Abstract

Keywords: tessellations, cognition, gestalt, mathematical, environment, perception

Science and mathematics have always governed the nature of tessellations that occur in our environment. Although
this helps us understand their nature logically, the human mind is not logical in nature. The cognitive prowess of
our mind stimulates and defines the final understanding of any phenomenon. This article takes into account the
cognitive analysis of the human mind and tries to understand the humane side of tessellations which are known to
be highly mathematical and scientific in nature. It tries to establish broader relationships which have been known
to spill over into design unconsciously.
The Cognitive theory of Tessellations
Hafsah Parkar
Guide: Nijoo Dubey
PGDPD, Semester 4 - Design for Retail Experience
Dated: 14 February, 2014
Introduction
Cognitive sciences have been around when discussing theories which affect human beings. Science although is
marvellous has and will be affected by the human mind and the nature of it. The phenomenon known as
tessellations has always been mathematical in nature. Something which is structured and styled in an orderly
manner is created by human beings. It becomes obvious that these elements will also be governed or rather should
also be affected by cognitive sciences. Over time, we are able to observe the recurrent occurrence of this
phenomenon in architecture, human body, design and behaviour; which leads us to question their origin and the
fundamental question being - why are we drawn towards forming such shapes and forms? How is the human mind
affected by them and lastly the implications it plays in nature and the people who are part of it.

The nature of all these questions have in a way been answered by us on a number of occasions but all of that has
been at a subconscious level. Understanding behaviour and how our mind works will help us answer these
questions in a more methodical and theoretical fashion.

The Phenomenon called Tessellation

A tessellation, a majority of the times is mathematical in nature. The dictionary defines tessellations1 as a covering
of an infinite geometric plane without gaps or overlaps by congruent plane figures of one type or a few types. A
tessellation is the tiling of a plane using one or more geometric shapes, called tiles, with no overlaps and no gaps.
In mathematics, tessellations can be generalized to higher dimensions. Tessellations can be further classified in
the way they are formed.

1. Regular: These are highly geometric and symmetric in nature and are formed by congruent regular
polygons. There are only three such regular tessellations. They are comprised of equilateral triangles,
squares and hexagons.
2. Semi Regular: They are formed with the help of different sized polygons. Although there are two key
properties of such a tessellation namely, they are formed by regular polygons and every vertex angle is
congruent to each other.
3. Irregular: This type can be best explained by using M C Escher as an example. They are made using
irregular shapes which are compacted together without overlap.
4. Translation: Here the same shape when repeated forms a sort of movement for the eye. It is usually in the
linear sense.
5. Rotation: The same shape here when repeated is either rotated or turned. The pattern is confusing,
dynamic and quite intense. Colour becomes a known way of distinction.
6. Reflection: Such tessellations are formed when the form which repeats is a reflection or mirror of each
other. The shape is flipped for better effect.

From the classification above, we come to understand that a tessellation can be a pattern but every pattern will not
be a tessellation due to the nature of its formation. A tessellation is formed due to no overlap in its elements to
form a pattern, but patterns are known to have overlapping elements too.

1
Tessellation as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary
We study mathematics in relation to tessellations for its beauty, its elegance and its capacity to codify the patterns
woven into the fabric of the universe. Mathematics achieves the sublime; sometimes and rises to the level of being
artistic. Tessellations - gapless mosaics of defined shapes - belong to a breed of ratios, constants and patterns that
recur throughout architecture, reveal themselves under microscopes and radiate from every honeycomb and
sunflower. Pick apart any number of equations in geometry, physics, probability and statistics, and you'll find pi
(π)2 situated like a cornerstone. Euler's number (e) rears its head repeatedly in calculus, compound interest formulas
and certain odd cases of probability. The golden ratio (φ) formed the basis of art, design, architecture and music
long before people discovered it. It also defined natural arrangements of leaves and stems, bones, arteries and
sunflowers, or matched the clock cycle of brain waves. It even bears a relationship to another perennial pattern
favourite, the Fibonacci sequence, which produces its own unique tiling progression.

