A Practical Approach

to

Heritage Studies
FORM 1

Christine Gwirayi Mary Nyevedzanayi Munyaradzi Gunduza

 SECONDARY BOOK PRESS
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A Practical Approach to Heritage Studies | Form 1

ISBN: 978-0-7974-8188-6

First Published in November 2017

Copyright © Christine Gwirayi Mary Nyevedzanayi Munyaradzi Gunduza

Development Editor: Munyaradzi Gunduza

Edited by: Crecens Doro
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Acknowledgements
The Publisher and authors are greatly indebted to Original Clipart for permission
to use the following illustrations – Fig. 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 2.1 and Stock Snap - Fig 3.4.
Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders. In the event of unintentional
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 Contents
Chapter 1: Socialisation ..................................................................................1

Unit 1.1 Socialisation in the home ................................................................................ 1

Unit 1.2 Agents of socialisation in the home .............................................................. 4
Unit 1.3 Role of family members in socialisation ....................................................... 5

Chapter 2: Identity: Local and National Identity ...........................................13

Unit 2.1 Types of families .................................................................................................... 13
Unit 2.2 Language and national identity ...................................................................... 18
Unit 2.3 Indigenous hunting and productive tools .................................................. 22
Unit 2.4 National identification documents ............................................................... 26

Chapter 3: Cultural Heritage: Norms and Values .........................................35

Unit 3.1 The concept of unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu ..................................................... 35
Unit 3.2 Norms and values ................................................................................................. 37
Unit 3.3 The concept of inheritance .............................................................................. 40
Unit 3.4 Rites of passage ..................................................................................................... 44
Unit 3.5 Indigenous courtship practices ....................................................................... 53
Unit 3.6 Indigenous entertainment ................................................................................ 58

Examination I Paper 1 .......................................................................................................... 66

Examination I Paper 2 ......................................................................................................... 69

Chapter 4: National History: Sovereignty and Governance .........................71

Unit 4.1 Pre-colonial societies .......................................................................................... 71
Unit 4.2 Traditional leadership ......................................................................................... 80

Chapter 5: National Heritage ..........................................................................87

Unit 5.1 National symbols ................................................................................................. 87
Unit 5.2 National monuments ......................................................................................... 92
Unit 5.3 National shrines .................................................................................................... 99
Unit 5.4 National schools pledge in Zimbabwe ........................................................ 109
Unit 5.5 Natural resources .................................................................................................. 112
Chapter 6: Constitution of Zimbabwe ............................................................122
Unit 6.1 The constitution making process .................................................................... 123
Unit 6.2 Summary of the contents of the Constitution of Zimbabwe ............... 128

Examination II Paper 1 ........................................................................................................ 136

Examination II Paper 2 ........................................................................................................ 139

Chapter 7: Rights and Responsibilities ..........................................................141

Unit 7.1 Indigenous entitlements .................................................................................. 141
Unit 7.2 Rights and responsibilities of children ......................................................... 145

Chapter 8: Production and Distribution of Goods and Services ..................153

Unit 8.1 Factors of production ......................................................................................... 153
Unit 8.2 The concept of industry ..................................................................................... 155
Unit 8.3 Informal sector ..................................................................................................... 160
Unit 8.4 Storage of indigenous and contemporary food ........................................ 163

Chapter 9: Global Issues .................................................................................174

Unit 9.1 Environmental issues ......................................................................................... 174
Unit 9.2 Pollution .................................................................................................................. 177
Unit 9.3 Pandemics and chronic illnesses ................................................................... 188
Unit 9.4 Hazards risk and disasters ................................................................................. 197
Unit 9.5 Human trafficking ................................................................................................. 206

Examination III Paper 1 ...................................................................................................... 213

Examination III Paper 2 ....................................................................................................... 216

Index .............................................................................................................................................. 218

 CHAPTER 1: SOCIALISATION
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• define socialisation.
• explain how children are socialised.
• describe the importance of socialisation.
• list socialisation agents in the home.
• examine the role of each family member in socialisation.
• explain how socialisation shapes the personality of the individual.

Introduction
In this chapter, you are going to learn about socialisation. The chapter starts by
defining heritage and socialisation and explaining why the latter is important
in the society. It will also look at the attributes of a well socialised child. Lastly it
discusses socialisation agents in the home and analyse the role of some family
members in the socialisation process of the child.

What is heritage?

Heritage is the full range of our inherited traditions, monuments, objects, and
culture. Most important, it is the range of contemporary activities, meanings, and
behaviours that we draw from them.

UNIT 1.1 SOCIALISATION IN THE HOME

What is socialisation?
In the literature there are several definitions of socialisation but here you will
learn the most common ones. Firstly, socialisation is the term used for the process
by which individuals learn and perform behaviour expected of them by society.
Socialisation can also be defined as the process by which individuals acquire the
knowledge, language, social skills, and value to conform to the norms and roles
required for integration into a group or community.
Socialisation is a lifelong process and it begins from the tender age. Socialisation
is the term used for the process by which individuals learn and perform behaviour
expected of them by society.
What do we achieve from socialisation?
During socialisation, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as
the roles we are to play in life. For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters,

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friends, wives, and mothers. In addition, they also learn about the occupational
roles that their society has in store for them. Therefore, socialisation helps in
shaping an individual so that he/she is acceptable into the society. It also helps an
individual to fit into the society.
Importance of socialisation
Socialisation is very important in the society. The following are some of the reasons
why socialisation is very important.
(a) Socialisation contributes to the development of personality
Personality is a product of society. In the absence of groups or society, no man can
develop a personality of his own. But socialisation is a process through which the
personality of the new born child is shaped and moulded. Through the process,
the child learns an approved way of social life. At the same time, it also provides
enough scope for the individual to develop his individuality.
(b) Helps one to become disciplined
Socialisation is social learning. Social learning is essentially the learning of rules of
social behaviour. It is the values, ideals, aims and objectives of life and the means
of attaining them. Socialisation disciplines an individual and helps them to live
according to the social expectations.
(c) Helps to enact different roles
Every individual has to play different roles in life. Every role is woven around norms
and is associated with different attitudes. The process of socialisation assists an
individual not only to learn the norms associated with roles but also to develop
appropriate attitudes to play those roles.
(d) Provides the knowledge of skills
Socialisation is a way of training the new born individual in certain skills, which
are required to lead a normal social life. These skills help the individual to play
economic, professional, educational, religious and political roles in their latter life.
In primitive societies for, example, imparting skills to the younger generation in
specific occupations was an important aspect of socialisation.
(e) Contributes to the stability of the social order
It is through the process of socialisation that every new generation is trained
acceding to the cultural goals, ideals, and expectations of a society. It assures the
cultural continuity of the society. Every new generation do not need to start its
social life afresh. It can conveniently rely on the earlier generations and follow the
cultural traditions. In this regard, socialisation contributes to the stability of the
social order.

