have to take the
help of intelligence tests which are subjective
in nature. Through this response, we can know
the level of intelligence of the person
concerned. Mental measurement is both
qualitative and quantitative in nature, the same
set of tools may not be applied to different
types of persons.
In the teaching-learning situation, teachers should
be competent enough to measure the students’
achievement, intelligence, attitude, aptitude etc.
To develop competency among teachers in
educational measurement, Ebel suggested the
following measures:
1. Know how to administer a test properly,
efficiently and fairly.
2. Know how to interpret test scores correctly
and fully
3. Know how to select standardized test that will
be effective in a particular situation
4. Know how to plan a test and write test
questions, to be included in it.
5. Know the educational uses as well as the
limitations of educational tests.
6. Know the criteria by which the quality of a
test should be judged and how to secure
evidence relating to these criteria
Characteristics of good measurement tools
1. Should be valid: Validity of a test refer to its
truthfulness. It refers to extent to which a test
measures what it actually wishes to measure.
2. Should be reliable: Reliability means the
consistency of a measuring instruments (how
accurately it measures). It refers to faithfulness
of the test. For example, a test is administered
on Social Studies to the students of grade 8 in
the test Ram scores 50. After a few days, the
same test is administered and Ram scores 50.
Here, the test is reliable because there is
consistency in the results.
3. Should be objective: Objectivity of the test
refers to “Item objectivity” aspects.
By “item objectivity” we mean that the items
of the test must need a definite single answer.
Ambiguous questions, lack of proper
direction, questions with double negative,
 essay type questions must be avoided because
they lack objectivity. When we say “item
objectivity, we mean that whomsoever scored,
the test would fetch the same score.
4. Should be comprehensive and precise: The
test must be comprehensive and precise. It
means that the items must be free from
ambiguity. The directions of the test must be
clear and understandable.
5. Should be easy in administering: If the
directions for administration are complicated,
or if they involve more time and labour, the
takers may be lag behind.
6. Should be easy in scoring: The scoring
procedure of the test should be clear and
simple. The scoring directions and adequate
scoring key should be provided to the scorer
so that the test is easily scored.
7. Should have good and attractive get
up/appearance: The quality of papers used,
typography and printing, letter size, spacing,
pictures and diagrams presented, its binding,
space for students’ response etc., need to be of
very good quality and attractive.
Different types of measuring scales
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
For both physical and mental measurement, some
tools and methods are necessary. The variation of
method may be due to the nature of variable and
purpose of measurement
1. Test - A test consists of a set of questions to
be answered or tasks to be performed. Tests
are used to assess the ability or trait in
question. Psychological and educational tests
are standardized procedure to measure
quantitatively or qualitatively one or more
than one aspect or trait by means of a sample
of verbal or non-verbal behaviours. The
psychological tests are used to know the
ability of the students, to diagnose the
weakness, to predict the future progress, and
to provide educational and vocational
guidance. Different type of test are:
achievement test, intelligence test, attitude
test, aptitude test, personality test, etc.
2. Observation - There are certain traits like
honesty, punctuality, persistence,
truthfulness etc., which can hardly be
measured objectively via test. So, here,
observation is an important technique of
measurement. The observation may be
participant observation or non-participant
observation for accurate and scientific
observation. One may use an observation
schedule and other instruments.
3. Interview - Interview is a face-face interaction
between one interviewee and one interviewer
or more than one interviewers. There are some
certain things which an individual does not
want to express and they can be only assessed
through interviews. The interview schedules
may be used and the interviewer through a
better personal support, and congenial
atmosphere, can succeed to bring out the inner
feelings of the interviewee through carefully
planned interviews
4. Checklist - A checklist is a series of items that
need response from the respondents.
5. Rating scales - Psychological traits are
relative concepts. So it is very difficult.
