L4 Turbomachinery 2020-2021

A.K.C.I.
Kodithuwakku
B.Sc. ENG. (RUHUNA), M.Phil. (Reading)
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering,
University of Ruhuna,
Hapugala,
Galle. 80000
TURBOMACHINERY
SRI LANKA
Email (Office) : chanaka@mme.ruh.ac.lk

Email (Personal)
: akcikodithuwakku@gmail.com
Telephone (Office): +94 (91) 2245 765/7 (Ext. 5234)
Mobile :+94(77)7 635 421
+94(71) 611 87 82
Content
Turbines and Turbo Compressors
1. Classification of Turbines (gas and steam)
2. Introduce the governing equations and velocity
diagrams
Turbines and Turbo Compressors
1. Diagram Efficiency and Reheat Factor
2. Conduct sizing of turbines
Positive Displacement Expanders and Compressors
1. Introduce Reversible reciprocating machines
2. Solve problems relating to isothermal, isentropic
and volumetric efficiencies
20th Batch 2020/2021 DMME, FoE, UoR 2

In this chapter we discuss the basic principles of a common
and important application of fluid mechanics, machines into
two broad categories, turbomachinery pumps and turbines.
First we classify turbo machines into two broad categories;
pumps and turbines.

Turbomachines can be categorized on the basis of the direction
of energy conversion:[
• Absorb power to increase the fluid pressure or head (ducted
Fans, compressors and pumps).
• Produce power by expanding fluid to a lower pressure or head
(hydraulic, steam and gas turbines).

What’s the Difference Between a Pump and a Compressor?
• Moving a fluid through a system requires either a pump or compressor.
• Both achieve this goal, but through different operating methods.
• Pumps have the ability to move liquids or gases.
• Compressors typically only move gas due to its natural ability to be
compressed.
• Generally, Pumps and compressors both have very high pressure rises.

Partial list of turbomachine topics (Wikipedia)
• Axial compressor • Francis turbine • Turbocharger

• Axial fan • Gas turbine • Turboexpander
• Centrifugal • Industrial fans • Turbofans
compressor • Jet engine • Turbojet
• Centrifugal fan • Mechanical fan • Turboprop
• Centrifugal pump • Mixed flow • Turbopump
• Centrifugal type compressor • Turboshaft
supercharger • Radial turbine • Turbines
• Exoskeletal engine • Steam turbine • Water turbine

Turbines

Turbines have been used for centuries to convert freely
available mechanical energy from rivers and wind into
useful mechanical work, usually through a rotating shaft.
Whereas the rotating part of a pump is called the
impeller, the rotating part of a hydro-turbine is called the
runner.
When the working fluid is water, the turbo-machines are
called hydraulic turbines or hydro-turbines.
When the working fluid is air, and energy is extracted
from the wind, the machine is properly called a wind
turbine.
The word windmill should technically be applied only
when the mechanical energy output is used to grind
grain, as in ancient times (Fig.)

In coal or nuclear power plants, the working fluid is usually steam; hence,
the turbo-machines that convert energy from the steam into mechanical
energy of a rotating shaft are called steam turbines.
A more generic name for turbines that employ a compressible gas as the
working fluid is gas turbine. (The turbine in a modern commercial jet engine is
a type of gas turbine.)

Positive-Displacement Turbines
• A positive-displacement turbine may be thought of as a positive-
displacement pump running backward—as fluid pushes into a closed
volume, it turns a shaft or displaces a reciprocating rod.
• The closed volume of fluid is then pushed out as more fluid enters the
device.
• There is a net head loss through the positive-displacement turbine; in
other words, energy is extracted from the flowing fluid and is turned
into mechanical energy.
• However, positive-displacement turbines are generally not used for
power production, but rather for flow rate or flow volume
measurement.