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Three goals of socialisation
There are three primary goals of socialisation
(a) 
Socialisation teaches impulse control and helps individuals develop a
conscience. This first goal is accomplished naturally. As people grow up within
a particular society, they pick up on the expectations of those around them
and internalize these expectations to moderate their impulses and develop a
conscience.
(b) Socialisation teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social
roles occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as
marriage and parenthood.
(c) 
Socialisation cultivates shared sources of meaning and value. Through
socialisation, people learn to identify what is important and valued within a
particular culture.
Case study: Why socialisation is important for being fully human?
We have just noted that socialisation is how culture is learned, but socialisation is also
important for another reason. To illustrate this importance, let us pretend we find a
6-year-old child who has had almost no human contact since birth. After the child
was born, her mother changed her diapers and fed her a minimal diet but otherwise
did not interact with her. The child was left alone all day and night for years and never
went outside. We now find her at the age of 6. How will her behaviour and actions
differ from those of the average 6-year-old? Take a moment and write down all the
differences you would find.
In no particular order, here is the list you probably wrote. First, the child would not
be able to speak; at most, she could utter a few grunts and other sounds. Second, the
child would be afraid of us and probably cower in a corner. Third, the child would not
know how to play games and interact with us. If we gave her some food and utensils,
she would eat with her hands and not know how to use the utensils. Fourth, the child
would be unable to express a full range of emotions. For example, she might be able to
cry but would not know how to laugh. Fifth, the child would be unfamiliar with, and
probably afraid of, our culture’s material objects, including cell phones and televisions.
In these and many other respects, this child would differ dramatically from the average
6-year-old youngster in Zimbabwe.
She would look human, but she would not act human. In fact, in many ways she would
act more like a frightened animal than like a young human being, and she would be
less able than a typical dog to follow orders and obey commands.
As this example indicates, socialisation makes it possible for us to fully function as human
beings. Without socialisation, we could not have our society and culture. Additionally,
without social interaction, we could not have socialisation. Our example of a socially

3
isolated child was hypothetical, but real-life examples of such children, often called feral
children, have unfortunately occurred and provide distressing proof of the importance
of socialisation.
One of the most famous feral children was Victor of Aveyron, who was found
wandering in the woods in southern France in 1797. He then escaped custody but
emerged from the woods in 1800. Victor was thought to be about age 12 and to have
been abandoned some years earlier by his parents; he was unable to speak and acted
much more like a wild animal than a human child. Victor lived in a private home. He
never learned to speak, and his cognitive and social development eventually was no
better than a toddler’s when he finally died at about age 40.
Attributes of a well socialised child
A well socialised child will show the following attributes:
• respect others.
• talk to elders politely.
• always carry orders given by any elder in the society.
• apologise when he/she does anything wrong.
• he/she is kind to any member of the society.
• helps parents or guardians to do house chores.
• respects other people’s property.
• respects other people’s views.
• avoid fighting with others.
Activity 1.1 Discussion
In a group of five members, discuss the importance of socialisation to a human
being.
Activity 1.2 Role playing
In groups of four members, let us role play the behaviour shown by a well socialised
child and a poorly socialised child.
Activity 1.3 Debate
In your own opinion as a group, do you agree with the suggestion that socialisation is
important?
UNIT 1.2 AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION IN THE HOME
A home is one’s place of residence. The home is the first world of the child. In the
home the child lives with his/her parents, siblings or close relatives. These people
teach the child different things thereby giving the first socialisation to the child.
Therefore, they are now referred to as the agents of socialisation in the home.
These agents of socialisation at home are not universal and differ depending with
the type of a given family but most commonly they include the following:

4
 (a) Parents (mother and father) – are
the people who have given birth to
the child. These are the people that
the child first meets and are always
there for the child. Parents provide
the first socialisation to the child.
(b) 
Siblings (brothers and sisters)
– a sibling is one of two or more
individuals having one or both
parents in common. A male sibling
is a brother, and a female sibling is
a sister.
Fig. 1.1 Influence of mass media on
socialisation
(c) Close relatives (uncles, aunt, grandparents) – these may not be living
in the same house with the child but may be visiting the family. During the
time of their visit that is when they will be socialising the child. The period of
socialisation may be short but it will have an effect on the child.
(c) The mass media - is another agent of socialisation. Mass media refers to
the distribution of impersonal information to a wide audience, such as what
happens via television, newspapers, radio, and the internet.
Television shows, movies, popular music, magazines, websites, and other aspects
of the mass media influence our social views; our tastes in popular culture; our
views of gender roles, people of colour and many other beliefs and practices. All of
these agents communicate expectations and reinforce norms.
Activity 1.4 Self-discovery
In pairs, identify the agents of socialisation in the home. Briefly explain their
importance in socialisation.

UNIT 1.3 ROLE OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN SOCIALISATION

Each family is a cell of society. Many families make a society. Good families bring
good societies, so any society pays attention to strengthen families. Each family is
responsible for building their own families into cultural ones, and raising children
with good health as well as teaching with good personalities in order to provide
the country with good citizens.
1. Father
Fathers are caretakers and disciplinarians in the family. His role in socialisation
need not to be underestimated. Most children are what they are now because of

5
their fathers. If the father has love, provides encouragement or emotional help
and is involved in the day to day life of
his children he will contribute greatly
to the child’s cognitive, language and
social development as well as academic
achievement.
Girls will look for men who hold the
patterns of good old father that they
had. If the father was kind, loving
and gentle they will look for those
characteristics in men. Boys on the
other hand will model themselves Fig. 1.2 Father and child
after their father. They normally copy
behaviour of their fathers. If the father was abusive, controlling and dominating
those will be the patterns that their sons will imitate and emulate. If the father was
loving, kind, supportive and protective boys will be like that in future.
2. Mother
Mothers play a vital role in socialising a child. The mother’s first role is to bring love
to the child by holding, lulling and looking after them. The second role of mothers is
that they are the first children teachers.
Mothers teach children all behaviours
towards family members, aunts,
uncles, grandparents, neighbours and
everyone. Mother provide the child the
first social education which enables
them to fit into the society.
Mothers train the child to speak which
is why the first word to come from the
child is usually mummy and also the
child will always speak the language
that is spoken by their mother. Mothers
Fig. 1.3 Mother and child
trains the child to use the toilet, eat
meals, play alone as well as play with
others. Silently children learn a lot from their mothers through imitation and
copying. For example, if the mother is generous their children will also be generous.
3. Brothers and sisters/siblings
Brothers and sisters in families have great influence on children personalities
because they live under the same roof, eat, drink and play together for a long time
before one of them is married and moves to their own family.

