Organ Systems (Digestive System, Skeletal System and Circulatory System)

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The main part of the digestive system in humans is the gastrointestinal tract or the alimentary canal.
The alimentary canal begins with the mouth and ends with the rectum.

HUMAN DIGESTION

1.) Mouth: In humans, digestion begins in the mouth. The digestion in the mouth is both physical and
chemical. The teeth are responsible for physical digestion as they cut, tear and grind the food into
smaller particles. Enzymes present in saliva are responsible for chemical digestion as they
breakdown carbohydrates to simple sugars.

The tongue that is present in the oral cavity helps to mix the saliva with the food. This mixing helps
to expose the carbohydrates to the saliva; thus, helping in their breakdown into sugars. The tongue
also helps to roll the broken down food into a ball-like structure called the bolus. It then pushes the
bolus into the pharynx (the common passage for food and air). The process by which the food is
pushed from the mouth into the pharynx is called swallowing. From the pharynx, the bolus enters
the oesophagus (food pipe). When the food is entering the oesophagus, the trachea (wind pipe) is
shut by a cartilage structure called the epiglottis. This ensures that food and liquid do not enter the
trachea.

In the oesophagus, no digestion takes place. The oesophagus, therefore, is just a tube that
connects the opening of the pharynx to the stomach. The food is pushed down the oesophagus
through a series of muscular movements (contractions and relaxations) called peristalsis. Peristaltic
movements are involuntary (they are not controlled by our will).
2.) Stomach: The bolus enters the stomach through the oesophagus. In the stomach, the food
particles in the bolus are further broken down as they are mixed with digestive fluid (gastric juice).
In the stomach, food remains for about 6 to 8 hours. Only protein digestion occurs here. From the
stomach the food passes into the small intestine. When the food leaves the stomach it is in the
form of chyme. Chyme is acidic in nature.

3.) Small Intestine: The acidic chyme that leaves the stomach enters the small intestine. In the small
intestine, digestion and absorption take place. The small intestine is made up of 3 parts:
 Duodenum: Responsible for digestion only.
 Jejunum: No digestion or absorption takes place
 Ileum: Responsible for both digestion and absorption.

The liver (releases bile which is stored in the gall bladder) and the pancreas (releases pancreatic juice)
are two organs associated with the digestive system.

4.) Large Intestine: Once food has passed through the small intestine what remains is the undigestible
material and water. The large intestine has the following parts:
 The caecum,
 The colon and
 The rectum.

The undigested material and water enters the colon of the large intestine. Here, absorption of water
takes place. The rectum is the final part of the large intestine. The material that remains, after the water
and minerals have been absorbed from the undigested food, is called faeces. Faeces are carried to the
rectum through peristalsis and finally removed through the anus.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Video 1: https://www.youtube.c`om/watch?v=WdCRrcfan44

Video 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1UHLY8L7eSs

The skeletal system provides the framework for the body. It is made up of bones. The adult human
skeleton has 206 bones.

Students are expected to know the names of the bones in the Human Skeleton (Fig 2.8 on pg 34 of
CheckPoint 1). Femur (thigh bone) is the longest bone in the body. Ear ossicles are the smallest bones
in the body.

Functions of the Skeleton:

1) The skeleton provides protection to vital organs of the body. The skull protects the brain, the rib
cage protects the heart and lungs and the vertebral column protects the spinal cord (Fig 2.9 on
pg 35 of CheckPoint 1).

2) The skeleton provides support for organs in the body. The pelvic girdle supports the organs
present in the thoracic (chest) and abdominal cavities.

3) The skeleton helps in movement. Joints are places where bones meet. Most joints (elbow,
knee and hip) allow movement. Joints in the skull do not move.
 The amount of movement permitted depends on the type of joint. The elbow and the knee for
example have a hinge joint. This joint allows only backward and forward movement.

The hip joint (femur with the pelvic girdle) and the shoulder joint (humerus with the scapula) are
ball and socket joints. These allow for much more movement.

Ligaments: Ligaments are fibres that connect two bones. They hold the bones in place when
they move.

Cartilage: Bones in a joint are covered with cartilage (human ear is made up of cartilage).
Cartilage prevents bones from wearing out as they rub against each other. It helps reduce
friction between bones.

Tendon: Tendons connect a muscle to a bone.

Synovial fluid: Synovial fluid is present in joints where there is a lot of movement taking place. It
spreads over the cartilage and acts like a lubricant reducing friction and wear and tear.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN HEART: (Students are expected to identify and label parts of
the human heart)
The human heart is a pump that is centrally located in the thoracic cavity along with the
lungs. The rib cage protects the heart and the lungs from physical damage.

Vertically the heart has the left and the right side. The division is due to a wall called the
septum.

The human heart has four chambers. The upper chambers are the auricles (also
called atrium, plural is atria) and the lower chambers are the ventricles. The auricles are thin
walled and the ventricles are thick walled. The left ventricle has the thickest wall.

The left side of the heart contains oxygenated blood while the right side contains
deoxygenated blood. Blood enters the heart through the auricles and leaves through the
ventricles. As blood enters and leaves the heart twice circulation in humans is called Double
Circulation.

Valves in the heart:

1) The valve between the right auricle and the right ventricle is called the right
auriculoventricular valve or the tricuspid valve.

2) The valve between the left auricle and the left ventricle is called the left
auriculoventricular valve or the bicuspid valve or the mitral valve.

3) The valve at that controls the entry of blood in the pulmonary artery is called the
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve.

4) The valve at that controls the entry of blood in the aorta is called the Aortic Semilunar
Valve.

Blood Vessels:

Blood flows through blood vessels. Arteries, veins and capillaries are the three blood
vessels. Arteries carry oxygenated blood (exception is the Pulmonary artery as it carries
deoxygenated blood). Veins carry deoxygenated blood (exception is the Pulmonary vein as it
carries oxygenated blood).

Videos:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BEWjOCVEN7M

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWFyxn0qDEU