Foundation Systems

Er. Salman Khursheed

Assistant Professor
Building Engineering and Management
School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi
Types Of Foundations :

Foundation Systems

Shallow Foundation Df > 2.5B Deep Foundation Df < 2.5B

Pile Foundation Pier (Caisson)

Foundation

Isolated spread Wall footings Combined Cantilever or

footings footings strap footings

Raft or Mat
foundation
1. Shallow Foundations : are usually located no more than 1.2-2.0
meter below the lowest finished floor. A shallow foundation system
generally used when (1) the soil close the ground surface has sufficient
bearing capacity, and (2) underlying weaker strata do not result in
undue settlement. The shallow foundations are commonly used most
economical foundation systems.

Footings are structural elements, which transfer loads to the soil from
columns, walls or lateral loads from earth retaining structures. In order to
transfer these loads properly to the soil, footings must be design to
1. Prevent excessive settlement
2. Minimize differential settlement, and
3. Provide adequate safety against overturning and sliding.
Design Considerations :
1. Must not settle excessively.
2. Must be placed at depth sufficient to prevent damage from surface
environmental effects (frost, swelling and shrinkage, erosion and scour).
3. Must not cause failure of supporting soil (Bearing Capacity criteria).

Advantages of using shallow foundation :

1. Cost (affordable)
2. Construction Procedure (simple)
3. Materials (mostly concrete)
4. Labour (does not need expertise)

Disadvantages of using shallow foundation :

1. Settlement
2. Irregular ground surface (slope, retaining wall)
3. Foundation subjected to pullout, torsion, moment.
Types of Isolated Spread Footings :
Column

Footing

Isolated spread footings under individual

columns. These can be square, rectangular, or
circular.
 Wall

Footing

Wall footing is a continuous slab

strip along the length of wall.
 Columns
Combined footings
support two or more
columns. These can
be rectangular or
trapezoidal plan.

Footing

Combined Footing
Property line
 Property line

Cantilever or strap footings: These are similar to combined

footings, except that the footings under columns are built
independently, and are joined by strap beam.
Mat or Raft footings :

It is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under entire

structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the
allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close
that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other. Mat
foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non
Homogeneous soils or where there is large variation in the loads on
individual columns.
 Columns

Footing

Mat or Raft Foundations

Raft or Mat foundation: This is a large continuous footing
supporting all the columns of the structure. This is used when soil
conditions are poor but piles are not used.
Deep Foundations : The shallow foundations may not be economical or
even possible when the soil bearing capacity near the surface is too low. In
those cases deep foundations are used to transfer loads to a stronger
layer, which may be located at a significant depth below the ground
surface. The load is transferred through skin friction and end bearing
P
(Figure below).

friction
Skin fricti
Wf

Hard soil/
Bedrock
End bearing

Axial Compressive Load transfer in deep foundations (END BEARING

PILES
 P

fricti
Skin friction
Wf

End bearing (negligible)

Axial Compressive Load transfer in deep foundations (Friction PILES)

 P
V M

friction
Skin fricti
Wf

Axial Tension Load transfer in deep

foundations

Lateral Load transfer in deep

foundations
 Column Column

Piles cap Piles cap

Piles Piles

(a) (b)

Pile Foundation- (a) Vertical Piles; (b) Battered Piles

 Column
Col

Pile Cap

Piles

Pile Foundation
Typical Section of PIER :
Column

Pier shaft

Bell

Pier Foundation (Caisson)

Soil Bearing Pressure at base of Foundations :
Concentrically Loaded Footing P

Bearing pressure, p
= P/A = P/(W x L)

L
B. Eccentric load on Footings : e1

CASE 1 : e1<L/6

pmin
pmax

L/6 L/6

W/6
W W/6

Kern Boundary

L
CASE 2 : e1=L/6 e1

Pmin =0
pmax

L/6 L/6

W/6 Load
W/6

Kern Boundary

L
CASE I ( e1 < L/6)
Direct Stress > Bending Stress

p min = Direct Stress – Bending Stress

p max = Direct Stress + Bending Stress

p min = (P/A) – (M . c / I)
p max = (P/A) + (M . c / I)

where
A= W x L
M= P x e1
c= L/2
3
I = W x L/12
c/I = (L/2) x 12/(W x L3) = 6/(W x L2)