6
Brothers and sisters should be good
examples for children to follow. For
example, those studying well will be
encouraging good for the children
just behind them. In terms of conduct
training, those who are well-behaved
and grateful will be good foundation
for children to build the entire character
afterwards.
Fig. 1.4 Popular Zimbabwean Soccer Siblings
4. Grandparents - Adam, Madinda and Peter Ndlovu
Grandparents also play an important
role in rearing children. Grandparents
can also tutor, remind children of their
studies, bathing, eating, drinking,
suitable rest, teach proper language,
behaviours and lead children to shape
and develop essential human qualities
of a good citizen in the future as
required by societies.
Grandparents’ roles are the same as
those of parents. Grandparents use Fig. 1.5 Grandparents with their
various ways of socialising children grandchildren
which include; the use of folklores,
proverbs and games.
Activity 1.5 Drama
Role play the role played by the following people in socialisation; fathers, mothers,
siblings and aunt or uncles.
Activity 1.6 Information and Communication Technology
Give yourself just 30 minutes per day to socialise using Skype, Facebook or
WhatsApp to catch up with other family members and friends from a distance.
Activity 1.7 Practical Exercise
1. Walk through your neighbourhood and make a point of stopping to say hello
to people you meet.
2. Exercise with a friend by walking, swimming, or going to the gym together.

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Interesting facts
1. Socialising can provide a number of benefits to your physical and mental
health. You will enjoy better physical health. Social engagement is associated
with a stronger immune system, especially for older adults. This means that
you are better able to fight off colds, the flu, and even some types of cancer.
2. Interacting with others boosts feelings of well-being and decreases feelings of
depression.
Summary of the chapter
• Socialisation takes place from birth and continues throughout the life.
• Socialisation prepares one to fit into the society.
• The first socialisation takes place in the home.
• Family members play different roles in socialising the child.
• Socialisation enables one to be a complete member of the society
• T he agents of socialisation at home include; siblings, parents, close relatives
and the mass media.
Glossary of terms
Culture – these are the beliefs, customs or arts of a particular society or group.
Norms – an accepted standard or way of behaving or doing things that most people
agree with.
Society or community – is a large group of people who live together in an
organised way, making decisions about how to do
things and sharing the work that needs to be done.
Mother – is a woman who gives birth to a child.
Father – is a male parent.
Siblings – brother or sister having one or both parents’ in common.
Relative – someone connected to your family through blood or by marriage.
Neighbours – someone living at the next door or very close to you.
Experimentation – the action or process of trying out new ideas, methods, or
activities.
Occupational role – a set of behaviours connected to social norms that allows
someone to organize and allocate time for self-care activities,
work, play, social activities, leisure, and rest; examples include
the roles of student, spouse, worker, and caregiver.
Behaviour – the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially towards
others.

8
Social learning – p
 rocess in which individuals observe the behaviour of others and
its consequences, and modify their own behaviour accordingly.
Nature – the basic or inherent features, character, or qualities of something.
Primitive society – refers to a society believed to lack cultural, technological, or
economic development.
Acculturation – the process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of
another group.
Social order – refers to a particular set or system of linked social structures,
institutions, relations, customs, values and practices which
conserve, maintain and enforce certain patterns of relating and
behaving.
Generation – the entire body of individuals born and living at about the same
time.
Social development – refers to how people develop social and emotional skills
across the lifespan, with particular attention to childhood
and adolescence.
Well behaved – behaving in a way that is accepted as correct.
Folklores – the traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a community, passed
through the generations by word of mouth.
Proverbs – a brief, memorable saying that expresses a truth or belief.
Social engagement – refers to one’s degree of participation in a community or
society.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The general process of acquiring culture is referred to as __________
A. socialisation B. acculturation C. semai D. colourisation
2. Which of the following things is normally learned during the socialisation
process?
A. the roles we are to play in life B. the culture’s norms
C. the language of the people D. all of the above
3. When does socialisation begin?
A. at the time when an individual is conceived or within a few weeks following
conception.
B. at birth or shortly after.
C. on entering nursery school or kindergarten.
D. when the child reaches puberty so that they can understand the reasons for
society’s rules.

9
4. Which of the following types of people go through socialisation process____
A. babies B. teenagers C. elderly people D. all of the above
5. Which of the following is the best definition of an agent of socialisation?
A. a formal government position for a person whose role is to teach social norms.
B. the people, organisations and institutions that play a role in our socialisation
process.
C. the people, organisations and institutions whom we socialise.
D. the people with whom we socialise or hang out with.
6. Agents of socialisation in the home include the following except _____
A. day care B. parents C. brothers and sisters D. grandparents
7. Socialisation helps in shaping an individual so that they are acceptable into
_____
A. the society B. the school C. the university D. the peer group
8. One of the things people learn through socialisation at a tender age is ___ of
the culture.
A. traditional dances B. language C. driving lessons D. walking
9. Socialisation is a term used for the process by which individuals _______ the
behaviour expected of them by society.
A. play B. defeat C. learn and perform D. reject
10. Mass media is an agent of socialisation in the home with many forms. Which
one of the following is not part of mass media_______
A. television B. mothers C. newspapers D. websites
11. The repetitive practicing of basic skills by an individual is an example of which
kind of educational method?
A. formal B. informal C. technical D. practical
12. A teenager who decides not to steal because she believes it is wrong even
though no one is looking would be guided by__________
A. internal socialisation B. external socialisation
C. secondary socialisation D. adult socialisation
13. In early childhood, family members are generally responsible for the process
of____
A. primary socialisation B. secondary socialisation
C. subculture socialisation D. adult socialisation
14. The primary agent of socialisation during childhood is______
A. friends B. school teachers C. family D. community
15. Personality is a product of ______
A. the peer group B. the family only C. the society D. musicians
16. Socialisation assures the cultural _____ of the society.
A. dilution B. deterioration C. instability D. continuity
17. Social order is achieved through _______
A. punitive measures B. socialisation C. elders D. friends

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18. Socialisation also include ____ of the society.
A. ancestors B. friends C. parents D. norms and values
19. Socialisation makes it possible for us to function as ______
A. agents of socialisation B. mere animals
C. a society D. human beings
20. Socially isolated children are often called _____
A. human beings B. feral children
C. young children D. soft spoken children
21. A home is one’s ______
A. a place of origin B. classroom C. society D. place of residence
22. Each family is ____ of the society.
A. a cell B. a threat C. an outcast D. a union
23. Many families make ______
A. a war B. a society C. an extended family D. a union

