Chapter

4
UNDERSTANDING THE
COMMUNICATIONS PROCESS

Chapter Takeaways

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

n Understand the concept of communication and the communication process,
n Learn about the traditional and alternative consumer response hierarchies observed when
consumers respond to messages, and realise their importance in promotional planning,
n Comprehend the concept of consumer involvement, its importance in message processing by
consumers, and the factors and models that help in gauging consumer involvement,
n Understand cognitive processing, how it occurs, and how it works towards shaping attitudes
towards ads.

Tring! Tring! Hutch is now Vodafone1

In Perspective

On September 21, 2007, India’s fourth largest telecom operator Hutch was renamed
Vodafone with the world’s second largest mobile communications company Vodafone
acquiring a majority stake in Hutch. The brand change was unveiled nationally through
a high-profile campaign designed by the agency O&M and covering all the important
media. The client’s brief was simple—to register the message in the shortest possible
time, to the largest possible audience set, in a very memorable manner.
While communication in the telecom sector was cluttered and full of technology speak,
Vodafone spoke to the consumers in a language that they understood. The agency started off
with a simple introduction message: ‘Change is good. Hutch is now Vodafone.’ The main
thought was to convey that nothing had changed except for the name, and the change was
to accelerate towards even better services and experiences. The ads were remarkably
184 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

FIGURE 4.1 (a) and (b) Hutch communicates name change through simple and unpretentious
ads.

For years you have have come to expect good

things from Hutch, And now that we are Vodafone,
with over 200 million customers in 25 countries,
we will bring in a host of exciting products,
thoughtful services and relevant solutions.
And as always we'll do our best to live up to
your expectations.

www.vodafone.in | 98200 98200

(a)
Headline: Hutch is now Vodafone Bodycopy: For years you have come to expect good things from Hutch. And now that we are
Vodafone, with over 200 million customers in 25 countries, we will bring in a host of exciting products, thoughtful services and
relevant solutions. And as always we’ll do our best to live up to your expectations. www.vodafone.in

The film opens on a pug coming Running through forests and green After a little inspection the pug gets
out of a pink kennel. fields it reaches a red kennel. into it from one side and comes
out...

...of the other. Super: Change is Super: Hutch is now Vodafone. The ad ends as we see the pug
good. settled comfortably in its new
home.

(b)

Courtesy: Hutch/Vodafone, O&M. Reproduced with permission.

 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 185

straightforward and unpretentious (Figures 4.1a-b), the most striking of them all being the
television commercial of the iconic Hutch pug returning after a walk to discover a whole new
home. In the new communication, Vodafone has retained the popular pug, a Hutch hallmark,
initially symbolic of the Hutch network. Albeit the pug Chika has been replaced with Vodafone’s
Spikey. Hutch’s animated boy-girl duo has been initially used as mascot to introduce Vodafone to
consumers, but plans are to replace it with a more contemporary boy-girl duo in subsequent
campaigns. According to the agency, the Hutch duo is too symbolic of the old brand and hence
the need for change. Hutch’s tagline, ‘Wherever you go, our network follows,’ will be retained by
Vodafone for those commercials that are based around the network premise. Simultaneously,
Vodafone’s global corporate thought, ‘Make the most of now’, is likely to be imported into India
soon, although the idea used will be completely Indian, and not an adaptation of a foreign creative.
Also, Hutch’s signature tune ‘You and I’ has been given a more energetic and chirpier beat for the
Vodafone communication. The communication has also acquired a new colour and the
background has changed from Hutch’s pink to Vodafone’s deep red.2 Other than the cosmetic
changes, Vodafone has not gone for any image change, although its global image is rather
energetic, dynamic and up-market compared to Hutch’s understated, mass-market image.
Vodafone introduction ads were everywhere – as a customized ad addressed to each
recipient and disguised as a false cover page on Businessworld magazine,3 in 24-hour
exclusive monopolised advertising on STAR India Network channels from 9 pm to 9 pm,4 by
integrating ads into content of television serials and shows, on billboards at busy locations, at
over 370 Hutch dealer shops, on Internet and popular radio stations, and on Hutch cell phones.
Through repetition, in as uncluttered a media environment as possible, the name change was
firmly lodged in people’s minds.

The opening vignette illustrates that communication planning is a complex process although it
may appear simple in its final product. It also alludes to important aspects of communication that
we will discuss through this chapter. During the course of our discussion, we will elaborate on
information given in the vignette and correlate it with the theoretical concepts.

4.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

While we discussed marketing communication in Chapter 1, we need to understand the nature,
process and fundamentals of communication per se. Communication is commonly understood as the
imparting, sharing or exchanging of information, news, views, thoughts, attitudes or ideas between
two or more people.
Figure 4.2 illustrates a basic model that depicts the primary elements of the communication
process. Note that communication is a very complex process and its success depends on how well
coordinated these various elements are. At the heart of all communication is the message—news,
views, information, etc.—verbal, non-verbal or symbolic – that becomes the very reason of
communication. The designing of a message deals with determining not only what needs to be
communicated, but also how it needs to be communicated. For example, in Figures 2.27a-b, the message
about Tanishq’s range of colour jewellery is beautifully and creatively communicated with the help of
catchy visuals and colours in a print ad that creates a powerful impact. We will discuss in detail the
186 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

FIGURE 4.2 The Communication Process.

Message Content, structure, format, tone Message

Sender/ Encodi- Decod-

Channel Receiver
Source ng ing

Credibility Comprehe-
Attractive- nsion skills
ness Attitude
Power Demographic
Communi- profile
Noise/Entropy
cation skills Knowledge
Culture Culture
Social Social
system system

Feedback

what and how of a message in Chapters 7-9. We will also discuss how in advertising the content,
structure, tone and format of a message are determined.
All messages originate from a sender or source of the message. They flow from the sender to the
receiver and vice versa, which is indicated by the direction of the dashed arrows. The sender may be
an individual, group or organisation that wishes to transmit the message to another individual,
group or organisation, viz. the receiver. The sender and the receiver are the two communicators in
the communication process. For example, in Figures 4.3a-b, the source for the Lead India campaign is
not just The Times of India, the advertiser and media company running the campaign, but also the
celebrities Priyanka Chopra and Shah Rukh Khan who are the ambassadors for the campaign. The
effectiveness of communication is determined by factors like the credibility, attractiveness, power,
communication skills, culture and social system of the sender. In the case of Lead India, both sources,
Priyanka and Shah Rukh are leading and successful celebrities, and popular youth icons—qualities
that go well with the campaign’s target audience of the youth of the country.
The process of communication begins when the sender determines how a given message will be
conveyed. He has to select the words, images, symbols, format, tone, etc. for the message. This
process of transforming the content of a message (thoughts, ideas, news, etc.) into a symbolic form
is known as encoding. The sender should select symbols and language that the receiver is familiar
with and would view favourably. For example, in Figures 3.14 a-c the message of milk being insipid
and disliked without Bournvita is encoded symbolically through the visuals of milk being fed to the
plants and the cat, and being thrown out of the window.
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 187

FIGURE 4.3 (a) and (b) Popular celebrities serve as youth icons in the Lead India campaign.

4.3(a) Headline: You know, I have realised something... We Indians are obsessed about tomorrow. Why is it always, tomorrow will be a brighter day?
Someday we will eradicate poverty? in the future we will be global superpower? I wonder what’s wrong with now? Why not today? If you think about it, perhaps
the future of our country lies in each one of us realising one simple thing. Subhead: Maybe tomorrow actually begins today...
Baseline: Seeking India’s future Leaders
4.3(b) Headline: Domination starts with DO.
Courtesy: Times of India, J.W.T. Reproduced with permission.