Therefore,
p min = P/(W x L) – 6(P x e1) /(W x L2)
p max = P/(W x L) + 6(P x e1) /(W x L2)
CASE 2 ( e1 = L/6)
Direct Stress = Bending Stress

(P/A) = (M . c / I)
P/(W x L) = 6(P x e1) /(W x L2)
Therefore, e1 = L/6

p min = 0
p max = P/(W x L) + 6(P x L/6) /(W x L2)
= 2P/(W x L)
 P
CASE 3 : e1>L/6 L/2 e1 X=(L/2 – e1)

Pmin =0
pmax

L/6 L/6
Load
W/6
W W/6

Kern Boundary

L
CASE III ( e1 > L/6)
As shown above, as the load, P acts outside of the kern boundary,
tensile stress results at the left side.

For pmax less than allowable soil bearing capacity, no uplift is

expected at the left end of the footing, and the center of gravity of the
triangular bearing stress distribution coincides with the point of action
of load, P.

Downward Load = Area of upward triangular stress block x width

P = ½ (pmax) (3X)W

P = 3/2 (pmax) (L/2 – e1) W

Pmax = 2P / [3W(L/2 – e1)]

 Y
C. Bi-Axial loading on Footings :

ex
Load,

ey P
X

Biaxial Loading (Eccentricity about two axes):

Bearing Stresses at the corners of the footing are –

L
p = P/(W.L) ± (P. ex . Cx)/Iy ± (P. ey . Cy)/Ix

where

Cx = L/2; Cy = W/2;

Ix = L. W3 /12; Iy = W. L3 /12
P

e e = M/P

P
Determine the size of square spread foundation for the following data.
P = 300 T, Mx = 80 Tm, My = 90 Tm, SBC = 20 T/m2
Area required for foundation =1.5P = 1.5x300 = 22.5 m2
SBC 20
We need to find the sides of foundation by trial and error procedure.
Trial 1:
Provide 5 x 5 m foundation.
P/A = 300 = 12 T/m2
5x5
Zx = 5x52 = 20.833 m3, Zy = 5x52 = 20.833 m3,
6 6
Mx = 80 = 3.84 T/m2
Zx 20.833
My = 90 = 4.32 T/m2
Zy 20.833
P1 = P + Mx + My = 12 + 3.84 + 4.32 = 20.16 T/m2 ≥ 20 T/m2 (SBC)
A Zx Zy
So, change the size of foundation.
Trial 2: (Provide 5 x 5.5 m foundation.)
P = 300 = 10.90 T/m2
A 5x5.5
Zx = 5.5x52 = 22.92 m3, Zy = 5x5.52 = 25.20 m3,
6 6
Mx = 80 = 3.49 T/m2
Zx 22.92
My = 90 = 3.57 T/m2
Zy 25.20

P1 = P + Mx - My = 10.90 + 3.49 -3.57 = 10.82 T/m2

A Zx Zy
P2 = P + Mx + My = 10.90 + 3.49 +3.57 = 17.96 T/m2 < 20 T/m2 (SBC). So, OK
A Zx Zy
P3 = P - Mx - My = 10.90 - 3.49 -3.57 = 3.84 T/m2 > 0, This is also Ok
A Zx Zy
P4 = P - Mx + My = 10.90 - 3.49 +3.57 = 10.98 T/m2
A Zx Zy
Hence, provide 5 x 5.5 m size foundation. It is safe.
Classification of Piles :
The piles are broadly classified as :

A) Based on the Materials :

1. Concrete
2. Steel
3. Timber

B) Based on load transfer Mechanisms :

1. End Bearing Piles
2. Friction/Floating Piles
3. Bearing Cum Friction Piles
C) Based on method of construction/installation :

1. Driven Pre Cast Piles

2. Driven Cast in Situ Piles
3. Bored Pre Cast Piles
4. Bored Cast in Situ Piles

D) Based on sectional shape/area :

1. Circular Piles
2. Tubular Piles
3. “H” Piles
4. Square Piles
E) Based on sectional size :

1. Micro Piles : diameter < 150mm

2. Small dia. Piles : 150 < diameter < 600mm
3. Large dia. Piles : diameter > 600mm

F) Based on inclination :
1. Vertical Piles
2. Inclined/Raker Piles
Steel Piles :

Steel piles generally are either “pipe” piles or rolled steel “H-section” piles.
Pipe piles can be driven into the ground with their ends open or closed.
Wide-flange and I-section steel beams can also be used as piles.
However, H-section piles are usually preferred because their web and
flange thicknesses are equal. In wide-flange and I-section beams, the web
thicknesses are smaller than the thicknesses of the flange.
In many cases, the pile piles are filled with concrete after driving.