Structured Questions

1. (a) Define the term socialisation. [2]

(b) List any five attributes of a well socialised child. [5]
(c) State the reasons why socialisation is important to the child. [3]
2. (a) What is the role of the following family members in socialisation?
(i) Father [3]
(ii) Mother [3]
(iii) Siblings [2]
(iv) Grandparents [2]
3. (a) Define the term agents of socialisation. [2]
(b) List any four agents of socialisation in the home. [2]
(c) List any three things that an individual can learn through socialisation in the
home. [3]
(d) How does a mother socialise an infant? [3]
4. (a) State three things that children acquire from socialisation. [3]
(b) Define socialisation process. [2]
(c) Give two ways in which socialisation disciplines people. [2]
(d) Identify three skills that children learn from socialisation. [3]
Essay Questions
1. (a) Write an essay describing the role played by any two agents of socialisation.
[10]
(b) Briefly describe how socialisation takes place in the home. [10]
2. (a) How and why socialisation of children differs between families? [10]
(b) Give an explanation on how socialisation influences a person. [10]
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3. (a) Mothers and girls are key in socialisation of the child. Explain why. [5]
(b) Discuss the reasons why mass media is a strong agent of socialisation in
modern day society. [15]
4. Using any case study of your choice, discuss the importance of socialisation to
human beings. [20]
True or False Questions (answer either true or false)
1. Socialisation plays no part in personality formation in individuals.
2. Successful socialisation can result in uniformity within a society.
3. Socialisation continues until we are adults.
4. All families use the same technique to socialise their children.
5. Both parents are important in socialising the child.
6. Mothers are the first socialising agents to the child.
7. Children learn by copying what they see.
8. Grandparents socialises children the same way parents do.
9. Socialisation constitute norms and values.
10. Siblings are agents of socialisation in the home.

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 CHAPTER 2: IDENTITY: LOCAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITY
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter learners should be able to:
• identify different family types.
• distinguish different relationships within different types of families.
• assess the role of family members in the home, community and nation.
• identify language aspects that have national identity.
• explain the link between language and identity.
• identify indigenous hunting and productive tools.
• explain the use of indigenous hunting and productive tools.
• describe how indigenous and productive tools were made.
• list the national identity documents.
• describe the contents of each national identity document.
• explain the importance of possessing national identification documents.

Introduction
In this chapter, you are going to learn about the different types of families in
our society. You will also learn about the roles of family members in the home,
community and nation. Indigenous hunting and productive tools and how they
were made will then follow. The chapter will close by a discussion on the national
identification documents and why they are important.

UNIT 2.1 TYPES OF FAMILIES

A family is a group of people related by blood, marriages or adoption, who live
together in one household.
Family structure has changed dramatically over a couple of years ago. Several
types of families exist today, with some families naturally falling into multiple
categories. For example, a single parent family who lives in a larger, extended
family. While these types of families are distinct in definition, in practice the lines
are less clear.
The types of families discussed here are the ones specified for this particular
level which include; nuclear/monogamous, child-headed, single parent and
polygamous family.
1. Nuclear/monogamous family
It is a type of family which consists of two parents and children. In its most common
usage, the term nuclear family refers to a household consisting of a father, a mother
and their children all in one household dwelling. The nuclear family is regarded as

13
the most ideal family to raise up children in
the society. A monogamous family ensures
that children grow up in a secure and safe
environment.
2. Child-headed family
This is a family in which a minor (child or
teenager) is taking care of the family. Fig. 2.1 A nuclear family composed of
the mother, father, and children
Child-headed families are on the increase
especially in less developed countries
because of the high death rate and low life
expectancy due to outbreak of diseases. The
eldest child assumes the role of the parents.
3. Single-parent family
It consists of one parent raising one or more
Fig. 2.2 A Child-headed family
children on his/her own. The most common
single parent family is led by mothers and
their children. In some instances, there are
single fathers who live with their children.
Single parent families are generally close and
find ways to work together to solve problems,
such as dividing up household chores. Income
and opportunities are limited in many cases,
although many single parent families get help
from relatives and friends.
4. Polygamous family Fig. 2.3 A single-parent family (father
Polygamy is defined as having more than and children)
one spouse at a time. However, polygamy
usually refers to a situation in which a
husband has more than one wife. The causes
of this type of family are:
(a) to acquire social prestige.
(b) earlier aging of female.
(c) to obtain more women and children
for economic support.
Advantages of polygamous family
• It is a status of wealth in the African
Fig. 2.4 A polygamous family
society.

14
 • More children in the polygamous family means more labour for example,
having many children is important in Tonga culture, and polygamy is
traditionally encouraged, although the practice is becoming less common.
Disadvantages of polygamous family
• It is a source of conflicts in family.
• It has more social and economic challenges as the husband may fail to
provide for the family.
• It encourages the spread of diseases like HIV/AIDS.
• Children in polygamous families may fail to get proper education because
of limited resources.
Polygamous families are no longer common in the modern society because of the
following reasons:
• the dominance in Christianity.
• increase in the use of machinery reducing the need for labour.
• the fear of HIV/AIDS.
• woman empowerment.
• economic hardships.
• people admiring smaller families as opposed to large families.
Activity 2.1 Discussion
In groups, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the types of families
discussed above.
Activity 2.2 Debate
In your own opinion as a group, which type of family do you consider to be the
best?
Activity 2.3 Problem solving
Imagine you are living in a child-headed family, with the current economic
hardships being experienced in your country, suggest the ways that you can
adopt to survive at home together with your siblings.
Activity 2.4 Group work
In groups of four, suggest ways you can adopt in order to survive in a polygamous
environment.
Roles of family members in the home
The family is a basic unit of the society which consists of the husband, wife and
their children. In our culture the family extends to aunt, uncle, grandmother and
grandfather. Each of these members has their assigned roles and responsibilities. One

15
 of the most important responsibilities
of a family is raising a child. It is the most
challenging responsibility because the
child has to be raised from childhood
till they are old enough to take care of
themselves.
The family has to ensure the provision
of physical security in terms of food,
clothing, shelter and other needs to its
Fig. 2.5 Family members offspring or other dependent individual
members of the family like grandparents. Besides all these broad roles of the
family, every individual member of the family has their own roles to play in the
family. Below are some of the dominant roles played by family members:
Father
• He is the head of the family in terms of giving children the right to identity.
• Provision of food, shelter and money for the family.
• Making important decisions.
• Teaching children good morals and values.
Mother
• Helps the father in making important decisions.
• Manages the household chores and looks after the welfare of each family
member.
• Preparing food and keeping the house in order.
• Nurturing and raising the children.
• Teaching children good morals and values.
• Teaches children about their identity.
• Aunt/Uncle
• Confidant and trusted adviser
• Extra provider
• Role model
• Family companion
• Surrogate parent
• Cheerleader.
Grandfather/Grandmother
• Ancestors and historians
• Mentors
• Teachers
• Role models
• Friends