Sometimes the degree of a trait is necessary on
the part of the rater. Rating scale is used to
evaluate the personal and social conduct of the
learner. We take the opinion of teachers or
parents or friends or judges on a particular
quality of trait of a student along a scale. The
rating scale may be 5 points, 7 points, 9 points,
or 11 points. For example, to assess the
particular trait, we can use the 5-point scale as:
very good, good, average, below average and
poor.
6. Attitude scales - Attitude refers to the bent of
mind or feelings of an individual towards an
object, an idea, an institution, a belief, subject
or even a person. Attitude scales are used to
measure this trait objectively with accuracy.
Need for measurement and evaluation in
education
1. Quantitative measurement - we often do
the quantitative measurement of the
performance of students through tests. It
usually is the case that more time is spent on
teaching a unit than testing it. The
achievement of the students usually depends
on the nature of tests such as teacher-made
tests, standardized tests, etc. But the
achievement also depends on the physical
and mental health of the student, the level of
their preparation and motivation during the
tests. The marks obtained by the students in
different subjects in terminal examinations
and expressed in percentage of marks
 obtained as the aggregate is an example of
applying quantitative measurement.
2. Qualitative assessment - the qualitative
assessment description implies observation
by teachers and records maintained by them
pertaining to various facets of student
personality and performance in the school.
The systematic record of statement by
teachers about the special achievement or
exceptional ability in non-scholastic area or
exceptional behaviour of students is one of
the illustrations of the qualitative assessment
description.
What is an example of qualitative assessment?
These are some of the most
common qualitative methods: Observations:
recording what you have seen, heard, or
encountered in detailed field notes. Interviews:
personally, asking people questions in one-on-one
conversations. Focus groups: asking questions and
generating discussion among a group of people.
3. Teachers' opinion - teachers form opinions
about the students on the basis of
conclusions drawn by them from quantitative
measures and a qualitative description of the
behavior of students. The opinion of a
teacher arrived at on the basis of qualitative
and quantitative measurement gives a
comprehensive picture of the student’s
progress. Though it is an evaluation in an
informal setting, yet, it conveys information
about the student's performance on some
vital issues.
Importance of continuous and comprehensive
evaluation
It does not suffice in the modern era that one is
good only in academics. There are lots of
opportunities for the students who somehow could
not perform satisfactorily in academics. These
activities need to be evaluated at a regular basis
and are classified into scholastic and non-
scholastic areas. It is imperative that continuous
and comprehensive evaluation should be practiced
in schools.
The assessment of the achievement and
performance in all three domains is
‘comprehensive’ evaluation. The students’
education is a continuous process which is a result
of their continuous learning both in formal and
informal settings. They go through various
experiences such as teaching, learning, practical
observations, self-study etc. The expected
behavioral changes in children are reinforced by
their direct involve and self-learning. These
modifications may be related to the development
of intellect, emotions and practical skills. Not just
children, even teachers benefit this kind of
evaluation since they are encouraged to take
important decisions regarding the learning
process, efficiency, ensuring quality and
accountability.
Continuous and comprehensive evaluation
helps to empower teachers in the following
ways:
 They get pointers on how to improve the
evaluation procedure.
 They can formulate ways to help student
master competencies in which the students are
falling behind through planned remedial steps
 They can select and deploy media such as
audio visual for teaching in classrooms,
especially subjects which cannot be
understood purely with theoretical learning.
To sum up, following are the reasons why
continuous and comprehensive evaluation is
important to improve the overall education
system:
• For making sure that learning in schools is not
just about rote methods.
• For ensuring that the examination system is
more flexible and tests capabilities of a wider
range
• For making sure that the curriculum enriches
the individual as a whole besides promoting
academic learning
• For ensuring that classroom knowledge is
relevant to the life outside as well.
DEVELOPMENT OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS
What is objective test?
It is generally call for single word, phrase,
number, letter and other symbols to items.
It is defined as one which the scoring rules are so
specific that they do not allow scorers to make
subjective inferences or judgements.
Categories of objective test
Selected Response Format
 True or False
 Multiple choice
 Matching type
Constructed Response Format
 Supply Type
 Enumeration
  Identification
 Completion Type
True or False - An objective type test presented
in a form simple declarative statement, to which
the students respond indicating the statement is
true or false. It is applicable to all learning areas.