As discussed in the opening vignette, in the case of Hutch, the encoding of the message was
kept quite simple. The ads were not laboured with any peripheral content but only a singular
message of name change was given. Often, identifying the relevant message and keeping out
the unnecessary is a very difficult and courageous task.
In addition to simplifying the message for Vodafone, the right symbols were borrowed from the
old brand to lend continuity. Hutch’s trademark pug was initially symbolic of mobile network to
signify that the Hutch network followed the mobile user wherever she went. Later, the pug
metamorphosed into the face of the brand, a quintessential in all its communication. It remained
the face of the brand when the company changed names, and stayed the face of the brand
when the company changed hands and names in short order. Marketers believe that the pug
has been a common factor between Hutch and Vodafone that are quite diverse in style and
culture, and has helped in uniting them for the consumer. According to agency sources, the
idea was to ensure that people don’t forget the old brand, but welcome the new one as an
improvement over the old. The popular pug helped in serving the purpose.5 Similarly, Hutch’s
boy-girl duo has been retained for the initial communications, the tag line has been maintained
for network-oriented ads, and the signature tune has also been retained with some
modifications in music and tempo. However, Hutch’s pink colour has given way to Vodafone’s
red. Since Hutch was a well-loved brand, Vodafone has continued to project all things which the
customer found endearing.

The sender should also select a channel of communication that is best suited for that particular
message and target audience. For example, local editions of regional newspapers are best suited to
announce a limited period sale of a local retail shop. Channels can be broadly divided into personal
188 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

and non-personal media. Personal channels of communication are direct or one-on-one, such as
personal selling or word-of-mouth communication. Non-personal channels comprise mass media,
where the message is sent to many audience members simultaneously, such as in print or broadcast
media. Vodafone flooded the mass media channels for spreading instant awareness among people.
After a message is encoded and transmitted through the right channel, the receiver decodes the
message on receipt. Decoding is the process of translating the encoded message from its symbolic
representation back into thought or comprehension. Thus, in the case of the ads issued by the
Mumbai Traffic Police, by looking at the visuals of a broken egg and a tyre-wreath, the receiver
understands the results of careless driving. How well the message is decoded depends on the
receiver’s comprehension skills, attitude, profile, knowledge, culture and social system, among
other things. It is possible that religious groups that do not follow the system of burying their dead
in a cemetery may not be able to comprehend the message of Mumbai Traffic Police that depicts a
tyre as a wreath on a gravestone in one of the ads. The greater the similarity, understanding or
common frame of reference between the sender and the receiver, the more effective the
communication would be. Hence, marketing communicators give considerable importance to the
understanding of their target audience.
However, apart from characteristics of the sender and the receiver, certain extraneous or
environmental factors also determine the effectiveness of communication. Termed as noise or
entropy, these are factors that create interference in message dissemination or reception. For
example, the coming up of a better sale offer by a competitor at the time of the advertiser’s offer, the
newspaper page on which the advertiser advertised being full of other ads, use of language in an ad
that the target audience is not familiar with, power cut at the time an ad is broadcast on television,
etc. are all noise-causing factors that hamper the communication process.

Vodafone tried limiting noise factors by targeting maximum singular attention in media. For
instance, its deal with STAR India ensured no other commercials were aired, barring in-channel
promos, on the group’s channels for 24 hours.6 The personalized ad in Businessworld also had
the subscriber’s name (say X) printed on the false cover page so that it stated “Hello X, ...”, and
went on to explain the transition and what was in store for the subscriber looking forward.7
Such tailored and prominently placed messages are likely to receive more attention than regular
advertisements.

The communication process does not end with the receiver receiving the information. The
marketer is also interested in the receiver’s response and reactions on getting the message, which
help him gauge the efficacy of communication. Feedback completes the exchange process whereby
the receiver becomes the sender and transmits his response back to the original source. Feedback
can be in various forms – verbal posing of questions to a salesman, written letter of complaint to a
brand manager, purchase action after seeing an ad, or even total inaction. A problem that marketers
experience, often when mass media is used, is that of indirect or delayed response which makes it
difficult to measure the effectiveness of communication. For example, consumers may not rush to
buy immediately when an ad campaign is released but may wait till Diwali bonus time. Because of
the difficulty in gauging delayed response, marketers often conduct consumer interviews, make
store visits, or provide feedback forms to analyse receivers’ response, comprehension, product
attitude, message recall, etc.
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 189

Thus, a lot of elements go into completing the communication process. In the succeeding
chapters, we will discuss some of these elements in greater detail.

4.2 COMMUNICATION RESPONSE HIERARCHY

As we learnt from the communication model, one of the things that a marketer is interested in is
receiving consumer feedback or response, which helps in gauging the effectiveness of the
communication. Experts have found that consumers often respond to messages in a hierarchical
order of behaviour. These hierarchical responses are demonstrated through various models of
consumer response stages as depicted in Figure 4.4.

4.2.1 Traditional Consumer Response Hierarchy Models

FIGURE 4.4 Traditional Consumer Response Hierarchy Models8 .

Stages AIDA Hierarchy of Innovation Information

model effects model adoption model processing model
Cognitive Attention Awareness Awareness Presentation
stage Knowledge Attention
Comprehension

Affective Interest Liking Interest Yielding

stage Desire Preference Evaluation Retention
Conviction

Behavioural Action Purchase Trial Behaviour

stage Adoption

The traditional response models propose that a consumer typically moves through various stages
of responses ranging from first becoming aware about a product to finally purchasing it. These
responses can typically be divided into cognitive, affective and behavioural responses. For each
stage of consumer readiness or response, communicators must perform specific actions. For
example, the communicator might need to imprint something into the consumer’s mind (cognitive
response), change an attitude (affective response) or get the consumer to act (behavioral response).
Various models outline these response stages in a stage-wise manner.
The AIDA (Awareness-Interest-Desire-Action) model9 of consumer response hierarchy is one of
the popular models. It states that a consumer passes successively through the following four stages
of response:
· Awareness: In this initial stage, most of the target audience is unaware of the product or
brand and hence the communicator’s objective is to build awareness, maybe just name
recognition with simple messages repeating the brand name, or to give basic information
about the product. In a relatively new product category, this function assumes the maximum
importance. For instance, when the upcoming newspaper Divya Bhaskar launched its Gujarati
edition, a lot of ads proclaimed nothing more than the product name alone. Even the
objective of Hutch’s takeover by and change of name to Vodafone was to inform the audiences
about the change through quick reach and repetition. Thus, several 5 to 10 second spots were
designed to ensure that the ads did not result in any monotony.
190 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

· Interest: In this stage, consumers graduate from awareness about the product to interest in it.
Marketers need to find out how consumers feel about their product. Are they favourably
disposed? Do they like it? Do they find it interesting enough? Interest in the product can be
created by showing some unique feature of the product, demonstrating how it works,
presenting entertaining ads, fetching in popular celebrities, etc.

In 2002, Bharat Petroleum launched premium grade petrol under the brand name Speed. This
was the first instance of an oil company launching branded fuel in the Indian market. In order
to generate interest in the product, Bharat Petroleum hooked in Narain Karthikeyan, a leading
Formula 1 star. Through its communication the petroleum company also tried to drive home
the point that Speed is high performing petrol as can be read in the ad below.
Headline: “Out there, Speed is everything” – Narain Karthikeyan
Bodycopy: An unassuming young man from Coimbatore dared to dream – and then turned
those dreams to reality. Speeding into the Australian Grand Prix has propelled him into the league
of racing greats like Michael and Ralph Schumacher, Eddie Irvine and Tajuma Sato who like him,
began their Grand Prix careers with Jordan. He’s already had his name etched in history books
for being the first Indian on the circuit. Wish him luck so that he makes history once more, at his
careers toughest challenge yet. He’s got what it takes to make it big. He’s got speed.
Baseline: High Performance Petrol
Similarly, JK Tyre also tried to generate interest in an otherwise uninteresting product of tyres
through the use of celebrities (Figure 4.5).

FIGURE 4.5 Tyres made more interesting through the use of celebrities in communication.

Courtesy: Superbrands, Volume I, 2004. Reproduced with permission.

 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 191

FIGURE 4.6 (a)

Ads giving concrete reasons for use
of the product in order to generate
a purchase desire.