The allowable structural capacity for steel piles is all =

Where = cross−sectional area of the steel
= allowable stress of steel
Steel piles may be subject to corrosion. For example, swamps, peats, and
other organic soils are corrosive. Soils that have a pH greater than 7 are
not so corrosive. To offset the effect of corrosion, an additional thickness of
steel (over the actual design cross-sectional area) is generally
recommended. In many circumstances, factory-applied epoxy coatings on
piles work satisfactorily against corrosion. These coatings are not easily
damaged by pile driving. Concrete encasement of steel piles in most
corrosive zones also protects against corrosion.
Concrete Piles :

Concrete piles may be divided into two basic categories: (a) precast piles
and (b) cast-insitu piles. Precast piles can be prepared by using ordinary
reinforcement, and they can be square or octagonal in cross section.

Reinforcement is provided to enable the pile to resist the bending moment

developed during pickup and transportation, the vertical load, and the
bending moment caused by lateral load. The piles are cast to desired
lengths and cured before being transported to the work sites.
Precast piles can also be prestressed by the use of high-strength steel
prestressing cables. The ultimate strength of these steel cables is about
260 ksi (≈ 1800 MN/m2). During casting of the piles, the cables are
pretensioned to about 130 − 190 ksi (≈ 900 − 1300 MN/m2), and concrete
is poured around them. After curing, the cables are cut, thus producing a
compressive force on the pile section.

Cast-in-situ, or cast-in-place, piles are built by making a hole in the ground

and then filling it with concrete. Various types of cast-in-place concrete
pile are currently used in construction, and most of them have been pat
ended by their manufactures. These piles may be divided into two broad
categories: (a) cased and (b) uncased. Both types may have a pedestal at
the bottom.
Cased piles are made by driving a steel casing into the ground with the
help of a mandrel placed inside the casing. When the pile reaches the
proper depth, the mandrel is withdrawn and the casing is filled with
concrete. The pedestal is an expanded concrete bulb that is formed by
dropping a hammer on fresh concrete.

Cased Pile all = +

= area of cross section of steel = area of cross section of concrete

= allowable stress of steel = allowable stress of concrete Uncased
Timber Piles :
Timber piles are tree trunks that have had their branches and bark carefully
trimmed off. The maximum length of most timber piles is 30-65 ft (10-20 m).
To qualify for use as a pile, the timber should be straight, sound, and
without any defects. In any case, a pile tip should not have a diameter
less than 6 in. (150 mm). Timber piles cannot withstand hard driving stress;
therefore, the pile capacity is generally limited to about 25-30 tons (220 −
270 kN). Steel shoes may be used to avoid damage at the pile tip (bottom).
The tops of timber piles may also be damaged during the driving operation.
The crushing of the wooden fibers caused by the impact of the hammer is
referred to as brooming. To avoid damage to the pile top, a metal band or a
cap may be used.
Timber piles can stay undamaged indefinitely if they are surrounded by
saturated soil. However, in a marine environment timber piles are subject
to attack by various organisms and can be damaged extensively in a few
months. When located above the water table, the piles are subject to
attach by insects. The life of the piles may be increased by treating them
with preservatives such as creosote. The allowable load-carrying capacity
of wooden piles is all =
Where = average area of cross section of the pile and
= allowable stress for the timber
Composite Piles :
The upper and lower portions of composite piles are made of different
materials. For example, composite piles may be made of steel and
concrete or timber and concrete. Steel and concrete piles consist of a
lower portion of steel and an upper portion of cast-in-place concrete.
This type of pile is the one used when the length of the pile required for
adequate bearing exceeds the capacity of simple cast-in-place concrete
piles. Timber and concrete piles usually consist of a lower portion of
timber pile below the permanent water table and an upper portion of
concrete. In any case, forming proper joints between two dissimilar
materials is difficult, and, for that reason, composite piles are not widely
used.