Nutating disc fluid flow meter
Disc wobbles and spins as water flows through the meter

Multipurpose Positive Displacement Turbine (PDT)
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116400

Dynamic Turbines
• Dynamic turbines are used both as
flow measuring devices and as power
generators.
• For example, meteorologists use a
three-cup anemometer to measure
wind speed (Fig).
• Experimental fluid mechanics
researchers use small turbines of
various shapes (most of which look like
small propellers) to measure air speed
or water speed.
• A novel application of a dynamic
turbine is shown in Fig. NASA
researchers mounted turbines at the
wing tips of a Piper PA28 research
aircraft to extract energy from wing tip
vortices.
Impulse Turbines
• In an impulse turbine, the fluid is sent
through a nozzle so that most of its
available mechanical energy is converted
into kinetic energy. (Impulse: something that causes
something to happen or happen more quickly)
• The high speed jet then impinges on
bucket-shaped vanes that transfer energy to
the turbine shaft, as sketched in Fig.
• The modern and most efficient type of
impulse turbine was invented by Lester A.
Pelton (1829–1908) in 1878, and the
rotating wheel is now called a Pelton
wheel in his honor.

Impulse Turbines
We analyze the power output of a Pelton wheel turbine by using

the Euler turbomachine equation. The power output of the shaft
is equal to Tshaft, where Tshaft is given by Eq.

Reaction Turbines
• The other main type of energy producing hydro-turbine is
the reaction turbine, which consists of fixed guide vanes
called stay vanes, adjustable guide vanes called wicket
gates, and rotating blades called runner blades (Fig.).
• Flow enters tangentially at high pressure, is turned toward
the runner by the stay vanes as it moves along the spiral
casing or volute, and then passes through the wicket gates
with a large tangential velocity component.
• Momentum is exchanged between the fluid and the
runner as the runner rotates, and there is a large pressure
drop. Unlike the impulse turbine, the water completely
fills the casing of a reaction turbine.
• For this reason, a reaction turbine generally produces more
power than an impulse turbine of the same diameter, net
head, and volume flow rate.
Reaction Turbines
There are two main types of reaction turbine—
Francis and Kaplan.
• The Francis turbine is somewhat similar in

geometry to a centrifugal or mixed flow pump,
but with the flow in the opposite direction.
• Note, however, that a typical pump running
backward would not be a very efficient turbine.
• The Francis turbine is named in honor of James
B. Francis (1815–1892), who developed the
design in the 1840s.
The runner of a Francis radial-flow turbine used at the Round
Butte hydroelectric power station in Madras, OR. There are 17
runner blades of outer diameter 11.8 ft (3.60 m). The turbine
rotates at 180 rpm and produces 119 MW of power at a
volume flow rate of 127 m3/s from a net head of 105 m.
Reaction Turbines
There are two main types of reaction turbine—
Francis and Kaplan.
• The Francis turbine is somewhat similar in

geometry to a centrifugal or mixed flow pump,
but with the flow in the opposite direction.
• Note, however, that a typical pump running
backward would not be a very efficient turbine.
• The Francis turbine is named in honor of James
B. Francis (1815–1892), who developed the
design in the 1840s.
The runner of a Francis mixed-flow turbine used at the Smith
Mountain hydroelectric power station in Roanoke, VA. There
are 17 runner blades of outer diameter 20.3 ft (6.19 m). The
turbine rotates at 100 rpm and produces 194 MW of power at
a volume flow rate of 375 m3/s from a net head of 54.9 m.
Reaction Turbines
In contrast, the Kaplan turbine is somewhat like an
axial-flow fan running backward.
• If you have ever seen a window fan start spinning
in the wrong direction when wind blows hard into
the window, you can visualize the basic operating
principle of a Kaplan turbine.
• The Kaplan turbine is named in honor of its
inventor, Viktor Kaplan (1876–1934).
The five-bladed propeller of a Kaplan turbine used at the

Warwick hydroelectric power station in Cordele, GA. There are
five runner blades of outer diameter 12.7 ft (3.87 m). The
turbine rotates at 100 rpm and produces 5.37 MW of power at
a volume flow rate of 63.7 m3/s from a net head of 9.75 m
Steam Turbines

Gas Turbines
Examples of gas turbine configurations:
(1) turbojet,
(2) turboprop,
(3) turboshaft (electric generator),
(4) high-bypass turbofan,
(5) low-bypass after burning turbofan

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINE
Classification of steam turbines may be done as following:
1. According to action of steam

(a) Impulse turbine
(b) Reaction turbine
(c) Combination of both
2. According to direction of flow:

(a) Axial flow turbine
(b) Radial flow turbine
3. According to number of stages

(a)Single stage turbine
(b)Multi stage turbine
4 .According to steam pressure at inlet of Turbine:

(a) Low pressure turbine
(b) Medium pressure turbine.
(c) High pressure turbine
(d) Super critical pressure turbine.
5.According to method of governing:

(a) Throttle governing turbine.
(b) Nozzle governing turbine.
(c) By pass governing turbine.