Types of TOF test:
■ Simple True or False
■ Modified True or False
■ True or False with options- look
■ Fact or Opinion
How to construct true or false type test?
 Do not copy statement from the book.
 As a general practice, keep variety of
proportions of true or false statements.
 Express your statement in a simple
language as possible.
 Keep your sentences reasonably short or
restrict them to have one central area.
Identification type of test - An object type of test
in a form of completion test which is defined,
describe, explained or indicated by a picture,
diagram or a concrete object and the term referred
to is supplied by the student.
How to construct identification type of test?
 The definition, description or explanation
of the term may be given by means of
phrase or incomplete statement if it’s not
indicated by a picture, diagram or complete
object.
 The statement should also be phrased that
there is only one response.
Multiple-Choice Test - Is a test used to measure
knowledge outcomes and other types of learning
outcomes such as comprehensions and
applications. Most commonly used format in
measuring student achievements in different levels
of learning.
Consist of three
1. Stem- represents the problem questions.
2. Keyed option- correct answer
3. Distracters- incorrect options or alternatives.
General Guidelines in Constructing the
Multiple-choice Test
1. Make a practical test.
2. Use diagram or drawing when asking
questions about application, analysis or
evaluation.
3. Use tables, figures, or charts when asking
questions to interpret.
4. Use pictures when students are required to
apply concepts and principles.
5. When ask to interpret or evaluate quotations,
present actual quotations.
6. List of choices vertically
7. Avoid trivial questions.
8. Use one correct answer only.
9. Use to three to five options.
10. Be sure to use effective distracters.
11. Increase similarity of the options.
12. Do not use “none of the above” when asking
for a best answer.
13. Avoid using “all of the above” options.
 Guidelines in Constructing the Stem
1. The stem should be written in questions form
or completion form.
2. Do not leave blank at the beginning or at the
middle of the stem in completion form.
3. Clear and concise.
4. In a positive form. Avoid using negative
words, if you do underline or capitalize.
Ex. Which of the following does NOT belong to
the group?
5. Stem is grammatically correct.
 Guidelines in constructing options
1. One correct or best answer only.
2. List of options are vertical.
3. Avoid creating a pattern
4. Options must be homogenous in content.
5. As much as possible options must be in the
same length
6. Avoid the phrase “all of the above’, “none of
the above” or “I don’t know”.
 Guidelines in constructing Distracters
1. The distracters should be plausible
2. Should be equally popular with the rest of the
options.
Advantages:
Measures learning outcomes.
Scoring is highly objective, easy and reliable
Scores are reliable than subjective type of test
Distracters can provide diagnostic information
Disadvantages:
Time consuming
Difficult to construct plausible distracters
In some cases, there are more than one possible
answer.
Ineffective in assessing problem solving skills of
the students.
Not applicable in assessing the students’ ability to
organize and express ideas.
Table of Specifications (TOS) - a tool used to To organize ideas based on their own
ensure that a test or assessment measures the understanding.
content and thinking skills that the test intends to Reasons for low constructed response scores
measure. Thus, when used appropriately, it can  Many students don’t answer the question.
provide response content and construct (i.e.,  Some responses are very shallow and need
response process) validity evidence. details
What is the importance of table of  Some students get off the topic
specification? The purpose of a Table of  Spelling and handwriting can affect a student’s
Specifications is to identify the achievement score
domains being measured and to ensure that a fair  Students don’t understand what the question is
and representative sample of questions appear on asking
the test.  Instead of writing about what the passage
How do I make a table of specification? talked about, students write what they know
Three steps are involved in creating a Table of about the topic.