Courtesy: Superbrands, Volume I, 2004.

Reproduced with permission.

FIGURE 4.6 (b)

Headline: You never know when

the hand of fate will lead you to
Mr. Right.
Bodycopy: Don’t risk body odour.
Use new Rexona Deo Roll On
daily. It controls underarm sweat
and gives you true all-day protec-
tion against body odour.
Baseline: Rexona. It won’t let you
down.

Courtesy: Lintas Lowe. Reproduced with permission.

192 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

· Desire: It is not enough to create just an interest in the product. Once the target audience is
aware about and interested in the product, the function of advertising is to get them positively
inclined towards buying it, i.e. create in them a desire and preference for the advertised product.
Desire can be built by showing how the product addresses a consumer’s specific needs and by
creatively promoting quality, value and other significant features. For instance, Aquaguard and
Rexona arouse desires by giving rational benefits of using the product (Figures 4.6 a-b).
· Action: Advertising has not played its part until it has achieved the ultimate objective – spurring
the target audience into action. In most cases, the desired action is to lead consumers to
purchase, but in certain cases it can also be to generate inquiries, lead to a retail visit, promote
participation in a promotion, etc. Brand- or image-building advertising will not immediately
lead to purchase action, but will create a preference and desire that will ultimately translate into
purchase. This is a long-term strategy. On the other hands, promotional- or direct-advertising
talks of incentives that are offered to consumers if they immediately buy the product. This is a
short-term strategy. For instance, Whisper Ultra sanitary napkins urged women to make an
instant run for the product in an ad that read, “Come on everybody, run, run, run, run. Join
the revolution. Now, the price of freedom is just Rs. 65. From Rs. 80 to just Rs. 65. Come, join
the Whisper Ultra Revolution.” Similarly, in Figure 4.7, Surf Excel encourages purchase through a
promotional offer.

FIGURE 4.6 Surf Excel encourages purchase through a promotional offer.

Courtesy: Lintas Lowe. Reproduced with permission.

 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 193

The hierarchy of effects model10 is one of the older ‘stair-step and linear’ models, proposed by
Robert Lavidge and Gary Steiner that states that advertising must move people up a series of steps
from cognitive processing to attitude change to purchase behaviour. Consumers do not switch
from being disinterested individuals to convinced purchasers in one instantaneous step. Rather,
they approach the purchase decision through a series of steps ranging from awareness, knowledge,
liking, preference, conviction and purchase. A fundamental assumption of the model is that
advertising effects occur over time. Hence, advertising must move consumers through the above-
mentioned five psychological stages before it can lead them to purchase. The advertising hierarchy
of effects model is often used in objective setting and the measurement of advertising effectiveness.
The innovation adoption model,11 based on the diffusion of innovations theory, looks at
consumers as adopters of a new innovation and classifies them into categories such as innovators, early
adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards, based on how soon they adopt an innovation, i.e.
purchase a product. Innovators are the first whereas laggards are the last to purchase. It is based on the
idea that certain individuals are more open to adoption than others. The model points out that trying
to quickly convince the mass of a new, unconventional idea is futile. It makes more sense in convincing
the innovators and early adopters first, and taking others gradually through the decision-making
process (awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and adoption) that occurs when individuals consider
adopting a new idea or product. The adoption process can be speeded up through demonstration or
sampling programmes that increase consumer confidence in the new product.
The information-processing model12 by William J. McGuire explains consumer behavior in
response to a persuasive message such as advertising. The model views the receiver of a message as an
information processor and problem solver, who goes through six stages: the persuasive message
must be communicated to the receiver, he must attend to the message, he must comprehend the
message, he must be convinced by the arguments and yield to the message, he must retain the
information, and finally he must carry out the desired behaviour. These steps have been revised by
McGuire over the years to include from six stages to thirteen.
The model suggests that advertising will fail if it is unable to convince the audience at any stage.
For instance, a hi-decibel campaign that grabs the attention of everyone will fail if the message is
incomprehensible. A campaign that gains attention and can be easily comprehended may still fail if
the arguments are not convincing enough to induce yielding. In other words, a campaign cannot be
stronger than its weakest link. Thus, each stage must be measured through consumer surveys or
other mechanisms to provide feedback regarding advertising effectiveness.
Another theory states that most people fall into three stages of interest in any product at any
given time.
· Inert Stage: People in this stage fall outside the advertiser’s target audience segment. In other
words, they do not comprise the market for her product. Their attitudes towards the product
are passive, and it is possible that they will not take in the advertising. At best, the advertiser
can only hope that her ads will generate enough interest in the consumers that they will
reflect on the product when they fall in any of the other response stages.
· Acquirement Stage: People have now realised that they need the product and are eager to get
more information that will aid their purchase decisions—product facts, brand information
and the like. They will be more receptive to advertising and will even engage in critical
evaluation. Advertising directed to people in the acquirement stage should move beyond
only interest generation and give important information to the consumer.
194 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

· Decision Stage: Consumers have by now evaluated the desired product and have narrowed
in on their brand choice. Now they are extremely vulnerable to price- and value-related
information, which is very often conveyed at the point of sale.

4.2.1.1 Evaluating the Traditional Consumer Response Hierarchy Models

The response models are useful to communicators in several ways. An understanding of the
consumer response stages explains how consumers relate to advertising in terms of their interest in
buying a product when they see an ad. Marketing that accounts for each response stage and moves
customers through each stage can increase the results of advertising.
Understanding the response stages also helps in making the strategic decision as to audience in
which phase should be addressed through a specific campaign. If advertising is targeted at people in
the inert stage, i.e. those who are not currently interested in the product but who may be at some
time in the future, advertising should do nothing more than inform the people about the product,
so that they are well aware of it when they move into another stage. If advertising is directed at
people who are in the acquirement stage, it should be more persuasive in nature and should focus on
definite product advantages and distinctive features or image. Finally, people in the decision stage
already know what they want and are aware of their brand choices. They are only looking for a cue
to make their final choice. Reminder advertising can close the sale by convincing the consumer that
now is indeed the right time to make a commitment. Not only can advertising be modified for each
audience segment, but also can other appropriate tools of marketing communication be used for
each stage of consumer readiness.
In spite of the usefulness of these traditional models, they do suffer from some oversight. All the
four models mentioned above assume that consumers move through a hierarchical sequence of
cognitive-affective-behavioural response. They assume that consumers pass through these stages only
in that order. In other words, awareness and knowledge about a brand precede feelings, liking and
preference for it, which in turn precede purchase or adoption. This is a learn-feel-do sequence that is
appropriate when the consumer has high-involvement with the product category and the differences
among products are also high, for example, in furniture, cars or homes. However, this hierarchy is not
always relevant and has been questioned as a result of extensive research in the fields of marketing,
communication and social psychology. In the next section, we discuss alternative response hierarchies.

4.2.2 Alternative Response Hierarchies

A recurring problem for marketing communicators is the nature of the hierarchy of communication
effects. Does awareness lead to feelings and then to purchasing behavior? It depends. Three
alternative models of information processing based on consumers’ level of involvement in a product
and perceived product differentiation are identified by the social psychologist Michael L. Ray and
summarised in Figure 4.8.13
· The Standard Learning Hierarchy: As we saw in the traditional consumer response
hierarchies, the standard learning model assumes a learn-feel-do sequence. Information about a
brand leads to development of feelings or preference for it, which translate into action. The
standard learning hierarchy occurs when buyers are involved with the product, alternative
products are clearly differentiated, mass media promotion is important, and the product is in
the early stages of the product life cycle (since that is when need for information is the highest).
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 195

FIGURE 4.7 Alternative models of information processing.