Science, nature and art also bubble over with tessellations. Like π, e and φ, examples of these repeating patterns
surround us every day, from mundane sidewalks, wallpapers, jigsaw puzzles and tiled floors to the grand art of
Dutch graphic artist M.C. Escher, or the breath-taking tile work on most of the mosques seen today. In today’s
world, a tessellation is better known as a tiling made of physical materials such as cemented ceramic squares or
hexagons. Such tiling’s may be decorative patterns or may have functions such as providing durable and water-
resistant pavement, floor or wall coverings. Tessellations form a class of patterns in nature, for example in the
arrays of hexagonal cells found in honeycombs.

The word "tessellation" derives from tessella, the diminutive form of the Latin word tessera, an individual,
typically square, tile in a mosaic. Tessera in turn may arise from the Greek word tessares, meaning four. These
flowing patterns have captured the imaginations of both artists and mathematicians for over half a century. Escher’s
work is often presented as an elegant solution to a purely academic exercise of mathematics - a clever visual game.
In fact, his interest lay in the fundamental properties of patterns that appear in the real world. He declared:
“We are not playing a game of imaginings – we are conscious of living in a material three dimensional
reality.” (B. Van Dusen, 2010)

The Scientific & Mathematical Inquiry

Mathematics, science and nature depend upon patterns, whatever their meaning may be. Beyond
the transcendent beauty of a mosaic or engraving, tessellations find applications throughout mathematics,
astronomy, biology, botany, ecology, computer graphics, materials science and a variety of simulations, including
road systems. Many binary, neuroscience theories have been based on the Voronoi3 and Delaunay4 theories
in tessellations.

Moving back to the basics, a tessellation is created from basic polygons – a single shape which is repeated in
a two dimensional plane without overlaps. As further experimentation was carried out in this field, it was found
that the sky is the limit to the kind of shapes that can form a tessellation. One of the well-known examples for such
creations are the ceramic Tiles in Marrakech, forming edge-to-edge, regular and other tessellations. Multiple

2
Pi (π): Mathematical constant
3
A Voronoi diagram tessellates, that is, it consists of polygons that fill an entire space without gaps or overlaps.
4
By connecting all the sites on a Voronoi diagram that share an edge, we find its dual, the Delaunay tessellation.
irregular and complex patterns started to emerge due to the genius of M C Esher. All tessellations are even shaped
& complex and exist without gaps in them. Simple geometry has enabled us to progress further in the
experimentation by using smaller shapes in an already tessellated design.

Symmetric arrangements, algorithmic growth and the mathematic of the natural form of natural shapes help us
understand the math behind these forms. Fibonnacci sequence, fractal description, Voronoï tessellation are some
of the theories help us understand the occurrence of tessellations in nature and our inherent need to replicate them
in our daily life. Cecil Balmond (Balmond, 2008) explored the potential of nature and science as an open book and
was able to highlight some of the geometric realities. Voronoi-like forms occur in nature, most often in growth
patterns, florets growing from sites in the head of a daisy and meeting to form Voronoi regions. The sites are
arranged in a spiral pattern, which is accentuated by the Voronoi edges. It is also found in giraffe and turtle
markings, mud crack patterns and in large scale rock formations such as the Giant’s Causeway5.

A number of experiments were carried out based on the theories provided to reproduce the occurrence of a
tessellated pattern. It was found that a simple formula forms the basis of most of the tessellations. M C Esher
understood these theories to the fullest and used his knowledge to create his interpretation of tessellations such
that they would go on to become art rather than just mathematical phenomenon. Making his patterns fit together
required considerable thought and a helping hand from mathematics which leads us to believe that there is a
correlation between mathematics and cognition when it comes to tessellations. It is the thought of a human mind
which lead him to defy the standard laws of a regular tessellated surface and to create his artistic pattern
which were governed by hyperbolic geometry.

Cognitive Sciences

An interdisciplinary field, it caters to understanding the mental structure or operation which can be studied in
precise terms. This field is compatible in physical sciences and uses scientific behavioural experiments to
understand and map human behaviour. This helps us prejudge and predict the state of mind for a particular activity
or object. The conceptualization maybe be broad at the beginning, but cracking the key factors is what makes the
entire theory of it quite interesting. Breaking down the term cognition, we are able to study the various factors of
human mind that affect its decision on viewing or better said perceiving things, comprehending & understanding
things and making judgement calls based on it; one of the things that stands out is the word perception. In a way,
perception can be explained as gathering information about the scene before you through all your five senses and
processing to it make logical conclusions & comprehensions. Perception also explains one of the core questions
about tessellations in relation to our viewing things in a continuous manner rather than individually.