6. According to usage in industry:

(a) Stationary turbine with constant speed.
(b) Stationary turbine with variable speed.
(c) Non stationary turbines.

Types of steam turbines
1.Impulse: There is no change in the pressure

of the steam as it passes through the moving
blades. There is change only in the velocity of
the steam flow.
2.Reaction: There is change in both pressure

and velocity as the steam flows through the
moving blades.

Impulse turbine
• Entire pressure drop takes place in the
nozzle.
• Rotor blades simply deflect the flow and
hence have symmetrical shape.
Reaction turbine
• Pressure drop shared by the rotor and the
stator
• The amount of pressure drop shared is
given by the degree of reaction.

Impulse Turbines
The steam jets in an impulse turbine are directed by the fixed
nozzles at the turbine's bucket shaped rotor blades where the
force exerted by the jets causes the rotor to turn while at the
same time the velocity of the steam is reduced as it imparts its
kinetic energy to the blades. The blades in turn change the
direction of flow of the steam and this change of momentum
corresponds to the increased momentum of the rotor.
(Descartes - Conservation of momentum). The entire pressure
drop in the turbine stage occurs in the fixed nozzles in the
stator and there is no pressure drop as the steam passes
through the rotor blades since the cross section of the chamber
between the blades is constant. Impulse turbines are therefore
also known as constant pressure turbines.
Steam impulse turbines usually operate at extremely high
speeds of 30,000 r.p.m. or more and are thus subject to
enormous centrifugal forces. For most practical applications the
speed must be geared down. Other than that, the design is
relatively simple and the turbine casing does not necessarily
need to be pressure proof.
In a compound turbine, the next series of fixed blades reverses
the direction of the steam before it passes to the second row of
rotor blades
Reaction Turbines
Both the fixed and the rotor blades of the reaction turbine are
shaped more like aerofoils, arranged such that the cross section
of the blades diminishes from the inlet side towards the
exhaust side of the blades. This means that the cross section of
the steam passages between both sets of fixed and rotor
blades increases across the turbine stage. In this way both sets
of blades essentially form nozzles so that as the steam
progresses through both the stator and the rotor its pressure
decreases causing its velocity to increase. The rotor becomes
basically a set of rotating nozzles.
As the steam emerges in a jet from between each set of rotor

blades, it creates a reactive force on the blades which in turn
creates the turning moment on the turbine rotor, just as in
Hero's steam engine. (Newton's Third Law - For every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction)
Reaction turbines are generally much more efficient than

impulse turbines and run at lower speeds which means they
don't necessarily need reduction gearing. They are however
more complex and the high pressure steam makes them more
susceptible to leaks between the stages.
A reaction turbine is a type of turbine, which utilizes the conversion of velocity
energy into potential (pressure) energy through engineered blade profile of the
turbine to produce force on the turbine.
Unlike impulse turbine (where the impact of water jet forces the blades of turbine to
rotate it), reaction turbine first converts the kinetic energy of moving water to cause
pressure difference on either side of a blade, which creates a ‘lift’, similar to that of
an airfoil.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPULSE TURBINE AND REACTION TURBINE
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

