Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

8th Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2015

CHAPTER 4
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
CLOSED SYSTEMS

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Examine the moving boundary work or P dV work commonly
encountered in reciprocating devices such as automotive engines
and compressors.
• Identify the first law of thermodynamics as simply a statement of
the conservation of energy principle for closed (fixed mass)
systems.
• Develop the general energy balance applied to closed systems.
• Define the specific heat at constant volume and the specific heat at
constant pressure.
• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes in
internal energy and enthalpy of ideal gases.
• Describe incompressible substances and determine the changes in
their internal energy and enthalpy.
• Solve energy balance problems for closed (fixed mass) systems
that involve heat and work interactions for general pure
substances, ideal gases, and incompressible substances.
2
MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
One form of mechanical work
frequently encountered in
practice is associated with the
expansion or compression of a
gas in a piston–cylinder device.

The expansion and compression work is

often called moving boundary work, or
simply boundary work

3
 Example:

Moving boundary work is the primary form of

work involved in automobile engines. During
their expansion, the combustion gases force
the piston to move, which in turn forces the
crankshaft to rotate.

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The moving boundary work for a quasi equilibrium process (a process during which the
system remains nearly in equilibrium at all times)

Quasi-equilibrium process, also called a quasistatic process, is

closely approximated by real engines, especially when the piston
moves at low velocities.

The gas enclosed in the piston–cylinder device

P: initial pressure of the gas
V: the total volume
A: the cross sectional area of the piston

the piston is allowed to move a distance ds in a

quasi-equilibrium manner

the differential work done during this process is

 The total boundary work done during the entire process as the piston moves is
obtained by adding all the differential works from the initial state to the final
state

This integral can be evaluated only if we know the functional relationship

between P and V during the process. That is, P = f(V) should be available. Note
that P = f(V) is simply the equation of the process path on a P-V diagram.

quasi-equilibrium expansion process

the area under the process curve on a P-V

diagram is equal, in magnitude, to the work
done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion or
compression process of a closed system.
A gas can follow several different paths as it
expands from state 1 to state 2.

In general, each path will have a different area

underneath it, and since this area represents
the magnitude of the work, the work done will
be different for each process.
a net work output because the work done by
the system during the expansion process (area
under path A) is greater than the work done
on the system during the compression part of
the cycle (area under path B), and the
difference between these two is the net work
done during the cycle (the colored area).
 In a car engine, for example, the boundary work done by the expanding hot
gases is used to overcome friction between the piston and the cylinder, to push
atmospheric air out of the way, and to rotate the crankshaft.

the energy transferred by the system as work

must equal the energy received by the
crankshaft, the atmosphere, and the energy
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used to overcome friction.
Mid-Summary:
Moving boundary work (P dV work):
The expansion and compression work
in a piston-cylinder device.
Quasi-equilibrium process:
A process during which the system
remains nearly in equilibrium at all
times.
Wb is positive → for expansion
Wb is negative → for compression
10
Mid-Summary: The boundary
work done
during a process
depends on the
path followed as
well as the end
states.

The area under the process curve on a P-V

diagram is equal, in magnitude, to the work
done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion or
compression process of a closed system. 11
Boundary Work for a Constant-Pressure Process

12
Boundary Work for a Constant-Volume Process
What is the boundary work
for a constant-volume
process?

15
Boundary Work for an Isothermal Compression Process

17
 Boundary Work for a Polytropic Process
During actual expansion and compression processes of gases, pressure and volume are
often related by PVn = C, where n and C are constants. A process of this kind is called a
polytropic process

A polytropic process is a thermodynamic process that

obeys the relation: where p is the pressure, V is volume,
n is the polytropic index, and C is a constant.

The polytropic process equation can describe multiple

expansion and compression processes which include
heat transfer.