Specifications: 1) choosing the measurement goals
 Student don’t think about their audience.
and domain to be covered, 2) breaking the domain
SIX STEPS FOR ANSWERING A
into key or fairly independent parts- concepts,
CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE QUESTIONS
terms, procedures, applications, and 3)
Step 1. Re-read the passage at least once, then re-
constructing the table.
read the questions carefully to decide all the parts
What are the components of table of
it is asking for. Mark the key words in the
specification?
questions. The key words are the verb or verbs,
Tables of Specification typically are designed
any characters names, or key literary terms.
based on the list of course objectives, the topics
Step 2. Rewrite the question in your own words to
covered in class, the amount of time spent on
make sure that you know exactly what isa being
those topics, textbook chapter topics, and the
asked. Then, turn that question into a topic
emphasis and space provided in the text.
sentence for your answer.
A table of specifications is simply a test plan. ...
Step 3. Go back to passage and collect the needed
The numbers, such as 2 at the Remember level for
information. Make sure you get the relevant
each objective, indicate how many items the
details (if the question asks for 3 details, make
instructor plans to include on the test for each
sure you find 3 details.
objective and level of learning. This type of table:
Step 4. Organize the details into a logical order.
helps faculty assure adequate coverage of content
Use a graphic organizer if that helps. See the
DEVELOPMENT OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS
graphic organizer in your packet.
What is an objective test?
Step 5. Write your answers neat and presentable
It is generally call for single word, phrase,
Remind students that there are people who will be
number, letter and other symbols to items.
reading and scoring their answer. The neater they
It is defined as one which the scoring rules are so
write, the easier it is for the scorers to understand
specific that they do not allow scorers to make
what they are trying to say.
subjective inferences or judgements.
Step 6. Re-read your answers to be sure you
Constructed response format - A constructed
answered all the parts of the question.
response question is a short answer question.
*Have students work in pairs and re-read their
It is a written response portion of the test. It test
answer aloud to a partner. This ensures that they
your ability to analyze interpret, and comprehend.
actually read it and helps them notice things that
This shows…
don’t sound correct.
You have clear, logical reasoning
SUPPLY TYPE - Supply type test items require
You can use specific, relevant examples
the learner to furnish a response in the form of a
You can use evidence for support
word, sentence, or paragraph. The supply type
Why should we teach constructed response?
item requires the learner to organize knowledge.
To develop the writing skills of the students.
ANALOGY TEST - This type is made of items
To develop the higher order thinking skills of the
consisting of a pair of words that are related to
students
each other. It is designed to measure the ability of
students to observe the pair relationship of the first
group to the second group.
ENUMERATION - An objective type test in
which there are two or more responses to an item
To enumerate is defined as to mention things one
by one or to make clear the number of things. An
example of enumerate is give the 7 continents of
the world.
IDENTIFICATION - It is a type of an
examination which can be scored objectively.
A recall type of examination, usually demands
only a short answer, most often used to test
(remembering) key facts and terms, it is also a
form of a Restricted Response Test.
ADVANTAGES
 Easy to construct
 Low probability of guessing the answer.
Because it has to be supplied by the examinees
rather than select from the given options.
 They are good to test the lowest level of
cognitive taxonomy.
DISADVANTAGES OR LIMITATIONS
 Identification tests measure only rote memory.
 They are usually restricted to short words,
hence, items tend to measure the recall of
specific facts, names, places, and events and
rarely measure more complex outcomes.
Guidelines in preparing identification test
1. Give student a reasonable basis for the
responses desired. Avoid indefinite statements.
2. Avoid giving the student unwarranted clues to
the desired response.
 Avoid lifting statements directly from the
book.
 Omit only words or phrase than trivial details.
 Whenever possible avoid “a” or “an”
immediately before a blank. These words may
give a clue of whether a response starts with
consonant or vowel.
3. Arrange the test so as to facilitate scoring.
 Allow one point for each blank filed. Avoid
unequal weighing of items in a test.
 Select the items to which only one correct
response is possible.
 Arrange the items as far as possible so that the
students’ responses are in a column at the right
at the sentences.
 Scoring is more rapid if the blanks are
numbered and the student is directed to write
their response in the appropriate numbered
blanks.