16
 • Spiritual guiders
• Caretakers
Children
• Help parents in doing various household chores or any of the duties they
are capable of doing.
• Obeying their parents.
• Living up to family expectations.
• Children help the parents in fixing things.
• Children help parents in doing household chores.
Brothers and sisters (siblings)
• Mutual love, protection and respect.
• Brothers are expected to look after their sisters and protect them from
harm.
• Older siblings are given the responsibility to take care of the younger ones
especially when the parents are away.
• Younger siblings are expected to obey their elders and look up to them
with respect.
Roles of family members in the community
• The family is expected to educate the off springs.
• Transmit the societal norms and values to its offspring.
• Give the off springs a position or status in life.
• Cleaning their communities.
• Teaches children about the norms and values of the community.
• Participate in community economic activities for example zunde ramambo,
humwe and so on.
• Helping the needy in society.
Roles of family members to the nation
• With the fast-emerging trends in social media and rapid technological
advancements, families (parent) should guide children to shape their
dreams.
• The family disciplines the child’s life at an early stage and nurture them
towards a competitive future.
• The family helps in nation building by shaping the child to a better citizen.
• Families educates children who will become leaders of the nation in future.
• Help the nation by protecting the rights of children.
• Teaches children the history of the nation.
• Promote good use of natural resources and the environment.
• Teach children to obey the laws by being role models.

17
Activity 2.5 Research Assignment
Research on the role of family members in the home and to the community.
Activity 2.6 Self-discovery
In pairs, identify the roles of family members to the nation. Briefly explain their
importance to the nation.

UNIT 2.2 LANGUAGE AND NATIONAL IDENTITY

Language
Language is a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of
conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings.
Language can also be defined as a method of human communication that is either
spoken or written, and it use words in a structured and conventional way.
According to the Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013, Chewa, Chibarwe, English,
Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya, Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, sign language, Sotho,
Tonga, Tswana, Venda and Xhosa are recognised as official languages in Zimbabwe.
The Constitution further states that, “The State must promote and advance the
use of all languages used in Zimbabwe, including sign language, and must create
conditions for the development of these languages.”
National identity
Identity is the sameness of essential or generic character in different instances.
While national identity is a sense of belonging to one nation. A common language
provides a symbol of national identity. Language is part of a nation’s heritage or a
form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and
structured with the grammar. It is important to note that, language and identity
are highly promoted by proverbs, idioms, riddles and forklores in any given society
as is the case in Zimbabwe. The origins of these wise sayings dates back to ancient
days and they were used by our forefathers more or less for the purpose they serve
today.
Aspects of a language with national identity
(a) Proverbs/Tsumo/Amazwi ahlakaniphileyo/amaqhalo
A proverb is a short popular saying that gives advice about how people should
behave or that expresses a belief that is generally thought to be true. It is a
traditional way of saying the truth or instructing. Here are some examples of the
Shona people:
• Kure kwegava ndokusina mutsubvu – means that no matter how far a place
might be, you can always reach there if there is something that you love so

18
 much.
• Chura kugara mumvura haasi mwana wengwena – it emphasises one
element of the African virtues which is tolerance and peaceful core
existence which a frog can live together in the water with crocodiles.
• Rina manyanga hariputirwe – meaning you cannot wrap something with
horns because nothing on earth can stay hidden forever.
• Gudo guru peta muswe kuti vadiki vakutye – big baboon coil your tail for
the young ones to fear you. It means adults should humble themselves so
that they gain respect from young people.
Here are some of the Ndebele language proverbs:
• Amajodo awela abangelambiza – fortune favours the foolish.
• Kwabo kagwala akulasililo – can be translated as discretion is better than
valour. It means being prudent is better than to merely be courageous.
• Ikhotha eyikhothayo – the proverb means, it [the cow] licks the one which
licks it.
• Ubukhosi ngamazolo – it means wealth is short-lived.
• Indlela ibuzwa kwabaphambili – if translated it means the older you are the
wiser you become therefore the young should learn from the elderly. Elders
know best since they might have experienced the things before hence it is
advisable to consult them in decision making.
• Induku enhle iganyulwa ezizweni. This proverb is related to marriage. It was
believed that for one to get a good wife they had to go and search very
far away. Meaning that good things do not come easily, one should work
very hard.
Here are some of the Venda proverbs:
• hu ambuwa vhunanga; vhukololo a vhu ambuwi. The medicine-man who
crosses a river into foreign territory takes his craft with him, but royal rank
cannot be taken abroad.
• mukange a fa, vhana vha Mukange vha a fhalala. When Mr Guinea Fowl dies,
his chicks scatter.
• thakha ndi mulambo, a i lengi u fhalala. Wealth (property) is like a flooding
river it goes down quickly.
• duvha la madumbu dzi lala na mavhoda adzo. When there are storms the
cows are allowed to have their calves with them for the night.
• dza musanda dzi tahula Tshene. Royal cattle (do not damage crops, they
merely) pull up weeds. Children and others from the chief’s place can do
no wrong.
• mutsinda ndi khwine, shaka ndi bulayo. A non-relative is better; a relative is
murder. Relations cause more trouble than other people.

19
Here is a Chewa proverb:
Chikomekome cha mkuyu, mkati muli Nyerere. It means appearances often deceives.
Proverbs often have a meaning that is greater than the meaning of the individual
words put together like demonstrated above.
Importance of proverbs
Proverbs are important in our culture as they:
• teach children the society’s expectations, norms and values.
• teach children appropriate behaviour by condemning anti-social
behaviour.
• encourage unity and cooperation among people.
• promote African cultural values, beliefs and traditions.
• promote national identity.