‘Perception is an activity best described in cognitive terms’ - Helmholz

Our entire sense of thought and behaviour is highly governed by the information we gather form our five senses
at any given time. It is with the help of cognition being applied to some of the mathematical occurrences are able
to process the information that is freely available to us. There may not be a sure shot formula to crack perception
as every individual’s mind is unique, but by conducting some simple behavioural experiments in a specific sample
group helps us understand the theory behind most of the decisions and manmade occurrences in our society.

5
Giant’s Causeway: Located on the north east coast of Ireland comprising of Basalt columns
Using the background information gathered on cognition and the science behind the generation of a tessellation, a
simple experiment based on observation can be conducted to establish the correlation between the two entities.
The monuments constructed, the mathematical formula, the brain wave patterns and general behavioural analysis,
a number of similarities, patterns and tessellations when observed, led us to establish an understanding based on
one of the foremost and simplest theories known to science which was of Gestalt. Gestalts scientists have gone on
to prove a great deal on isomorphism6 and named it the theory of the hypothesis of psychological isomorphism.
This had laid the early foundations of connectionism which has helped here connect the two logical and
behavioural entities for tessellations.

Connectionism of the two entities: Tessellations and Perception

Gestalt’s Psychology and Principles

Is the perceptual system more like a compass needle in a magnetic field, adjusting its behaviour in relation to the
various ”field forces”, and less like a computer ”drawing inferences” from ”sensory-information” somewhat
mysteriously, but in analogy with conscious human activities? (The Gestalt Theory- hypothesis of psychological
isomorphism) A simple experiment helps us understand this statement -

Place a teacup close to the edge of the table and stand back to describe the scene in front of you. You would
probably say that the teacup is placed too close towards the corner of the table. Such an arrangement causes a
slight tension in the mind as there is an imbalance in the scene before you. Adding to it the cognitive theory for
perception, your eyes dart to the corner of the table (sight), you smell the sense of danger surrounding the
placement of the cup on the table which leads you finding the scene tense and mentally disturbing as there are
good chances of the cup actually falling off the table. Psychology plays an important decision in the way we view
things which brings us to understand the main theory behind Gestalt’s psychology. The ‘unified whole’.

The unified whole refers to the way we view objects around us. It is never individually and is always in relation
to the scene that it is placed in. This is the belief that the basic relation between the physical and the mental has to
be a constant correspondence between a local physical stimulation and an isolated element in consciousness. All
perception exists in an overall perceptual framework and is dependent, in one way or another, on a larger totality
of stimuli.

With the help of Gestalt, we are able to breakdown the scene in relation to the set of elements that can be analysed
separately with the objective of understanding the entire picture and reducing its complexity. The principles of
Gestalt are known as -

1. Principle of Totality
The conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the physical and mental
aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each component
be considered as part of a system of a dynamic relationship. This principle basically sets the groundwork
for the laws of Gestalts which are used in design. Delving deeper into the theory of totality, we are able
to understand the formation of a tessellation a little better.

6
Isomorphism - sameness
 A tessellation at some level although is a mathematical play of forms and shapes, it is also an
understanding of negative and positive space. A tessellation is only as good as its use of positive and
negative space. These spaces are basically perceived by the human eye and processed by the logical
part of the brain which leads us to understand the nature of the tessellation and the visual it is trying to
create for us.
This also helps us understand the Gestalts laws of perception as they are largely visual based. A
tessellation is comprised of well-balanced planes, shapes and geometry. The inherent need of a space to
appear closed enables the structural formation of a tessellation. It implies that our mind is habituated to
understand the external stimuli as a whole rather than the sum of their parts. So we tend to see the entire
from as a whole rather than the shapes that form it.

2. Principle of Psychophysical Isomorphism

The term isomorphism literally means sameness (iso) of form (morphism). In Gestalt psychology,
isomorphism is the idea that perception and the underlying physiological representation are similar
because of related Gestalt qualities. Isomorphism refers to a correspondence between a stimulus array
and the brain state created by that stimulus, and is based on the idea that the objective brain processes
underlying and correlated with particular phenomenological experiences functionally have the same form
and structure as those subjective experiences.
A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity. Our conscious experience is
heavily governed by our five senses. Each of them is stimulated heavily while viewing a tessellated shape.
It in a way entices our mind to look at it over and over again, engaging us in the story of the forms put
together in a particular plane. It is that similarity of the form that acts upon our mind which leads to the
elevated brain activity and thus proves the theory of isomorphism by Gestalt.