Involvement with product

High Low

(Learning model) (Low-involvement

Cognitive model)
High Cognitive

Affective
Perceived
product
differentiation Conative
Conative
(Dissonance/attribution
model)
Conative

Low
Affective

Cognitive Affective

Response stages for consumer durables and industrial products often follow this sequence. For
such products, communicators should focus the most on imparting information.
· The Dissonance/Attribution Hierarchy: The dissonance/attribution hierarchy follows a
reverse of the traditional order presented in the learning hierarchy. Here action occurs first,
then attitude shift, and finally development of awareness and comprehension. Thus, it assumes
a do-feel-learn sequence. The model suggests that for certain products, product involvement
remains high, but the product quality is similar and differences between alternatives are
complex and unclear (e.g. steel tubes, electrical appliances, home entertainment equipment,
etc.). Furthermore, mass-media information is generally less available and influential for such
products. Hence, after a brief experiencing of conviction, which may be through
recommendation by personal references or retailers, individuals purchase the product. The
purchase itself triggers affective responses such as liking and preference in the consumer in a bid
to reduce cognitive or post-purchase dissonance. In other words, upon making an uncertain decision,
individuals take on a positive attitude change in favour of the chosen alternative in order to
reduce internal conflict over the decision. Next, the individuals selectively process information
that supports the product purchase, and selectively ignore information that creates doubt or
disputes the decision. Thus the consumer goes through selective learning during the stage of
awareness and knowledge building (learn stage).
This hierarchy is observed more when buyers are involved, products are similar, personal
selling is more important, and the product is in the early maturity stage of its life cycle. In
such cases, the main effect of mass media is not before the purchase, but rather after it—to
reassure the consumer, reinforce his purchase decision, and provide information that reduces
any possible post-purchase dissonance. For example, in Figures 4.9a-c, Cummins India, Reliance
196 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

Industries, and Modi Xerox are all trying to reassure their customers that they have made a wise
choice by buying their products by talking about their awards, company performance and
achievements, quality standards, history and heritage.
The model draws attention of marketing communicators towards the need for
communication efforts for consumers of the product and not just prospects so that brand choices
can be reinforced and repeat behaviour ensured.
· The Low-Involvement Hierarchy: The low-involvement hierarchy originally developed by
Herbert E. Krugman, an advertising manager with General Electric, and also proposed by
Michael Ray, put forward a learn-do-feel sequence for low-involvement products. For
products following this hierarchy, a consumer first becomes aware through mass media.
However, the consumer is not intensely involved in the message, and hence does not develop
any attitudes for the product. Instead, when opportunity arises, he purchases the product,

FIGURE 4.9 (a - b) Companies try to reduce post-purchase dissonance through their communication.

Headline: The best service isn’t just a phonecall away. Subhead: We answer
before you call. That’s why we’ve won the award.
Bodycopy: While other companies stop at call centres, Cummins India Lim-
ited, the largest manufacturer of diesel engines, goes further. Providing ser-
vice even before you can make a call. That’s why Cummins Diesel Sales and
Service (India) Limited (CDS&S), was awarded the Rajiv Gandhi National
Quality Award, 1998 by the Bureau of Indian Standards Awards for Service
Excellence. Through CDS&S, your service needs are addressed before you
realise them. Before you see a problem, you have solutions waiting for you.
Before you think up a question, there are answers. Now see the marriage of
proactive service and the greatest power solutions on the planet at Power
Solutions - The Exhibition. At the Air Force Ground, Subroto Park, New Delhi.
A preview of the power technologies that will shape tomorrow. Empowering
your business.
Headline: Quality is not an act, it is a habit.
Bodycopy: Quality first. It’s strict adherence to this principle that has led
to our exports multiplying. Our products are now exported to 101 coun-
tries accounting for 7.7% of India’s export revenue. Today, all our busi-
nesses are engaged in exports, catering to a consistently expanding cus-
tomer base across Europe, Asia, USA and South America. Our exports
worth $5.8 billion amount to 35% of our sales turnover of $16.7 billion.
When you have innate consciousness for quality in everything you do, it
figures.
Baseline: Growth is Life.
Courtesy: Reliance Industries Ltd. Reproduced with
permission.

Courtesy: FCB-Ulka. Reproduced with permission.

 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 197

FIGURE 4.9 (c)

Courtesy: Lintas Lowe.
Reproduced with permission.

Headline: Whenever you’ve turned a page in life, we’ve kept a copy.

Bodycopy: A copy of your birth certificate. Your first interview call
letter. Your first contract. Your house ownership deed... Your most
important documents are also ours. It’s a legacy that began 60 years
ago when Chester Carlson invented xerography, the technology that
has made Xerox a worldwide leader ever since. Today, Xerox offers
a range of cutting-edge digital document solutions, from copiers,
printers, fax machines to printing systems, publishing systems and
networked multifunctional devices. In India, we at Modi Xerox bring
you a copy of every Xerox breakthrough. At digital speed. To keep
you ahead. And original for keeps. Baseline: Leading the digital
document revolution

after which he develops liking and preference from repeated use and experience with the
product. This is in contrast to the high involvement model wherein the advertising content
is given conscious consideration at the moment of exposure (learning process), followed by
conscious changes in attitudes and perceptions, which occur before behavior.
This hierarchy is typically observed when product involvement is low (due to low risk,
inexpensive product, or low interest), products are seen as similar or with little differences,
broadcast media play a significant role in message disbursement, or the product is in late
maturity. Packaged and convenience goods such as soaps, toothpastes, etc., or social acts such
as voting fall in this category.
This hierarchy points to the fact that for certain products, consumers are passive receivers
who may not actively process advertising messages and the specifics of the advertising
messages may be largely ignored. Also, for certain media, consumers may be passive
receivers. For instance, television is a low-involvement medium since consumers barely have
the time to contemplate on the product advertised in the short time it is advertised on
television. For low-involvement products and media, the consumer does not compare the
message with his past beliefs or experiences. However, television does produce top-of-the-
mind recall. This is because through repetition, the product’s name rises in consumer
awareness bringing a cognitive change of increased product memory, which ultimately
translates into purchase. This is the foundation of the concept of reminder advertising,
198 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

wherein advertising messages are designed simply to increase awareness of a product rather
than have an affective effect. Instead of active learning, the consumer passively and randomly
remembers information, paying attention to music, characters, story, symbols, etc. Thus,
non-message or creative elements become more important than the actual message.
Krugman’s theory also proves that advertising does not always have a direct effect on the
audience’s liking for a product. Hence for low-involvement products, the focus of mass
communication shifts from imparting specific information to getting consumer attention
and prominently displaying the brand through constant, repetitive exposure. This is not
always disadvantageous because communicators can reap maximum benefits with creative
and entertaining advertisements that get captured in the consumer’s memory without any
active cognitive processing, and which later aids purchase. Scott Hawkins and Stephen Hoch
found in a study that repetition of simple product claims increased consumers’ recall and
belief in those claims.14 For example, a candy is a low-involvement product and differences
between brands are also minimal. Hence, audiences are somewhat indifferent to the messages
they are being exposed to. However, this is not the case when people hear the name of Mentos
in a television commercial. Because of the entertaining nature of the ads (see Chapter 7), they
pay more attention to the story, jingle, characters, tagline, etc. than the actual message that
‘Mentos is a refreshing candy’. While at the store, they recognise the brand name and
packaging, and decide to purchase it. After eating the candy, individuals may decide that they
like it and develop a preference for it over other generic candies.