For ideal gas

20
 ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS
Energy balance for any system undergoing
any process was express as…

Or Energy balance in the

rate form:

For constant rates, the

total quantities are related
to the quantities per unit
time as:
Energy balance per unit mass basis

Energy balance in differential form

For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the

initial and final states are identical, and thus

Energy balance for a cycle

24
 net heat input

net work output

Energy balance when sign convention is used: (i.e., heat input and
work output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation

for closed systems when sign
convention is used.

The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known
to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.
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• As energy quantities, heat and work are not that different, you probably
wonder why we keep distinguishing them.
• After all, the change in the energy content of a system is equal to the
amount of energy that crosses the system boundaries, and it makes no
difference whether the energy crosses the boundary as heat or work.
• It seems as if the first-law relations would be much simpler if we had just
one quantity that we could call energy interaction to represent both heat
and work.
• From the first-law point of view, heat and work are not different at all.
From the second-law point of view, however, heat and work are very
different, as is discussed in later chapters.

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Energy balance for a constant-pressure
expansion or compression process
General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure expansion
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium or compression process:
constant-pressure process. Q is to the
system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

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31
SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The
energy required to raise the temperature of
the unit mass of a substance by one degree
as the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The
energy required to raise the temperature of
the unit mass of a substance by one degree
as the pressure is maintained constant.

H=U+PV

Constant-
volume and
constant-
pressure specific
heats cv and cp
(values are for
helium gas). 34
 True or False?
cp is always greater than cv

• The equations are valid for any

substance undergoing any process.
• cv and cp are properties.
• cv is related to the changes in internal
energy and cp to the changes in
enthalpy.
• A common unit for specific heats is
kJ/kg·°C or kJ/kg·K. Are these units
Formal definitions of cv and 35
c p.
identical?
INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,
AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed
Internal energy and
using this For ideal gases,
enthalpy change of
experimental u, h, cv, and cp
an ideal gas
apparatus that vary with
u=u(T) temperature only.
36
 1. Joule submerged two tanks connected with a pipe and a valve in
a water bath

2. Initially, one tank contained air at a high pressure and the other
tank was evacuated.

3. When thermal equilibrium was attained, he opened the valve to

let air pass from one tank to the other until the pressures
equalized.

4. Joule observed no change in the temperature of the water bath

and assumed that no heat was transferred to or from the air.

5. Since there was also no work done, he concluded that the

internal energy of the air did not change even though the volume
and the pressure changed.

6. Therefore, he reasoned, the internal energy is a function of

temperature only and not a function of pressure or specific
volume.

Conclusion: Joule later showed that for gases that deviate significantly from ideal
gas behavior, the internal energy is not a function of temperature alone.

37
• At low pressures, all real gases approach
ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their
specific heats depend on temperature only.
• The specific heats of real gases at low
pressures are called ideal-gas specific
heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and
are often denoted cp0 and cv0.
• u and h data for a number of
gases have been tabulated.
• These tables are obtained by
choosing an arbitrary reference
point and performing the
integrations by treating state 1
as the reference state.

Ideal-gas
constant-
pressure specific
heats for some
gases (see In the preparation of ideal-gas
Table A–2c for tables, 0 K is chosen as the
cp equations). reference temperature.
38
39
About Table A-2
 The choice of the reference state has no effect on calculations. The u
and h data are given in kJ/kg for air (Table A–17) and usually in kJ/kmol for other
gases.

The properties Pr (relative pressure) and vr (relative specific volume) are dimensionless quantities used in the analysis of
isentropic processes (both adiabatic and reversible), and should not be confused with the properties pressure and specific
volume.
The specific heat values for some common gases are listed as a function of temperature
in Table A–2b.
Internal energy and enthalpy change
when specific heat is taken constant
at an average value

(kJ/kg)

43
Three ways of calculating Δu and Δh
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are readily
available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table
A-2c) as a function of temperature
and performing the integrations. This
is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats. This
is very simple and certainly very
convenient when property tables are Three ways of calculating
not available. The results obtained are Δu.
reasonably accurate if the
temperature interval is not very large.
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 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific
heat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is
very mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is essentially
constant at 1.667.
• Many diatomic gases, including air,
The cp of an ideal gas can be determined have a specific heat ratio of about
from a knowledge of cv and R. 1.4 at room temperature.
45
 Heating of a Gas in a Tank by Stirring

P,
kPa

He
0.7 kg
27°C
350 kPa
350

46
Heating of a Gas by a Resistance Heater

47
Heating of a Gas at Constant Pressure

50
INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume (or
density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible substances.