Environmental Implications

Tessellated shapes and patterns have an unusual and peculiar way of appearing in the environments that we bond
with. The core property of the tessellation to exist as a packed structure without overlaps also give rise to the idea
of human adaptability within a context. We have always been technologically inclined and have developed a knack
to achieve a standardisation in the environments that we ourselves exist and adapt in. Such a level of
standardisation leads us to believe that the human mind has an inherent tendency of perceiving patterns which are
easy on the eyes. In other words, we can say that we like to see repetitions in an equal sense to provide us comfort
and which helps our mind understand and adapt to the technological advancements of today. We have learnt to
infer that a new advancement always has a rich and complex underlying structure which at some level has been
based on the basic tessellation theories discussed earlier. This leads us to apply our scientific imagination and
rational deductions to exploit what we see and interpret it in a way that would be easy for us to understand and yet
be helpful in our progress.

A regular tessellated form is able to help the brain process its depth, formation and the structure which helps us
perceive the image in 3D. This can also be realized by applying Gestalt’s psychology and principles. Space is
made up of a number of random planes which are placed to accommodate a type of viewing for the viewer which
has enabled us to understand foreground, figure ground as well as background. It is in the comprehension of these
planes is where tessellations plays an important role. Without these planes existing in a particular frame of
reference and forming a visual that doesn’t overlap, we would not be able to perceive a space around us clearly.
Gestalt’s philosophy also iterates that – The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. This can be interpreted as
the entire structure and framework of a tessellation is governed by its overall effect rather than the individual forms
that are brought together. This same principle can also be used to understand the idea of space in the context of
the planes being the parts and the entire context of viewing the frame of reference being the whole which helps us
understand the space that exists in front of us and the implications it has with our interacting with it. And as stated
earlier, we require cognition to comprehend a space in its truest sense and as established here, tessellations
make a space more comprehendible in relation to the spaces the elements interact with, thus proving the point of
this paper.

Design Understanding

Design aims at understanding human behaviour, cultural and situational data to the fullest to come up with an ideal
answer to an underlying question. In most occasions, it has been noted that often due to situational data especially
in graphic design with respect to branding and identity design, one of the easiest ways to create a visually appealing
graphic or outcome for a logo visual language or a poster design has been in the form of tessellations.

Taking into account in logo design, most of the designers opt to use the basic form of the logo or shapes derived
from it to form a pattern without overlap most often which becomes synonymous with its brand language and it
used on all the collaterals that are either printed or used digitally. It can be said that that itself is a form of generative
art but of the tessellated kind. These elements are magnanimously seen on visiting cards, brochures and ID cards
for most of these companies. Taking an example of a logo designed by Lippincott, they have used the idea of
incorporating tessellations in the identity of Marsh and McLennan Companies we can see the influence of the
phenomenon in graphic design taking over. One of the trends discussed for Logo design for 2012 was tessellations.
The cognitive analysis here is related to how we perceive the company image. The use of tessellations in an identity
shows a closely packed, visually aesthetic structure thus translating it to be a strong and dependable identity. The
repetition of the elements also pave the way for a beautiful visual language. Seed Media group have incorporated
the Fibonacci series in the formation of the core structure of their logo. A logo designed by Sagmiester Inc. it
caters to visual balance. The logo itself deems to float in the comfort zone of being accepted by our mind as it
closes relates to familiarity in terms of being associated to nature. The logo later goes on to form a medium
for representing data visualizations which leads us to understand the emphasis of colour and tessellations in an
existing form.