4.2.2.1 Evaluating the Alternative Response Hierarchies

The various response models present an insight into the various ways consumers may respond to
marketing communication. They encourage marketing communication managers to understand the
nature of the product, the level of audience involvement, differences between product alternatives,
and mass media significance for the product before forming promotional strategies. If communicators
succeed in determining the type of response process that is most likely to occur for their product, it
helps in setting appropriate goals for advertising and increases the effectiveness of messages. For
example, for innovations, new product developments, and certain high-value purchases, maximum
information dissipation and clear communication of benefits is a must. For many durables, reassurance
to reduce post-purchase dissonance is more important. And for low-involvement parity goods,
repetition of brand name or simple product claims takes the highest priority.
Although the traditional and alternative response models posit different ways in which
consumers may respond, they do not adequately explain all response hierarchies. For example,
there could be a sequence like feel-do-learn that is appropriate when products command high
emotional involvement and differentiation is also high, as in the case of perfumes and fashion
jewellery. Further, the models do not talk about negative cognitive evaluation of an ad, which is
possible when a consumer has formed negative perceptions for a product based on personal
experience. When a negative trial experience precedes exposure to an ad, the consumer processes the
ad in negative light. Hence, cognitive evaluations of the ad are more negative.
Despite their inability to explain all types of consumer responses, the models do throw light on
the variety of responses and the need for basing promotional strategies on the most likely response
process.
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 199

4.3 CONSUMER INVOLVEMENT

Since estimating the level of consumer involvement is important in understanding message
processing and in predicting the typical consumer response sequence, we shall discuss some factors
and models that help in gauging consumer involvement. Judith Zaichkowsky in her research has
identified three variables that precede involvement:15
1. Characteristics of the person (needs, values, interest, experiences, etc.)
2. Characteristics of the stimulus or object (type of media, product class variations, etc.)
3. Situational factors (purchase or use occasion)
These various antecedents interact with each other and influence consumer involvement, either
singly or collectively, in many ways. A number of outcomes may result based on consumer
involvement with advertisements, products and purchase decisions. Figure 4.10 gives a graphical
depiction of the model.

FIGURE 4.10 The concept of involvement.

Antecedents of Possible results of
involvement involvement

Consumer factors Evoking counter-

- Needs arguments to ads
- Interests
- Importance Ad effectiveness to
- Values induce purchase
Involvement with:
Product or Relative importance of
message factors product class
- Product - Advertisements
differentiation Perceived differences
- Communication - Products in product attributes
source
- Content of - Purchase decisions Preference for a
communication particular brand

Situational factors Influence of price on

- Purchase/use choice
occasion
Amount of information
search

Time spent on
evaluating alternatives

Type of decision rule

used in choice
200 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

Many other advertising planning grids have also been developed that consider involvement levels
as well as other factors that ultimately affect brand choice.

4.3.1 The Foote, Cone and Belding (FCB) Model16

The FCB model (Figure 4.11), presented in 1980, is an advertising planning model developed by
Richard Vaughn of the FCB advertising agency and his colleagues. It presents an overview on
comprehending people’s thinking, feeling and behaviour towards various products to understand
how advertising works, using the two dimensions of involvement and thinking/feeling. The
classification suggests that purchase decisions are different based on decision-making processes that
require either more or less involvement. Similarly, decisions also differ when thinking- vs. feeling-
processing occurs at each involvement level. This is based on the split-brain theory, which states
that the left brain is more capable of rational and cognitive thinking, whereas the right brain
specialises in emotional, intuitive, visual and feeling-related functions. Thus, decisions depend in
part on what side of the brain is involved more for a particular product.

FIGURE 4.11 The FCB grid.

THINKING FEELING
H I 1. INFORMATIVE (THINKER) 2. AFFECTIVE (FEELER)
I N CAR-HOUSE-FURNISHINGS JEWELRY-COSMETICS-
G V
NEW PRODUCTS FASHION APPAREL-MOTORCYCLES
H O
MODEL : LEARN-FEEL-DO MODEL : FFEEL-LEARN-DO
L (Economic?) (Psychological?)
V
Possible Implications Possible Implication
E
M TEST: Recall TEST Attitude Change
E Diagnostics Emotion Arousal
N MEDIA: Long Copy Format MEDIA: Large Space
T Reflective Vehicles Image Specials
CREATIVE: Specific Information CREATIVE: Executional
Demonstration Impact

3. HABIT FORMATION (DOERY) 4. SELF-STATISFACTION (REACTOR)

FOOD-HOUSEHOLD ITEMS CIGARETTES-LIQUOR-CANDY
L I
ON MODEL: DO-LEARN-FEEL MODEL: DO-FEEL-LEARN
WV (Responsive?) (Social?)
O Possible Implications Possible Implications
L
TEST: Sales TEST: Sales
V
E MEDIA: Small Space Ads MEDIA: Billboards
M 10 Second I.D.'s Newspapers
E Radio; POS POS
N CREATIVE: Reminder CREATIVE: Attention
T
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 201

Vaughn indicates that the matrix is a continuum. The horizontal side of the matrix is based on
the hypothesis that over time, consumers shift from rational to emotional thinking. Similarly, high
involvement can decay to relatively low involvement over time. The continuum forms a space
where marketers can position the products relative to each other.
The four quadrants in the matrix summarise four major goals for advertising strategy: to be
informative, to be affective, to be habit forming or to promote self-satisfaction. The model also
states the typical response models consumers exhibit in each category, and their possible
implications for communication managers. The informative strategy is useful for high-involvement
products where decisions are taken rationally, mostly because they cannot be easily reversed and
involve a substantial economic investment. Thus, before the purchase of products such as real estate,
insurance, furnishings, industrial products, etc. and new and expensive products, consumers
consider many factors such as features, benefits, quality, price, etc. The affective strategy is also for
high-involvement products. However for these products, the importance of specific information is
less than the need for psychological or emotional feelings toward a product. Advertising should
bolster self-esteem, ego-related impulses such as image and status needs, etc. Thus, for products such
as jewellery, perfume, fashion apparel, wines and gourmet chocolates, consumer decisions are based
on sub-conscious thoughts and emotions.
The habit formation strategy is for low-involvement/thinking products that consumers give minimal
thought to and for which they form buying habits for convenience. In the case of such products,
learning occurs most often after exploratory trial buying. Packaged and convenience goods such as
household cleaners, kitchen supplies, etc. are habit forming purchases. Many ordinary products in
the mature stage fall into this category with the passage of time. The self-satisfaction strategy is for low-
involvement products that are dominated by feelings because they satisfy personal tastes. Vaughn
likens them to ‘life’s little pleasures’ for which a consumer adjusts purchases to satisfy cultural and
group needs for conformity. Products such as cigarettes, liquor, candy, movies, etc. fall in this
category. While Vaughn suggests do-learn feel and do-feel-learn response sequences for the low-

Visa uses the emotional card in its one of its television commercials that shows a foreigner
(Richard Gere) touring around a rustic Indian village. In the marketplace, a villager points to
birds in a cage and explains to Gere, “If you free birds, you give good luck. More birds, more
luck.” Just then a young girl comes to a bird-shop and says, “Bhaiya pardes jaa raha hai, uski
bhalai ke liye paanch panchi chhodne hain”. But the seller informs her that with her money she
could buy only one. Dejectedly, she buys one. Just as she is about to release the bird,
hundreds of birds fly from behind her. The commercial concludes on the warm and humourous
note that Richard Gere has played the nice guy with his Visa power, but he pretends innocence
when the bewildered girl looks at him.
Although on a rational note it is highly unbelievable that credit cards are being accepted in
Indian flea markets, Visa touches the emotional chord by suggesting how its power could be
used for good deeds. According to BBDO, the agency for the campaign, the concept of giving
was well received by all cardholders and hence the overall concept of the commercial was
based on this ritual. Emotion is also reflected in the rustic and rhythmic music score, which
reinforces the Visa brand and supports the central theme of empowerment.
202 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

involvement categories, he admits that some minimal level of passive learning, in the form of
awareness creation, may precede purchases or the ‘do’ part. However, active learning such as
knowing about all benefits, features and functions in detail, happens at a later stage after purchase.
The FCB grid is highly useful to advertisers in planning their creative strategies. It helps them
develop advertising strategies according to consumers’ relation towards a product. Creative
planning such as using rational or emotional appeals in advertising can also be planned with the
help of this grid. This is discussed at greater length in Chapter 9. Often advertisers experiment with
creative options by getting consumers to evaluate a rational-thinking product on the basis of
feelings, as in the example of Visa card, or try to upgrade a low-involvement product to a high-
involvement one.
The FCB planning model theory has been tested in various consumer research studies and has
found validation for the most part, with some variations in the extent of think and feel parts,
depending on the level of involvement. Also, international study about the grid indicates that
consumer mental processes are quite similar throughout different countries in spite of
communication differences in advertising.