 Prepare a key for scoring by writing on a copy
of the test of all the acceptable answers.
COMPLETION TYPE TEST - This test
consists of a series of items which requires the
testee to fill a word or phrase on the blanks. This
is also called filling the blank type of test.
(Example: Fill in the blank)
Fill in the blanks-Prompts that omit only one or
two key words at the end of the sentence
A Fill in the Blank question consists of a phrase,
sentence, or paragraph with a blank space where a
student provides the missing word or words. You
can also create a question with multiple blanks.
In fill in the blanks. Keep answers for the blanks
simple and brief. To avoid difficulties with auto-
grading, you can limit answers to one word. One-
word answers prevent issues such as extra spaces
or word order causing a correct answer to be
scored as incorrect.
Rules and Regulations in Completion Type
1. Give the student a reasonable basis for the
responses desired. Avoid indefinite statements.
2. Avoid giving students unwarranted clues to
the desired response.
Characteristics of a good test
Validity - it refers to the appropriateness or
truthfulness of a tool. A tool is valid if it measures
what is actually supposed to measure.
Reliability - it is referred to the trustworthiness or
consistency of measurement of a tool, whatever it
measures.
Objectivity - refers to the absence of subjective
bias in the interpretation of responses obtained by
the tool.
Economy - the test should be simple and
administered in a short time, saving money and
time.
What is Item Analysis? - It is a statistical
technique which is used for selecting and rejecting
the items of the test on the basis of their difficulty
value and discriminated power.
 RELIABITY - refers to the consistency of the
Purpose of Item Analysis: scores obtained.
 Evaluates the quality of each item.
SELECTION OF ITEMS
 Rationale: the quality of items determines the
quality of test (i.e., reliability & validity) 1. Based on the calculated values of item
 May suggest ways of improving the discrepancy and difficulty, appropriate
measurement of a test. items are chosen for the final form of the
Draft test.
Subjected to Item Analysis and Validation 2. Arranged the items in the increasing order
PHASE: of difficulty.
Try-out phase Assembly of the test in the final form
Item Analysis phase (level of difficulty) 1. Based upon on the discriminating power,
Item revision phase items are first chosen and among the chosen
Two Characteristics: items, items with proper difficulty level are
a) Item difficulty - For items with one correct finally selected for the final form.
alternative worth a single point, the item 2. Case should be taken to see that at least 50%
difficulty is simply the percentage of students of the items are average difficulty, 25% are
who answer an item correctly. ... It also plays easy, and 20% difficult and 5% are very
an important role in the ability of an item to difficult.
discriminate between students who know the 3. A detailed scoring scheme is also to be
tested material and those who do not. prepared.
b) Discrimination index - The discrimination 4. Appropriate instruction/procedure for
index is a basic measure of the validity of an administering the test has also to be developed
item. It is a measure of an item's ability to and incorporated suitably in the test.
discriminate between those who scored high ADVANTAGES OF ITEM ANALYSIS
on the total test and those who scored low. 1. Powerful technique to improve instructions.
INDEX OF DISCRIMINATION - Tells whether 2. Helpful for guidance.
it can discriminate between those who do not 3. Valid measures of instructional objectives
know the answer. 4. Gives clue to the nature of the
Difficulty in: misunderstanding and suggests remediation.
- Upper 25% of the class
- Lower 25% of the class
Example in getting the upper 25 % and lower 25%
 Total number of students 40
 Upper group 25%= 40 x 25%= 10
 Lower group 25% = 40 x 25%= 10
Discrimination Index (DI) of a question
indicates how well the question helps distinguish
those who do well on the total test and those who
perform poorly.
DI = (Number of correct answers in UG (25%) -
Number of correct answers in LG (25%) / size of
each group
VALIDATION - PURPOSE: to determine the
characteristics of the whole test itself, namely the
validity and reliability of the test.
VALIDITY - it is the extent to which a test
measure or as referring to the appropriateness,
correctness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the
specific decisions a teacher makes, based on the
test results.