1) In impulse Turbine, only impulsive force strikes to the 1) In reaction turbine, vector sum of impulsive and
blades fixed to the rotor reactive force strikes the blades fixed to the rotor.
2) pressure can't expand fully. It partially expands when it
2) Steam expands completely when it passes through the
pass through the nozzles
nozzles and its pressure remains constant.
and rest on the rotor blades.
3) Blades are symmetrical shape. 3) Blades are asymmetrical shape.
4) But reaction turbine speed is much lower than impulse
4) Since the velocity of steam is high, speed is high in turbine
impulse turbine. because steam velocity is lower in reaction turbine as
compared to impulse turbine.
5) For producing same power, the number of stages
5) It require more stages to develop same power.
required are much less.
6) The blade efficiency curve is lower than impulse
6) The blade efficiency curve is high.
turbine.
Extra:
Diagram of de Laval's Steam Impulse Turbine
1882
Steam enters on one side of the turbine rotor
through the nozzles, pointing at the surface of
the turbine blades, and leaves from the
opposite side of the rotor. The impact of the
steam on the curved turbine blades causes the
turbine rotor to turn.
The speed of rotation was 30,000 r.p.m.
The original de Laval turbine had a single stage
rotor which was used as a test bed to try out
different numbers and different designs of
nozzles.

Compounding of steam turbines
• Compounding of steam turbines is the strategy in which energy from the steam
is extracted in a number of stages rather than a single stage in a turbine.
• A compounded steam turbine has multiple stages i.e. it has more than one set
of nozzles and rotors, in series, keyed to the shaft or fixed to the casing, so that
either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in
number of stages.

Types of compounding
• In an Impulse steam turbine compounding can be achieved in the following
three ways: -
1. Velocity compounding
2. Pressure compounding
3. Pressure-Velocity Compounding
• In a Reaction turbine, compounding can be achieved only by Pressure
compounding.

Schematic Diagram of Curtis Stage Impulse Turbine
The velocity compounded

Impulse turbine was first
proposed by C G Curtis to
solve the problem of single
stage Impulse turbine for
use of high pressure and
temperature steam.
Impulse: There is no change in

the pressure of the steam as it
passes through the moving
blades. There is change only in
the velocity of the steam flow.

Schematic Diagram of Pressure compounded Impulse
Turbine


Schematic Diagram of Velocity compounded Impulse
Turbine


Pressure-Velocity compounded Impulse Turbine

Pressure compounding of Reaction Turbine
Reaction: There is change

in both pressure and
velocity as the steam flows
through the moving blades

Velocity Compounding turbine Pressure compounding turbine
Velocity/ Kinetic energy of steam is converted to useful work in Pressure energy of steam at turbine input gradually extracted in
more than one stage. multiple steps
Pressure of steam remains constant in every fixed blade and Pressure of steam decrease in every nozzle (fixed blades)
moving blades except in the first nozzle.
Velocity of steam increase in the first nozzle. Steam velocity Velocity of steam increase in every nozzle (fixed blade). Steam
decreases in every moving blade, and remain constant in every velocity decrease in every moving blade
fixed blade (there will be some frictional losses)
High velocity of steam inside the turbine. Velocity of steam is low when compared to velocity compound
turbine.
High frictional losses Low frictional losses
Fewer number stages, and hence the turbine length is short, Large number of stages and it is bulky, require more space.
require less space
It gives maximum output at the first stage, work produced in the Same amount of work produced in each stage.
low-pressure stages is much less.
Less efficient More efficient
High steam consumption Less steam consumption when compared to velocity
compounding.
Ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity is not constant (not Ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity is constant.
optimum for all blades)
Steam pressure inside the turbine is literally equal to the High pressure of steam inside the turbine. The chance of steam
atmospheric pressure so there will be no problem of steam leakage will be more when compared to velocity compounded
leakage. turbine.
The casing20th
of Batch
the 2020/2021
turbine need not be airtight. Turbine
DMME, FoE, UoR casing should be airtight. 47
Velocity Compounding turbine
Velocity/ Kinetic energy of steam is converted to useful work in
more than one stage.
Pressure of steam remains constant in every fixed blade and
moving blades except in the first nozzle.
Velocity of steam increase in the first nozzle. Steam velocity
decreases in every moving blade, and remain constant in every
fixed blade (there will be some frictional losses)
High velocity of steam inside the turbine.
High frictional losses
Fewer number stages, and hence the turbine length is short,
require less space
It gives maximum output at the first stage, work produced in the
low-pressure stages is much less.
Less efficient
High steam consumption
Ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity is not constant (not
optimum for all blades)
Steam pressure inside the turbine is literally equal to the
atmospheric pressure so there will be no problem of steam
leakage.
The casing of the turbine need not be airtight.
Pressure compounding turbine
Pressure energy of steam at turbine input gradually extracted in
multiple steps
Pressure of steam decrease in every nozzle (fixed blades)
Velocity of steam increase in every nozzle (fixed blade). Steam
velocity decrease in every moving blade
Velocity of steam is low when compared to velocity compound
turbine.
Low frictional losses
Large number of stages and it is bulky, require more space.
Same amount of work produced in each stage.
More efficient
Less steam consumption when compared to velocity
compounding.
Ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity is constant.
High pressure of steam inside the turbine. The chance of steam
leakage will be more when compared to velocity compounded
turbine.
Turbine casing should be airtight.