53
For solids and
liquids

Constant- Constant-
pressure volume
specific heats specific
heats
Specific heat values for
several common liquids and
solids are given in Table A–3.
Internal Energy Changes

56
Enthalpy Changes

57
 Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
Usually a more accurate relation than 58
Cooling of an Iron Block by Water

62
Heating of Aluminum Rods in a Furnace

64
TOPIC OF SPECIAL INTEREST-Thermodynamic Aspects of
Biological Systems
A biological system can be as simple as a single
cell. The human body contains about 100
trillion cells with an average diameter of 0.01
mm.

In a typical cell, thousands of chemical reactions

occur every second during which some molecules are
broken down and energy is released and some new
molecules are formed. This high level of chemical
activity in the cells, which maintains the human body
at a temperature of 370C while performing the
necessary bodily tasks, is called metabolism.
 Metabolism= burning of foods such as
carbohydrates, fat, and protein.
The rate of metabolism in the resting state=
the basal metabolic rate

(the rate of metabolism required to keep a body

performing the necessary functions (such as
breathing and blood circulation) at zero external
activity level).

The basal metabolic rate varies with sex, body size,

general health conditions, and so forth, and
decreases considerably with age. In small children, it
is remarkable that about half of the basal metabolic
activity occurs in the brain alone.
The metabolic rate = the energy consumption rate for a body.
For an average male (30 years old, 70 kg, 1.8-m2 body surface area), the basal
metabolic rate is 84 W.

What is the meaning of this statement= the body dissipates energy to the environment
at a rate of 84 W, which means that the body is converting chemical energy of the food
(or of the body fat if the person has not eaten) into thermal energy at a rate of 84 W.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resting_metabolic_rat
e#/media/File:Resting_Metabolic_Rate.png
 This is a consequence of
the conservation of
energy principle, which
requires that the energy
input into a system must
equal the energy output
when the total energy
content of a system
remains constant during
a process.

The metabolic rate

increases with the level of
activity, and it may exceed
10 times the basal
metabolic rate when a body
is doing strenuous exercise.
The energy content of a given food is
determined by burning a small sample of the
food in a device called a bomb calorimeter,
which is basically a well-insulated rigid tank
The metabolizable energy content of foods is usually
expressed by nutritionists in terms of the capitalized Calories.
One Calorie is equivalent to one kilocalorie (1000 calories),
which is equivalent to 4.1868 kJ.
The daily calorie needs of people vary greatly with age, gender, the state of
health, the activity level, the body weight, and the composition of the body as
well as other factors.

The thermodynamic analysis of the human body is rather complicated since it

involves mass transfer (during breathing, perspiring, etc.) as well as energy
transfer.

Human body is an open system.

However, the energy transfer with mass is difficult to quantify. Therefore, the
human body is often modeled as a closed system for simplicity by treating
energy transported with mass as just energy transfer.

For example, eating is modeled as the transfer of energy into the human body in
the amount of the metabolizable energy content of the food.
The range of healthy weight for adults is
usually expressed in terms of the body mass
index (BMI), defined, in SI units
 Summary
• Moving boundary work
✔ Wb for an isothermal process
✔ Wb for a constant-pressure process
✔ Wb for a polytropic process
• Energy balance for closed systems
✔ Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion
or compression process
• Specific heats
✔ Constant-pressure specific heat, cp
✔ Constant-volume specific heat, cv
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of
ideal gases
✔ Specific heat relations of ideal gases
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of
incompressible substances (solids and liquids)

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