(b) Idioms/Madimikira/Izitsho/Izaci
An idiom is a phrase that has a meaning of its own that cannot be understood
from the meanings of its individual words. The following are Ndebele idioms:
• Ukugijimela ukufa lokuphila - meaning to run for life and death.
• Ukucatsha egcekeni - to hide in the open.
Here are some examples of Shona idioms:
• Kurumwa nechokuchera. It means self-inflicted anguish.
• Kuora mwoyo. It means losing heart.
Let us draw some idioms from the Xhosa language. Here are some of the examples:
• Ukabeleka izithende - meaning to carry heels on back (to run).
• Amathe nolwimi - saliva and the tongue (inseparable people).
The literal meaning of an idiom usually does not make sense, and idioms can be
almost impossible to understand unless you have learned or heard them before.
Importance of idioms
Idioms are important in our culture as they:
• offer advice and observations which are relevant in people’s day-to-day life.
• give lessons for life.
• reflect the identity and moral values of the African culture and society.
(c) Riddles/Zvirahwe/Amalibho
A riddle is a phrase or statement or question having a double or veiled meaning,

20
put forth as a puzzle to be solved. Riddles are important tools in the traditional
Zimbabwean system of education. In Shona, Ndebele, Venda, Chewa, Sotho and
Tonga for instance, riddles have important functions like socialisation, recreation,
sharpening one’s reasoning skills and foster quick mental flexibility on the part of
the child as he/she struggles with different possibilities and probabilities in the
search for correct answers to given riddles. Here are some of the Shona riddles
(zvirahwe):

Shona riddle (zvirahwe) Interpretation (dudziro)

Chidembo tamba tamba muswe ndakabata Badza (hoe)
Zidya mafuta risingakore Banga (knife)
Pota nekoko tisangane Bhande (belt)
Ane mhanza ngaarohwe Bhora/Ngoma (ball or drum)
Ndananika mumera ndawana pasisina Chando (coldness)
Amai ndebvu, baba ndebvu Chibage (maize cob)
The process of solving riddles involves good thinking and the justification for
answers based on reasoned analysis of the posed riddle.
Importance of riddles
Riddles are important in our culture because they:
• encourage critical thinking when children try to solve the puzzle.
• develop problem solving skills in children.
• provide entertainment in the evening before people retire to bed.
(d) Folktales/Ngano/Inganekwane
These are traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a community, passed through
the generations by word of mouth. Venda, Ndebele, Ndau, Chewa, Shangani and
Shona folktales address issues of mass participation in development, issues of
borrowing, issues of the environment, issues of criminality and so on. Folktales are
timeless in terms of their appeal in reflecting human desires and feelings. Folktale
characters can be animals, birds, human beings or a combination of them all. It is
important to note that such fictional animals even though they might be animals,
they represent humans.
Importance of folktales
There are several reasons why folktales are very important in our society. Some of
them include:
• folktales represents one’s culture and tradition.
• they reflect the moral value of a particular culture and society.
• folktales have strong messages of ethics and values because they have

21
 simple explanations.
• folktales can produce a feeling and a strong sentiment towards culture and
unity. The reason is that they are about common human values and they
signify universal characteristics of mankind.
• they inspire good thinking.
• folktales provide a greater and profound insight to life and living.
• they increase the creative side of the brain and make children more
productive in later life.
• they help students to have vision in their thought process and make them
more responsible persons, ready for the world.
Link between language and identity
• Language has a way of sending messages in words or verbal
communication.
• Writing the same language can bring togetherness.
• Reading the same can help to provide the same identity and togetherness.
• Language can provide a tool for learning the identity of the nation and
also teaching the identity of a nation.
• Language is important to the expression of culture.
• Language is a fundamental aspect of cultural identity. It is the means by
which we convey our innermost self from generation to generation. It is
through language that we transmit and express our culture and its values.
• The loss of language leads to loss of cultural identity, carries with it many
dangerous implications.
• Language gives meaning to social structures and identity-creation.
Activity 2.7 Discussion
In pairs, discuss the importance of traditional wise sayings.

UNIT 2.3 INDIGENOUS HUNTING AND PRODUCTIVE TOOLS

What are indigenous hunting tools?
These are traditional tools which were used long ago for hunting.
Indigenous tools used for hunting and their uses
Hunting is an important source of food since time immemorial. Like in the pre-
colonial societies like the San and the Khoi Khoi, the Great Zimbabwe and so on,
hunting is still practised today as a game. However, hunters of the traditional
societies used hunting tools such as bows and arrows, traps, spears, snares and so
forth.

22
(a) Traps
There are several types of traps which
include; fish traps, snares and cage
traps.
(i) Cage trap
Cage traps are designed to catch live
animals in a cage. They are usually
baited with food bait or a live “lure”
animal. Common baits include; catch
food and fish. Cage traps usually have a
trigger located in the back of the cage
that causes a door to shut.
Fig. 2.6 A traditional cage trap
Some traps with two doors have a
trigger in the middle of the cage that
causes both doors to shut. In either type
of cage, the closure of the doors and the
falling of a lock mechanism prevents
the animal from escaping by locking
the door(s) shut.
(ii) Fish traps
A fish trap is used for fishing. Fish traps
can have the form of a fishing weir or a
lobster trap. Some fishing nets are also Fig. 2.7 Fish trapped in a trap/maduwo/
called fish traps. Umambule
A typical contemporary trap consists of a frame of thick steel wire in the shape of
a heart, with chicken wire stretched around it. The mesh wraps around the frame
and then tapers into the inside of the
trap. When a fish swims inside through
this opening, it cannot get out, as the
chicken wire opening bends back into its
original narrowness. Contemporary fish
traps come in many shapes and sizes and
are constructed from many materials. In
earlier times, traps were constructed of
wood and fibre.
(b) Snares/dhibhura
Snares are anchored cable or wire
nooses set to catch wild animals such as Fig. 2.8 A Snare

23
squirrels and rabbits. A snare traps an
animal around the neck or the body. A
snare consists of a noose made usually
by wire or a strong string.
(c) Spears/pfumo/umkhonto
Spear, a pole weapon with a sharp
point, either thrown or thrust at an
enemy or prey. A spear is a pole weapon Fig. 2.9 Spears
consisting of a shaft, usually of wood,
with a pointed head.
The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with
fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastened to the
shaft, such as flint, iron, steel or bronze.
(d) Bows and arrows /Yimitshoko/
Museve
A bow is a flexible arc that shoots
aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A
string joins the two ends of the bow and
when the string is drawn back, the ends
of the bow are flexed.
When the string is released, the potential
energy of the flexed stick is transformed
into the kinetic energy of the arrow.
Archery is the art or sport of shooting Fig. 2.10 Bow and arrow
arrows from bows. Bows and arrows are used primarily for hunting.
Activity 2.8 Project-based learning
Design a model of any one indigenous hunting tool from the ones discussed above.
Indigenous productive tools
What is production?
Production is a process of converting raw-materials into finished goods. Production
means the creation of goods and services. It is done to satisfy human wants. Therefore,
production can be viewed as a process of transformation.
(a) Grinding stones/Guyo/Ilitshe lokucolela
This is a solid hard rock which is curved out from the huge rock. Not every rock can work
for curving out this grinder. Two equal curved stones are arranged one above another.
The lower one is fixed to stand permanently without any chance of movement when the