Steam turbine governing mechanism
Mechanical
Governor

Comparison of Gas Turbine with Reciprocating IC
Engines:

Advantages of Gas Turbine over Reciprocating IC Engines:
i. The mechanical efficiency of gas turbines is very high in the range of 90-95%. Power
development is based on rotary components.
ii. The overall weight of gas turbine per unit power produced is less.
iii. Gas turbine can produce speed as high as 40,000 rpm.
iv. Gas turbine does not require a flywheel as torque produced is continuous and uniform.
v. Work developed by a gas turbine per kilogram weight of air is more.
vi. The components of gas turbine can be made lighter because the pressure developed in this case
is quite low, about 4-6 bar.
vii. The ignition system is much simple.
viii. The lubrication system is much simpler.
ix. Cheaper fuel such as paraffin can be used.
x. The exhaust gases from gas turbines are less polluting since air is used (A/F = 90)
xi. They are much suitable for use in aircrafts due to low specific weight.
Disadvantages of Reciprocating IC Engines over Gas Turbine :
i. The mechanical efficiency of IC engines is low in the range of 80-85% as IC engines
have many reciprocating parts.
ii. The overall weight of IC engine per unit power produced is quite high.
iii. Such a high speed is not possible in IC engines.
iv. The use of flywheel is a must in IC engine due to reciprocating parts in motion.
v. Work developed by IC engine per kilogram weight of air is less.
vi. In IC engines pressure developed is more, about 60 bar. Hence, heavy parts are
required to withstand high pressure.
vii. The ignition system is comparatively complex.
viii. The lubrication system is quite complicated.
ix. Special grade fuels are needed for better performance.
x. The exhaust gases from IC engines are more polluting.
xi. They are not suitable for aircrafts due to high specific weight.

Disadvantages of Gas Turbine over Reciprocating IC Engines:
(a) Thermal efficiency is quite low as compared to IC engines.

(b) Due to high operating speed, there is a need to have a speed reduction device.
(c) The supply of fuel control is difficult due to high running speed.
(d) It is difficult to start a gas turbine as compared to IC engine.
(e) The gas turbine blades need to have a special cooling arrangement due to excess heat
produced.
(f) The manufacturing of blade profile is difficult and costly due to high temperature produced.
Costly and tough material such as nickel-chromium is used.
(g) Because of the high temperature produced and high centrifugal forces, the life of blades and
combustion chamber is short.

Velocity Diagram of Steam Turbine

• Let the steam jet is coming from nozzle P. After that it entering a curved blade and leaving the nozzle at
C .The jet glides over the inside surface and leaves the blade at D. Let us draw the steam turbine
velocity diagram. Assume, it creates at an angle a to the tangent of the wheel with a velocity V1 which
is the absolute velocity of steam.
• This absolute velocity V1 has two components. One tangential component Vw1 and another axial
component Vf1.Here Vw1 denotes the velocity of whirl at entry of moving blades and since it is the same
direction of the motion of moving blades so it is the actual component which does work on blades.Vf1 is
the velocity of flow at entrance, so it is perpendicular to the direction of blade's motion and it does not
any work, but this is the component which is fully responsible for flow of steam through the turbine.
• Now moving blades start to move at a tangential velocity V in the horizontal direction and the jet of
steam is V1 velocity create an angle a to the some horizontal direction. So both moving blades and jet of
steam are moving in the same direction and steam enter the moving blades with a relative velocity
Vr which can be found by subtracting the V and V1 component and assume it create some angle T1.
• For smooth flowing of steam when passing the moving blades, the jet of steam enter the moving blade's
tip and it also creates some angle of moving blade T. T and T1 are same. When T1 and T will be same
the steam's flow will smoothly strike the moving blades. In actual practice T and Tthita1 is same and
that’s why we denote it T.