In the current times, cellular services have also become a relatively low-involvement, thinking-
oriented product. Product differentiation is also low—all mobile service operators have more or
less the same plans and offer the same services with the same add-ons. These brands have
high awareness, not equity, which is why brand loyalty is low and mobile service operators are
forced to lock customers in with contracts. Unlike with cellular handsets, with mobile services,
consumers do not get involved in the purchase decision or feel that they ought to buy a brand
that reflects their lifestyle. All they are concerned with is where to pay the bill or buy the next
prepaid card. Network connectivity, except for extremely remote locations, is almost the same
for all brands, with individual strong and weak pockets. Thus brand names do not matter as yet.
Hutch, now Vodafone, has spent heavily on advertising and communication, but it still has a
very shallow brand image. However, Vodafone has been wise to retain, at least initially, certain
accumulated properties of Hutch such as its pug or signature tune.
In view of the nature of the product, Vodafone’s decision to quickly migrate Hutch customers to
its name was wise. All it needed to do at this stage was spend enough to create mass
awareness through repetition. And consumers were automatically migrated with the next bill.
Conventional wisdom also says that in the case of service products, post-sales service
activities, such as billing, customer care, and consumer experience are more important than
the brand name. Thus, Hutch’s suggestion that only the name has changed and the change
would lead to even better services, serves as a reassurance for existing consumers so as not
to create any post-purchase dissonance.

4.3.2 The Kim-Lord Model17

While the FCB grid segregates product decisions into cognitive (thinking) or affective (feeling),
Chung K. Kim and Kenneth R. Lord have recognised that purchase decision for a single product can
be dominated by both cognitive and affective factors (Figure 4.12). The model highlights the extent of
cognitive and affective involvement a consumer faces while making purchase decisions for various
products.
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 203

FIGURE 4.12 The Kim-Lord Grid. Affective involvement

(Feeling)
Low High

Computer Car
High
Camera Skin lotion
Cooking oil Perfume

Cognitive involvement
(Thinking)
Detergent Greeting card
Salt Burger
Low
Candles Cigarettes

FIGURE 4.13 (a) Communication for products that are high on cognitive and affective counts.

Courtesy: Superbrands, Volume I, 2004. Reproduced with permission.

204 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

FIGURE 4.13 (b)

Communication for products
that are high on cognitive
and affective counts.

Courtesy: Platinum, Contract.

Reproduced with permission.

Subhead: Considering these are never going to tarnish, you better pray for grand-
children. Preferably, grand-daughters. Bodycopy: Platinum, earth’s most precious
metal does not lose colour. Ever. Mined from 1000 metres below the earth’s surface,
the metal goes through an entire life with its pristine white unchanged. Holding pre-
cious stones intact, platinum defines timelessness. Finally, there is a way to bridge
the generation gap.
Baseline: Be touched

Some products such as cars, expensive lifestyle products, etc. get high consumer involvement on
both cognitive and affective counts. For example, the status quotient of a car is as important to
consumers as its mileage and safety features. In Figure 4.13(a), Aquaguard talks about not only its
purification process but also about mothers’ concern regarding the health of their children. Infact,
‘mother and child’ became one of the brand’s most enduring images. Similarly, in Figure 4.13(b), Platinum
talks about the product’s timelessness, alluding to its worth as an investment, as well as its emotional
worth in connecting generations. Products such as computers and cameras are high on cognitive
involvement whereas greeting cards and cigarettes are high on affective involvement. However, most
convenience and routine-buy products face low consumer involvement on both cognitive and affective
factors. Hence, often advertisers of low-involvement products attempt to increase involvement on at
least one dimension in order to shift the purchase decision to a conscious choice rather than a mere
habit. For example, in the Odomos ad reproduced below, Odomos mosquito repellant cream tries to
increase involvement on the thinking and feeling parts by introducing a mild fear of mosquito-driven
illnesses for which a solution is provided in Odomos, and by urging parents/mothers to be more
protective of their children when they are out of home. The accompanying visual is that of a school
kid covered from head to toe for fear of mosquitoes. In Figure 4.14 Good Knight takes a similar route.
The Kim-Lord model is thus useful to advertisers in determining their advertising strategy and
creative content, for instance, in the determination of emotional or rational appeal.
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 205

FIGURE 4.14
Low involvement product tries to make
purchase decision a conscious choice
by attempting an increase in
cognition.

Courtesy: Superbrands, Volume I, 2004.

Reproduced with permission.

Headline: There are better ways to project your child from Dengue and Chikungunya.
Subhead: Introducing Advanced Odomos.
Bodycopy: We all know that mosquito bites can result in deadly diseases like Dengue,
Chikungunya and Malaria. These diseases are caused by either the Aedes or Anopheles
mosquitoes, which can bite you anytime, day or night. In fact, the risk of mosquito bites during the
day is very high, especially when you are out of home. Advanced Odomos is India’s first mosquito
repellant which protects you even when you are outdoors, unlike liquid vaporizers, mats and coils
which protect you only in the confines of a home. Applied on exposed skin, Odomos forms a
protective shield around you which prevents mosquitoes from biting you. Odomos is certified by
leading pediatricians as being safe on skin. It also comes in a non-sticky format with a pleasant
fragrance. Get the new Odomos for your family and enjoy life without any fear.

4.4 PROCESSING COMMUNICATIONS COGNITIVELY

One of the main problems in advertising is that of understanding how advertisers can change
consumer attitudes and beliefs. Previously, it was believed that memory of the persuasive message
played a vital role in changing consumer attitudes. However, research in the late 1960s and early
206 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

FIGURE 4.15 A model of cognitive response.

Cognitive Purchase
Attitude
responses intention

Product/ message
thoughts Brand attitudes

Exposure to Source-oriented Purchase

advertisement thoughts intention

Ad execution Attitude towards

thoughts the advertisement

1970s revealed that message recall had only a minor role to play towards attitude building. Even the
response hierarchy models fail to explain the attitude formation phenomenon.
Later, research in the areas of cognitive responses threw light on the subject. Today, it is believed
that attitudes are built by the kind of thoughts that emerge in the minds of consumers when they
consume an ad. According to Anthony Greenwald, people actively relate information contained in
advertising messages to their existing feelings, beliefs and experiences about the message topic. These
preexisting feelings, beliefs and experiences may be positive, negative or neutral to the message. It is
likely that people agree with persuasions that support their own beliefs and disagree with
persuasions that are not consistent with their preconceived beliefs. These are known as cognitive
responses—the thoughts that occur to consumers while reading, viewing and/or hearing
advertisements. These determine the attitude a consumer depicts after seeing an advertisement.18
Cognitive responses or thoughts can be measured by asking consumers to write down or verbally
express their reactions to a message during its exposure.
According to Hovland, when a consumer is exposed to a persuasive message, he reacts with at
least two distinct responses. He thinks of his own opinion, and also of the opinion suggested by the
communicator. The idea of persuasion implies that advertisers have the opportunity of influencing
consumers through knowledge.19 Researchers have developed many variants of the cognitive
response theory to understand consumer beliefs and attitudes. One such model that attempts to
relate cognitive responses to attitudes towards the advertised brand, advertisement, and purchase
intentions is illustrated in Figure 4.15. It depicts the three main categories of cognitive responses
identified by researchers, viz. product/message thoughts, source-oriented thoughts and ad-execution
thoughts, and explains how they may relate to attitudes and purchase intention. An understanding
of the cognitive response model helps advertisers in determining how to influence customers
through persuasive messages.
· Product/Message Thoughts: One category of cognitive responses comprises the thoughts
related to the advertised product and/or the claims made by the brand. Two types of responses
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 207

are paid particular attention to—counterarguments and support arguments. Counterarguments