24
upper one rotates on its top for grinding.
The stand to which lower half is fixed will
be usually a wooden tub with a flat base
so that whatever grain is grinded will get
collected in the tube wholly.
Grinding stones are traditional kitchen
equipment used by women in the
ancient times and they are still in use
even today. These are flat slabs of stone
that indigenous people used to grind and Fig. 2.11 Grinding stone /Guyo/Ilitshe
crush food items like groundnuts into lokucolela
peanut butter and grinding sorghum,
wheat, rapoko, and millet into mealie-meal or flour.
(b) Mortar and pestle/Duri nemutswi/Inginga
lomgigo
A mortar and pestle are two tools used with each
other to mill (grind) and mix substances. A mortar
and pestle is a kitchen device used since ancient
times to prepare ingredients or substances by
crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or
powder.
Items that are good to grind or crush in the mortar
and pestle include peppercorns, spice seeds, herb
seeds, fresh herb and spice leaves, rice, nuts, some Fig. 2.12 Mortar and pestle (duri
plant seeds, sea salt and so on. nemutswi/ingiga/umgigo)

(c) Winnowing basket/Rusero/ukhomane

Winnowing basket is a device for winnowing
grain. It involves throwing the mixture into
the air so that the wind blows away the
lighter chaff, while the heavier grains fall
back down for recovery.
Activity 2.9 Practical Exercise
Design a model of any indigenous
productive tool of your choice.
Activity 2.10 Demonstration Fig. 2.13 Winnowing basket
(tsero/ukhomane)
Demonstrate the use of the indigenous
hunting and productive tools.

25
Activity 2.11 Exhibition
Collect and exhibit the indigenous hunting and productive tools during a special
gathering at your school.

UNIT 2.4 NATIONAL IDENTIFICATION DOCUMENTS

What are identification documents?
These are documents used to identify people of the same nation. Zimbabweans
have their own identity documents.
Types of identification documents, contents and procedures of getting them
(a) Birth certificate
A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of the child. This is a
document used to record a person’s birth.
A birth certificate is a copy of an official record of a person’s date and place of birth
and parentage.
Contents of a birth certificate
The birth certificate has five sections as follows:
1. Child’s details. This include:
• the child’s identity number
• first name and surname of the child
• birth place and date of birth
• sex of the child
2. Father of child details. This include:
• first name and surname of the father
• father’s birth place
• national identity number of the father
3. Mother of child’s details which include:
• the first name and maiden surname of the mother
• mother’s birth place
• national identity number of the mother
4. Informant details
Informant is the person giving notice of birth. Information found in this section
include:
• name of the person notifying the birth

26
 • relationship to the child
• address where that person lives
5. Date of registration and birth entry number.

p
m
Sta

Fig. 2.14 Birth certificate

Procedures of acquiring birth certificate
• The first step is the issuing of birth record to the mother or legal guardian
of the child within a period of six weeks of birth of the child. Birth record
27
 is issued to the parents or guardians of the child who are expected to visit
the Registrar General’s Office to register a birth certificate of the child.
The parents or guardians are expected to take with them the following
documents in order to acquire a birth certificate of the child; mother and
father’s national identity cards and birth confirmation record from the
hospital.
• At the Registrar’s Office both parents are expected to sign a form of
declaration that the man is the father of the child.
• Where the father is refusing to go and sign the declaration form, the mother
of the child is allowed to acquire the birth certificate using her maiden
name and the information on the father’s section is left out.
• Where the child does not know both parents and is being kept at the
children’s home or is living in the streets; the Department of Social Welfare
will help to make sure that the child is registered but the birth certificate
will not contain the mother and father’s details section.
• The initial birth certificate is issued for free. One has to pay for it when
replacing a lost birth certificate.
(b) National identity card
National identity card is another form of identification document which is issued
to everyone who has attained the age of sixteen years. A national identity card
is a portable document, typically a plasticized card with digitally-embedded
information, that everyone is required or encouraged to carry as a means of
confirming their identity.
Contents of the national identity card
• Identity number
• Surname
• First names
• Date of birth
• Village of origin
• Place of birth
• Date of issue
• Holder’s signature
• Fingerprint
• Holder’s face picture
Procedures of acquiring the Fig. 2.15 National identity card
national identity card
When one have reached the age of sixteen, have the right to visit the Registrar’s
Department with their birth certificate, a copy of their father’s national identity

28
card or mother’s national identity card if she solely registered the birth certificate.
The identity card is issued for free to persons who are at the age of 16 and 17. One
pays a fee for the replacement of a lost identity card or when they have reached
over eighteen years without acquiring a national identity card.
(c) Passport
A passport is a national identity document used when one is travelling in and out
of the country. It is a formal document issued by an authorized institution of a
country to its citizens. A passport allow citizens to travel in a foreign country in
accordance with the visa requirements that requests protection for the citizens
while abroad.
Contents of a passport
The following are the contents of a passport:
• passport number
• name(s) and surname
• signature and full colour picture of the
• holder
• nationality (name of the country where
• one belongs)
• identity card or birth certificate number
• passport number and sex of the holder
• birth place
• date of birth
• country of permanent residence
• expiry date
• issuing authority
Fig. 2.16 A Zimbabwean passport
Procedures of acquiring a passport
If one wants to acquire a passport they must visit the passport office with their birth
certificate, old passport if applicable, passport photos, and identity documents
of parents if the applicant is a minor (less than eighteen years). At the office, they
will be issued with an application form where they fill in or the parent will fill in for
minors the relevant details required. Application for a passport is paid for. Unlike a
national identity card and a birth certificate, a passport expires after a given period
of time. Therefore, it needs to be renewed from time to time.
(d) Driver’s licence
A driver’s licence is a legal permission issued by a mandated government authority
that permits the holder to operate a motor vehicle. A driver’s licence can also be
used as a form of identification document. It is issued only to persons who have
passed the test. The test can only be undertaken by persons who have attained
the age of sixteen.

29
Contents of the driver’s licence
The following are the contents of the
driver’s licence: en
• class of vehicles in which the c im
e
holder is allowed to drive. Sp Bvisai
• first name and surname of Mabhachi
• the holder.
• signature of the holder.
• date of birth. 93000JZ 63-0000000-F47

• date of issue.
• national identity card number of Fig. 2.17 Driver’s licence
the holder.
• driver’s licence number and their face picture.
Procedure for acquiring the driver’s licence
When one has attained the age of sixteen he/she can apply for a driver’s licence.
For one to possess the licence they have to first write the learner’s test to be
issued with a learner’s licence. The learner’s licence will allow them to learn how to
drive. After that, one undertakes a driving test which is conducted by the Vehicle
Inspectorate Department. If they pass the test they will be issued a driver’s licence.
Importance of possessing national identity documents
Possessing a national identity is very important because of the following reasons:
• it gives proof of identity.
• it allows one to exercise their right to vote.
• it allows one to open a bank account.
• one can travel outside the country freely.
• it gives one permission to drive.