• Similarly suffix 2 represents the outlet velocity of steam.
• Here steam leaving from moving blades at an angle β which makes with the tangent of the wheel with a
velocity V2 and it is the absolute velocity of steam leaving of moving blades.
• This velocity V2 has two components. One Vw2 which is tangential component and another is Vf2 which is
axial component. Vw2 is the velocity component of whirl to exit and it is the actual component for which
steam leaving from the moving blades. Vf2 is flow component and it is responsible for velocity of flow of
steam to exit.
• The moving blades are running at horizontal direction with a tangential velocity V and V2 the absolute
velocity of steam leaving of moving blades create an angle β with a relative velocity Vr2 to moving the
blade to exit.
• This Vr2 can be obtain by subtracting the V and V2 and it create some angle F1.But for smooth flowing of
the steam while existing, it creates an angle of moving blades i.e.F. Now F and F1 are same. So, we
denote it F. When F1 is equal to F then steam exit smoothly and steadily.

POWER DEVELOPED BY STEAM TURBINE:
The picture shows combined velocity triangle of steam turbine.
According to the Newton's second law of motion, the

direction of force in the blades,

POWER DEVELOPED BY STEAM TURBINE:
work done in the direction of motion of the blades,
Mathematically, axial thrust on the wheel is the velocity

difference between inlet and outlet steam's flow,

HOW TO CALCULATE STEAM TURBINE EFFICIENCY?
Here, at first we will discuss the steam turbine

efficiency and then see how to improve the
turbine efficiency with the help of some modern
methods. Efficiency of steam turbine is mainly
three types. As per blades movement and steam
supply, steam turbine efficiency is different types.
1. Diagram Efficiency of Steam Turbine or Blading

Efficiency of Steam Turbine:-
2. Nozzle Efficiency Of Steam Turbine:-
3. Gross or Stage Efficiency Of Steam Turbine:-


1. Diagram Efficiency of Steam Turbine or Blading Efficiency of Steam
Turbine:-
Diagram efficiency of steam turbine or blading efficiency of steam turbine

is the ratio of work done on the blades to the energy supplied to the
blades. The quantities used in diagram efficiency is directly related to the
velocity diagram of steam turbine.
Let
V1 = Absolute velocity of inlet steam in m/s, m = Mass of steam supplied
in kg/s,
Vr1 = Velocity of steam relative to moving blades at entrance,
Vr2 = Velocity of steam relative to moving blades at exit,
So, energy supplied to the blade/sec,

As we all know that the work done on the blades per second,
So, Diagram or blading efficiency equation of steam turbine is,
1 1

2. Nozzle Efficiency Of Steam Turbine:-
Nozzle efficiency of steam turbine is the ratio of energy supplied to the

blades per kg of steam to the total energy supplied per stage per kg of
steam.
The energy supplied to the blades per kg of steam
So, Nozzle Efficiency equation of steam turbine is,
Where, Enthalpy or heat drop in the nozzle ring of an impulse wheel,


3. Gross or Stage Efficiency Of Steam Turbine:-
Gross efficiency of steam turbine or stage efficiency of steam turbine is the

ratio of the work done on the blades per kg of steam to the total energy
supplied per stage per kg of steam.
calculation of gross or stage efficiency of steam turbine is,
Let, h1 = Enthalpy or total heat of steam before expansion through the

nozzle in kJ/kg of steam, h2 = Enthalpy or total heat of steam after
expansion through the nozzle in kJ/kg of steam,
Enthalpy or heat drop in the nozzle ring of an impulse wheel,
Total energy supplied per stage = 1000 hd J/kg of steam
Work done on the blade per kg of steam,