are thoughts that challenge or disapprove the position proposed by the product or message.
For example, Icecool window film claims in its print ads, “Up to 70% heat rejection, twice that of
ordinary car window films. 4 years guarantee. 3 ply organometallic film. Enhanced aesthetics.
Compliant with Central Motor Vehicle Act.” To these claims, a consumer may express
disbelief: “I don’t think that up to 70% of the heat can be reflected back in a hot city like
Ahmedabad. Surely there’s a catch which is why they don’t mention the minimum heat
protection available.” In contrast, support arguments are thoughts that assert the claims in the
message: “They won’t give a guarantee if it weren’t true. Doesn’t harm to try.”
As explained by Greenwald, it is likely that people agree with persuasions that support
their own beliefs and disagree with persuasions that are not consistent with their
preconceived beliefs. Thus, counterarguments increase when a message makes claims
inconsistent with the receiver’s beliefs. The more the counterarguments, the less the message
acceptance.20 Contrariwise, support arguments increase chances of message acceptance.
Advertisers should thus aim at minimising the former and maximising the latter.
· Source-Oriented Thoughts: Sources of a message comprise the product organisation issuing
the advertisement, as well as the celebrity, spokesman or endorser featured in the
communication and making a claim. Communication receivers can have either negative or
positive thoughts related to sources. Negative thoughts, called source derogations, can also
lead to resistance in message acceptance. On the other hand, favourable reactions towards
sources, called source bolsters, can increase acceptance of a message. Characteristics of the
source such as likeability, trustworthiness, popularity, etc. are largely responsible in
influencing source-oriented thoughts. Thus, in the Lead India campaign in Figures 4.3a-b, people
who do not like Priyanka Chopra or Shah Rukh Khan are likely to have unfavourable
thoughts for the campaign as well. In Chapter 9, we will discuss why celebrities are popularly
used to endorse products and what can be the flips of using them as sources.
· Ad-Execution Thoughts: These are thoughts that an individual may have about the
advertisement itself, for example, regarding its creative elements such as image, copy, story,
music, symbols, etc. These thoughts may also be favourable or unfavourable. These feelings
of favourability or unfavourability of an individual towards an ad comprise his attitude
towards an ad. A consumer’s attitude towards an ad influences his brand attitude and
purchase intentions. This explains why cola marketers, whose products have minimal
differences, spend millions of rupees in creating superior, likeable ads. A study by Roland
Alsop found that people who enjoy television commercials are twice as likely to be
convinced of a brand’s superiority than people who are neutral towards them.21 In India, the
use of emotional appeal is also quite extensive. This is partly due to advertisers’ belief that
emotional ads evoke feelings and increase consumers’ involvement with the ad. If this leads
to favourable ad-execution thoughts, it may translate into favourable attitudes.
Thus, these are some of the major cognitive responses that occur in a receiver’s mind while
processing a persuasive message. However, the extent and type of cognitive processing is not the
same in each individual receiver. The model that we discuss next, explains this difference in
cognitive processing.
208 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

4.4.1 The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)22

The ELM was proposed in 1980 by Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo to explain the way
consumers process and respond to a persuasive message and how a persuasive message works to
change the attitude of a receiver (Figure 4.16). The model states that the extent of elaboration or
cognitive processing that occurs on consuming a persuasive message, determines the attitude
formation by an individual.
When an individual carefully scrutinises a persuasive message, and engages in rational, conscious
thinking and analysis of the arguments presented in the message, it is a situation of high elaboration.
On the other hand, when there is no conscious thinking involved in processing a message, a position
may be taken on the basis of simple positive or negative cues that are not the main content of the
message. This is a situation of low elaboration. Attitudes formed under high elaboration are stronger
(more predictive of behavior, more stable over time, and more resistant to persuasion) than those
formed under low elaboration.

FIGURE 4.16 The ELM Model.

Persuasive Communication

Temporary
Attitude Shift

Motivated to Process?
Issue involvement, relevance,
commitment, dissonance arousal No Yes
need for cognition, etc.
Peripheral Cues present?
Yes Attractive source, music, hum or,
No visuals, etc.
Ability to Process?
Distraction, message comprehensibility,
issue familiarity, appropriate schema,
fear arousal, etc

Yes Yes

Nature of Active Cognitive Processing:

(Initial attitude, argument quality, etc.)
Favorable Unfavorable Neither or
Thoughts Thoughts Neutral
Predominate Predominate Predominate Retain or Regain
Initial Attitude

Cognitive Structure Change: Are new

cognitions adopted and stored in memory? No
Are different responses made salient than
previously?

Yes Yes
Enduring Enduring
Positive Negative
Attitude Attitude
Change Change
(Persuasion) (Boomerang)
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 209

Whether high or low elaboration occurs depends mainly on two factors: motivation (strong desire
to process the message) and ability to process (actually being capable of critical evaluation). The extent
of motivation depends on factors such as involvement, personal relevance, accountability, the
consumer’s innate desire to enjoy thinking, and the level of arousal. Ability depends on individual’s
intellectual capability, knowledge to analyse the arguments, and the presence or absence of time
pressures or other distractions. For example, as well as lending instant popularity to a product,
celebrities can create noise in an advertisement by obscuring the content of the message with their
charms.
Petty and Cacioppo proposed that a message is transmitted and received through one of the two
routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. Which route is taken is determined
by the extent of elaboration. The central route to persuasion states that the individual taking this
course is an active processor of information, who is highly involved in the message, can comprehend
it, and is knowledgeable. In other words, he has both the motivation and ability to process the
message. Thus he elaborates on the message extensively by carefully reviewing its content and
analysing its arguments. The central route leads to consideration of both arguments for and against
and a choice is made carefully. The individual’s unique cognitive responses to the message determine
the persuasive outcome (i.e., the direction and magnitude of attitude change). If the elaboration
process results in favourable thoughts resulting in support arguments and source bolsters, the
message will most likely be accepted (i.e., an attitude congruent with the message position will
materialise). However, if unfavourable cognitive processing occurs leading to counterarguments
and source derogations, the message will most likely be rejected.
When an individual takes the peripheral route to persuasion, he performs a low elaboration of
the message where he does not pay much attention to the merits of the actual argument presented.
Instead, he is swayed by environmental characteristics of the message, such as the credibility and
attractiveness of the source, quality of the communication, or creative elements such as the jingle or
slogan. Favourable or unfavourable reactions depend on how the receiver evaluates these peripheral
cues. What do you think are the peripheral cues in Figure 4.17? How important are they in
developing an attitude towards Lux? What sort of reactions does it elicit from you? In the peripheral
route, attitude change is only temporary and susceptible to further change.
Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a combination of central and peripheral route
processes occurs.

4.4.2 Evaluation of the ELM Model

The ELM model guides marketing communication managers in designing a message based on the
route to persuasion that the consumer follows. If consumers follow the central route, it is pertinent
to be logical and present compelling arguments that are difficult to refute. Compelling messages are
those that prove brand superiority and that can be easily recalled by the consumer. These two
qualities of a message are important in making it persuasive. However, consumer involvement is
often low for product categories such as convenience and habitual items. Thus, marketers of low-
involvement products whose consumers usually follow the peripheral route and do not pay much
attention to the message content, can use tactics that emphasise peripheral cues like putting
consumers in a good mood, using celebrities, catchy jingles, entertaining stories or copies, repetitive
advertising, etc. Once the audience is favourably disposed, the marketer can attempt to lead them
210 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

FIGURE 4.17 Find out the peripheral cues in this ad.

Headline: Skindulgence
Bodycopy: Indulge your skin with New Lux Chocolate Seduction Soap. Rich with real cocoa and strawberry vitamins, it nourishes your skin and leaves it
looking deliciously gorgeous. Chocolate Seduction is a special offering from Lux, a part of our Celebration Range to mark 75 years of stardom.
Baseline: 75 years of stardom

Courtesy: Lux, JWT. Reproduced with permission.

one step closer to higher involvement, as Odomos does in the example in Section 4.3.2. One of the
best ways of motivating people to take the central route is of making the message personally relevant
to them. As we will discuss in Chapter 9, fear can also be effective in making people pay attention,
but only if it is moderate and a solution is also offered. Strong fear appeal can make people counter
argue or avoid it.