The same can be understood in space design. We love to make the most of a space provided to us be it in terms of
display for products in a retail scenario or a living space, we have this habit of utilising every nook and corner or
empty wall space available. This is a psychological complex we suffer from as we know that space is a resource
coveted by all and not available in abundance. An example of the ideal use of space in an aesthetic manner would
be a Wine rack at the Vitra museum designed by Eames. A basic unit honeycomb structure has been used which
displays the idea of enough space but also serves the purpose of storage. A honeycomb structure is a classic
example of a regular tessellation. The structure which is integrated with the dynamics of nature adds a fluidity to
the space which helps us see the space in a different light. It is also aesthetically pleasing as the geometric structure
repeats itself which makes it easier to interact with the structure without too much thought. More closer to a natural
integration of the stand in your space rather than a forced introduction.
Another idea would be the use of square boxes placed in a strategic manner at angles of 45 degrees to form an
intense and heavy structure. It creates a sense of modularity as well as volume. Using a simple geometric shape,
gives the use of more surface area and adds a visual appeal. Such an idea was explored at a national retail exhibition
–Instore Asia 137. We were given an area of 2m x 10m to put up a structure which imparted knowledge about the
work we do as students of retail experience design. One of the challenges was to design the structure such that it
would be easy to transport from Bengaluru to Mumbai and we can assemble the design in a span of 36 hours. The
3D square tessellated structure is easy to assemble. With the structure giving us multi faced display space as the
squares were placed at an angle of 45degrees, the structure came alive in relation to the public interacting with the
space. The visual language of the information was also based on the illustrated form of the structure which proved
to be a tessellation. All in all, the space came alive in a way least expected – making it quite a success.

There are a number of examples that are present around us, we just need to make an effort to notice and observe
carefully and use all your senses.

Conclusion and Discussion

Studying the texts and other reports which relate to tessellations and design, a pattern starts emerging (well not a
tessellation by nature). We notice a steady increase in the use of tessellated shapes as part of identity design.
Tessellations have always formed an integral part of design right from the start. It is only recently that we have
started seeing a constant use of it. This recurrent use can be related to the Helvetica effect8. The trend is cyclic in
nature. Currently, we are in the favour of a lot of digitally created art styles and programs have been written to
create tessellations digitally. Gone are the days when you would see an artist struggle and experiment with his
hands to create an aesthetically pleasing art piece. Creating digital tessellations will be the forecasted trend not
only in visual design but also in fashion design considering the LED technology is already being introduced in our
garments (Barbie has launched a digital dress Barbie for teens.)

Such a trend will have a negative impact on human creativity but at some level will also crave for hand done /
crafted items of beauty, technique and artistic value. Although technical in nature, it will be a wonder in the future
to create hyperbolic geometry inspired art by hand as Escher to merge it with digital data and create the next trend
for the industry. This paves the way for the use of dynamic identities in the future.

Graphic design will see an upward trend in logos no longer being static but having the core structure based on a
regular tessellation. Such identities will change based on human interaction thus generating a newly tessellated
identity for the same company keeping the use of a dynamic tessellated form. This will enable human beings to
create their own experience thus adding a personalised and better experience in terms of consumer interaction and
relation with the company.

Spaces will also see an upward trend in being dynamic. A human mind which will be saturated by the marvel of
technology and its ever evolving nature, we will want to crave the same dynamism in the space that we interact
with at a personal level be it in a public space or our private dining rooms. Keeping in mind certain standards that

7
NID at Instore Asia: https://www.behance.net/gallery/Instore-Asia/13658115
8
Helvetica Effect: A time in Europe and USA when Helvetica was the only font used as logotype for many
companies. There was burst of Helvetica seen in every street signage and Billboard bringing about its overuse
and abuse.
would have to be implemented for ergonomic9 purposes we look into the theory and principles provided to us by
Da Vinci and Le Corbusier for the human body. Corbusier talked about the Modulor man which discussed the
mathematical proportions of a human body and its subsequent application to improve appearance and structure of
a space. If we keep the mathematical data of the human body as the baseline grid incorporating it in a space, there
is a possibility of treating the space we have as a rubix cube and with a simple twist or turn, we would be able to
modify the space we interact with. The challenge that we would face later would be of how to apply the space
theory for circular or more fluid forms. An in depth study on shapes, forms and spaces would have to be carried
out to actually understand the play of the space before we add the variable of human interaction, behaviour and
cognition into the equation. This experiment will give rise to a lot of interesting results which would be something
to look forward to as we are already in the process of creating intelligent spaces and smart homes.

As the world has started to advance digitally and technologically, it becomes of grave importance to understand
the human mind. It has been stated on a number of occasions by many a philosophers- the scientific advancements
that we achieve are already present in the human mind, we just need to reach out in the right direction and tap the
unending and surprising source of information reserve we possess for the right answers.

9
Ergonomics: the study of people's efficiency in their working environment.
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 Zelanski, Paul and Mary Pat Fisher. The art of seeing. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.Prentice-Hall, 1988. Print.