Gross or stage efficiency
We know that the Gross efficiency is the multiplication of blading

efficiency and stage efficiency,

HOW TO IMPROVE STEAM TURBINE EFFICIENCY?
1. Reheating of steam turbine

2. Regenerative feed heating of steam turbine
3. Binary vapour cycle of steam turbine

Pumps/Compressors

Types of Compressors
• Most compressors are positive-displacement compressors in which, by forcing
air into the chamber, volume is decreased to compress the air.
• Reciprocating or piston-type air compressors pump air by using pistons and
one-way valves to guide air into the cylinder chamber. Most commercially
available compressors are either one- or two-stage compressors.
• Single-stage compressors are used for pressure ranges from 70 to 100 psi. For
larger pressure ranges of 100 to 250 psi, two-stage compressors are used.
• Single-acting compressors use only one side of a piston and double-acting
compressors use both sides of the piston. Compressors have a pressure limit
that, once reached, will shut off the compressor. The air will remain stored
until used for a kinetic energy application.

Types of Compressors
• Rotary-screw compressors use helical screws to guide air in the chamber.
• The screw functions similar as the piston by displacing and compressing air.
The most common rotary-screw compressors are single-stage helical or spiral-
lobe oil-flooded screw air compressors.
• These compressors do not have valves and are oil cooled. The oil seals the
internal clearances and, since the cooling is performed inside the compressor,
the operating temperatures do not rise to extreme temperature levels.

Examples of positive-displacement pumps: (a) flexible-tube peristaltic pump, (b) three-lobe rotary pump, (c)
gear pump, and (d) double screw pump.
Four phases (one-eighth of a turn apart) in the operation of a two-lobe rotary pump, a type of positive displacement
pump.
Types of Pumps - Displacement pumps
• Two basic types classify pumps: positive displacement pumps (PDP) and Dynamic
Pressure pumps.
• Positive displacement pumps move fluid by moving a fixed amount of it and forcing
the fixed amount into a discharge pipe. They can produce the same flow at a given
speed regardless of the discharge pressure making them constant flow machines. To
prevent line bursts, positive displacement pumps typically have a relief or safety
valve on the discharge side.
• If a positive displacement pump operates against a closed discharge valve, pressure
inside the discharge increases, causing a line to burst, which damages the pump.
• Positive displacement pumps can be classified as reciprocating pumps (piston,
plunger, and diaphragm), power pumps, steam pumps, and rotary pumps (gear,
lobe, screw, vane, regenerative or peripheral, and progressive cavity).

Types of Pumps- Dynamic pumps
• Dynamic pumps impart velocity and pressure to the fluid as it moves through
the pump impeller and, subsequently, convert some of that velocity into
additional pressure. It is also called Kinetic pumps.
• A centrifugal pump is a rotating machine in which flow and pressure are
generated dynamically. The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts
of the pump, the impeller and the volute or casing. The function of the casing
is to collect the liquid discharged by the impeller and to convert some of
the kinetic (velocity) energy into pressure energy. (Radial Flow, Axial Flow)

Turbo Compressors

When two or more rotor–stator pairs are combined like this we call it a
multistage axial-flow Compressor.
A blade row analysis similar to the one of Figure is applied to each successive
stage. The details of the analysis can get complicated, however, because of
compressibility effects and because the flow area from the hub to the tip may
not remain constant.
In a multistage axial-flow compressor, for example, the flow area decreases
downstream. The blades of each successive stage get smaller as the air gets
further compressed.
In a multistage axial-flow turbine, the flow area typically grows downstream as
pressure is lost in each successive stage of the turbine.

Air Compressor Velocity Diagram

The combined vector diagram may be drawn as shown. It is normal to have a constant axial
velocity as shown.
Note that here the blade angles are shown measured relative to the tangential direction but it is
common practice to use the angles relative to the axial direction so be prepared for this in other
publications.