Summary
Since communication is the key function for all involved in promotions planning, it is fundamental
to understand its process and components. Communication is the imparting, sharing or exchanging
of information, news, views, thoughts, attitudes or ideas between two or more people. Figure 4.2
illustrates a basic model that depicts the primary elements of the communication process.
Communication begins when a sender encodes a message and transmits it through a channel, after
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 211

which it is decoded by the receiver for interpretation. Feedback from the receiver indicates if
message comprehension has been as intended. Successful communication also depends on factors
like the nature of the message and environmental factors.
For communications planning, marketers also need to understand the response processes of
consumers. Traditional theories of consumer response hierarchy propose that a consumer gives a
cognitive, affective and behavioural response in that order. Alternative response theories like
dissonance/attribution and low-involvement models that propose different hierarchical sequences
of responses have also been developed. Understanding the sequences of responses can help marketers
to set appropriate goals for advertising, and increases the effectiveness of messages. The chapter also
discusses factors and models that help in gauging consumer involvement, notably the Foote, Cone
and Belding model that analyses responses using the two dimensions of involvement and thinking/
feeling.
The cognitive response process analyses the thoughts generated by a message and how they affect
receivers’ attitude towards a message. The elaboration likelihood model proposes the central and
peripheral routes to persuasion that receivers follow in processing a message. Receivers with high
motivation and processing ability follow the former route, and those with low motivation and
ability, the latter. Attitudes formed under high elaboration are stronger than those formed under
low elaboration. Understanding the involvement and response levels of target audiences is a key to
successful communication.

Exercise
1. Explain how the communications process works. What would happen if the message is not
properly encoded or decoded?
2. Do you think all models of consumer response hierarchies are covered by the traditional and
alternative response hierarchy models? If not, what sequences can you discover? Name the
product categories for which consumers are likely to follow these sequences, stating reasons
why.
3. Compare and contrast the high- vs. low-involvement theories. Do you think it is necessary for
advertisers of low-involvement products to increase the involvement level of consumers? Discuss
cases when such a stepping-up exercise would help and cases when it would not.
4. Differentiate between the central and peripheral routes to persuasion, and the situations under
which a specific route would be chosen.
5. From the opening vignette, can you tell as to what response hierarchy are consumers of cellular
services such as Vodafone likely to display? Is the hierarchy same for pre-paid and post-paid
customers? What route to persuasion are they likely to adopt—central or peripheral—in
processing communication? Why?
6. What are the symbolic components of the brand Hutch that create an emotional connect with
consumers? Which symbolic components of Hutch’s communication have been retained by
Vodafone and which ones have been discarded? Why?
7. Do you think that Hutch/Vodafone is a pure thinking-oriented brand? Why or why not?
212 Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective

Suggested Class Projects

1. Review five television commercials for five different product categories. Note your level of
involvement with each ad. What kind of cognitive responses are the ads likely to elicit? What
routes to persuasion would be more common for these products? What peripheral cues were
present in the advertisement? Did they support or weaken the message component?
2. Find examples of a print ad and a television commercial for the same product. Do you see any
difference in the message component or peripheral cues? Why or why not?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. The effectiveness of a celebrity endorser in an ad depends on the receiver’s involvement level.
Agree or disagree giving reasons.
2. Between television and print, what medium is more appropriate for persuading consumers
through the central route? Why?
3. The FCB grid is shown as a continuum based on the hypothesis that over time, consumers shift
from rational to emotional thinking and high involvement can decay to relatively low
involvement. What could be the reasons for this shift? Can you think of product categories that
have made such shifts?

Endnotes
1. Devina Joshi, “India calling: Vodafone’s strategy, unplugged,” September 25, 2007,
www.agencyfaqs.com; Devina Joshi, “Basking in the spotlight: Vodafone,” September 26, 2007,
www.agencyfaqs.com; Pradipta Mukherjee, “Vodafone uses magazine cover for name-change
ad,” October 4, 2007, www.agencyfaqs.com; Devina Joshi, “Vodafone to bid fond farewell to
animated boy-girl characters,” September 24, 2007, www.agencyfaqs.com; Devina Joshi,
“Vodafone’s 24 hours: New brand to monopolise STAR Network,” September 20, 2004,
www.agencyfaqs.com
2. Devina Joshi, “Vodafone to bid fond farewell to animated boy-girl characters,” September 24,
2007, www.agencyfaqs.com
3. Pradipta Mukherjee, “Vodafone uses magazine cover for name-change ad,” October 4, 2007,
www.agencyfaqs.com
4. Devina Joshi, “Basking in the spotlight: Vodafone,” September 26, 2007, www.agencyfaqs.com
5. Devina Joshi, “India calling: Vodafone’s strategy, unplugged,” September 25, 2007,
www.agencyfaqs.com
6. Devina Joshi, “Basking in the spotlight: Vodafone,” September 26, 2007, www.agencyfaqs.com
7. Pradipta Mukherjee, “Vodafone uses magazine cover for name-change ad,” October 4, 2007,
www.agencyfaqs.com
8. George E. Belch & Michael A. Belch, Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communication
Perspective, (USA: McGraw-Hill, 2004), 6th edition, pp. 147
9. E.K. Strong, The Psychology of Selling (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1925), p. 9
10. Robert J. Lavidge and Gary A. Steiner, “A Model for Predictive Measurements of Advertising
Effectiveness,” Journal of Marketing 24 (October 1961), pp. 59-62.
11. Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (New York: Free Press, 1962), p. 79-86.
 Chapter 4 Understanding the Communications Process 213

12. William J. McGuire, “An Information Processing Model of Advertising Effectiveness,” in

Behavioural and Management Science in Marketing, ed. Harry J. Davis and Alvin J. Silk (New York:
Ronald Press, 1978), pp. 156-80.
13. Michael L. Ray, “Communication and the Hierarchy of Effects,” in New Models for Mass
Communication Research, ed. P. Clarke (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1973, pp. 147-75; George E. Belch &
Michael A. Belch, Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communication Perspective, (USA:
McGraw-Hill, 2004), 6th edition, pp. 150
14. Hawkins, Scott A. and Stephen J. Hoch (1992), “Low-Involvement Learning: Memory without
Evaluation,” Journal of Consumer Research, 19 (September), pp. 212-225.
15. Judith L. Zaichowsky, “Conceptualizing Involvement,” Journal of Advertising 15, no. 2 (1986), pp.
4-14.
16. Richard Vaughn, “How Advertising Works: A Planning Model Revisited,” Journal of Advertising
Research 20, no. 5 (October 1980), pp. 27-33; Richard Vaughn, “How Advertising Works: A Planning
Model Revisited,” Journal of Advertising Research 26, no. 1 (February/March 1986), pp. 57-66.
17. Chung K. Kim and Kenneth R. Lord, “A New FCB Grid and its Strategic Implications for
Advertising,” ed. Tony Schellink, Administrative Sciences Association of Canada, 1991).
18. Greenwald, A.G., & Albert, Rosita D., “Acceptance and recall of improvised arguments,” Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology (1968), 8, 31-34
19. Hovland, Carl, Janis, Irving and Keoey, “Communication and Persuasion,” New Haven Yale
University Press, (1953)
20. Peter Wright, “Message Evoked Thoughts, Persuasion Research Using Thought Verbalizations,”
Journal of Consumer Research 7, no. 2 (September 1980), pp. 151-75.
21. Ronald Alsop, “TV ads that are likeable get plus rating for persuasiveness,” The Wall Street Journal,
February 20, 1986, p. 23.
22. Petty, R. E. and Cacioppo, J. T. (1986) Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to
attitude change, New York: Springer-Verlag