Degree of Reaction
In turbomachinery, Degree of reaction or reaction ratio (R) is defined as the ratio of the static
pressure drop in the rotor to the static pressure drop in the stage or as the ratio of static
enthalpy drop in the rotor to the static enthalpy drop in the stage.
Degree of reaction (R) is an important factor in designing the blades of a turbine, compressors,
pumps and other turbo-machinery. It also tells about the efficiency of machine and is used for
proper selection of a machine for a required purpose.
suppose for a turbine D.O.R =zero , it can only happen when ΔH

is zero, these turbines are called Impulse turbine or 0% reaction
turbine, in such case Enthalpy change across rotors will be zero
and energy transfer is due to kinetic energy change .
Other Extreme case is 100% reaction turbine or simply reaction
turbine , here there will not be any kinetic Energy change across
rotors , here fluid passes over rotors without hitting them. here
Energy transfer is purely due to change in Enthalpy .

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1
A stage of an axial flow air compressor is a moving stage followed by a stator. The axial velocity
of the air is constant through the stage at 180 m/s and the tangential velocity of the blades at the
mean diameter is 280 m/s. (Take C1- relative velocity as 190m/s). The inlet angle of the stator
blades is swept back at 45o. The exit angle is swept forward. The inlet pressure and temperature
are 100 kPa and 300 K respectively. The compression is ideal and adiabatic and follows the law
pV1.4 = C. Draw the inlet and exit vector diagrams and determine:
i. the blade angles
ii. the diagram power for a unit mass flow rate
iii. the temperature rise over the stage taking the specific heat cp = 1005 J/kg K
iv. the theoretical output pressure
v. the degree of reaction

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1 SOLUTION
A stage of an axial flow air compressor
is a moving stage followed by a stator. In order to draw the inlet vector diagram start with u = 280 and
The axial velocity of the air is constant mark off the axial velocity 180. Draw an arc for C1 = 190 and
through the stage at 180 m/s and the
tangential velocity of the blades at the
determine the interception point with the arc and then complete
mean diameter is 280 m/s. (Take C1- the diagrams as shown. (there are two possible intercepts the one
relative velocity as 190m/s). The inlet shown is swept forward). Calculate or scale the angles.
angle of the stator blades is swept back
at 45o. The exit angle is swept forward. u = 280
The inlet pressure and temperature are
100 kPa and 300 K respectively. The
compression is ideal and adiabatic and
follows the law pV1.4 = C. Draw the
inlet and exit vector diagrams and
determine:
i. the blade angles axial velocity 180
ii. the diagram power for a unit mass
flow rate
iii. the temperature rise over the stage
taking the specific heat cp = 1005 J/kg
K 45o
is a moving stage followed by a stator.
The axial velocity of the air is constant
mean diameter is 280 m/s. (Take C1-
relative velocity as 190m/s). The inlet
at 45o. The exit angle is swept forward.
follows the law pV1.4 = C. Draw the α1= sin-1(180/190) = 71.3o
determine:
i. the blade angles
flow rate
K
is a moving stage followed by a stator.
The axial velocity of the air is constant
mean diameter is 280 m/s. (Take C1-
relative velocity as 190m/s). The inlet
at 45o. The exit angle is swept forward.
follows the law pV1.4 = C. Draw the
determine:
i. the blade angles
flow rate
K
END

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A.K.C.I.

Email (Office) : chanaka@mme.ruh.ac.lk

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• Axial compressor • Francis turbine • Turbocharger

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Disc wobbles and spins as water flows through the meter

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We analyze the power output of a Pelton wheel turbine by using

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• The Francis turbine is somewhat similar in

• The Francis turbine is somewhat similar in

The five-bladed propeller of a Kaplan turbine used at the

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1. According to action of steam

2. According to direction of flow:

3. According to number of stages

4 .According to steam pressure at inlet of Turbine:

5.According to method of governing:

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6. According to usage in industry:

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1.Impulse: There is no change in the pressure

2.Reaction: There is change in both pressure

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As the steam emerges in a jet from between each set of rotor

Reaction turbines are generally much more efficient than

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Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

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The velocity compounded

Impulse: There is no change in

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Impulse: There is no change in

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Impulse: There is no change in

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Reaction: There is change

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(a) Thermal efficiency is quite low as compared to IC engines.

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The picture shows combined velocity triangle of steam turbine.

According to the Newton's second law of motion, the