Activity 2.12 Problem solving

What are the problems that you or any of your friends are facing in trying to possess
a national identity document? What can be done to reduce such problems?
Activity 2.13 Debate
As a group, what are your views on the importance of possessing a national identity
document like the national identity card? Do you think its important?

30
Interesting facts
What is the age of grinding stones? It is believed that the grinding stone dates
back to 30, 000 years ago in the Pleistocene Epoch. What is it made out of?
Grinding stones are made out of rock like sandstone, basalt or granite. Who uses
this artefact? Aboriginal women use grinding stones in cooking
Summary of the chapter
• There are different types of families which include, single-parent families,
child-headed families, polygamous families, grandparent families and so
on.
• Family members have different roles to play in their families.
• Families also play a very important role in the community and nation.
• Proverbs, idioms, riddles and folklores are part of the language used in our
society.
• Traps, snares, bows and arrows are some of the indigenous tools that were
used for hunting during the ancient times.
• Productive tools such as grinding stones, winnowing baskets and mortar
and pestle were used in early Zimbabwean societies.
• In Zimbabwe, there are four major national identification documents that
are acceptable that is birth certificate, national identity card, passport and
driver’s licence.
• It is the right of every citizen to have national identification documents.
Glossary of terms
Family – a basic social unit consisting of parents and their children, considered as a
group, whether dwelling together or not.
Language – a system of communication used by a particular country or community.
Indigenous – naturally existing in a place or country rather than arriving from another
place
Hunting – chasing and killing an animal or bird for food, sport, or profit.
Productive –  producing or able to produce large amounts of goods or other
commodities.
Tool – a device or implement, especially one held in the hand, used to carry out a
particular function.
Minor – a person under the age of full legal responsibility.
Maiden name – the original surname of a married woman who uses her husband’s
surname name after marriage.
Identity – who a person is, or the qualities of a person or group that make them
different from others.
Licence – a permit from an authority to own or use something, do a particular thing.

31
Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is a family?
A. these are people living together
B. a group of people related by blood, marriage or adoption, who live together in
one household
C. these are brothers and sisters
D. members of the community
2. A traditional type of family which consists of both parents and children is known
as ____
A. polygamous family B. extended family C. nuclear family D. single parent family
3. All of the following are family members except ______
A. mother B. father C. grandmother D. neighbour
4. National identity is a sense of belonging to _______
A. one school B. one nation C. one political leader D. one language
5. What is an idiom?
A. a short popular saying that gives advice
B. a phrase that has a meaning of its own that cannot be understood from the
meanings of its individual words
C. a phrase or statement or question having a double meaning
D. traditional beliefs, customs and stories of a community, passed through the
generations by word of mouth
6. Which one of the following is an indigenous hunting tool?
A. plate B. grinding stone C. winnowing basket D. snare
7. All of the following are identification documents except _____
A. birth certificate B. school certificates
C. national identity card D. passport
8. What is a child-headed family?
A. a family in which a minor is taking care of the family
B. a family with many children
C. a family where children tell parents what to do
D. a family where one parent is raising children on his/her own
9. Which family is likely to have less problems than the other families from the
following?
A. polygamous B. monogamous C. single parent D. child-headed
10. A mortar and pestle are two indigenous productive tools used ____
A. for winnowing grain B. to mill and mix substances
C. kill big animals D. trap animals
11. What is production?
A. the process of transforming inputs into outputs
B. doing work at the factory

32
 C. goods produced at the factory
D. looking for animals
12. All of the following national identity documents are acquired for a fee except
_____
A. passport B. lost identity card C. driver’s licence D. birth certificate
13. Which of the following is not found on a birth certificate?
A. picture B. mother’s details C. father’s details D. child’s details
14. All of the following are indigenous productive tools except ______
A. winnowing basket B. grinding stone C. mortar and pestle D. spear
15. The following indigenous hunting tools do not kill animals except _____
A. fish trap B. cage trap C. bucket trap D. bow and arrow
16. Amajodo awela abangelambiza (fortune favours the foolish) is a Ndebele ____
A. idiom B. simile C. proverb D. metaphor
17. Kurumwa nechokuchera (self-inflicted anguish) is an example of ____
A. Shona idiom B. Tonga idiom C. Ndebele idiom D. Chewa idiom
18. The process of solving riddles involves ____ and the justification for answers.
A. language use B. the ability to speak
C. good thinking D. norms and values
19.National identity card is issued to a person who has reached the age of _____in
Zimbabwe.
A. 15 B. 16 C. 17 D. 18
20. When one attains the age of _____ can apply for a driver’s licence in Zimbabwe.
A. 17 B. 18 C. 15 D. 16

Structured Questions
1. (a) What is a family? [2]
(b) List any four types of families mentioned in this chapter? [4]
(c) Identify problems faced in child-headed families. [4]
2. (a) Name any three indigenous hunting tools. [3]
(b) State the uses of the three indigenous tools you wrote in (a) above. [3]
(c) Describe how hunters trapped animals using snares. [4]
3. (a) Identify two indigenous productive tools. [2]
(b) List four items that are grinded in a mortar and pestle. [4]
(c) List four items that are processed using a grinding stone. [4]
4. (a) List four national identification documents given to individuals in Zimbabwe.
[4]
(b) At what age are Zimbabweans required to apply for the following national
identity documents:
(i) National identity card [1]
(ii) Passport [1]

33
 (iii) Driver’s licence [1]
(c) Identify any three requirements needed to get a national identity card. [3]
5. (a) Write down any four proverbs that you know in your indigenous language.
[4]
(b) State any two reasons why elders used proverbs. [2]
(c) Define riddles and give one example of riddles found in your indigenous
language. [2]
(d) What is the difference between proverbs and idioms? [2]
6. (a) What are folklores? [2]
(b) Give three reasons why folklores are important in our society. [3]
(c) Suggest reasons for the decline of use of folklores in our modern-day society.
[3]
(d) Briefly explain the relationship between language and identity. [2]
Essays Questions
1. Describe the features of the following documents:
(a) Birth certificate [10]
(b) Identity card [5]
(c) Passport [5]
2. Why is it important to possess national identity documents? [20]
3. 
“Indigenous productive tools are no longer useful in this modern world
characterised by the use of machines and technologies”. Write an essay debating
on the relevance of indigenous productive tools in Zimbabwe. [20]
True or False Questions (answer either true or false)
1. A national identity card expires.
2. Polygamous consists of a father, mother and children.
3. Foster family is a family in which a parent takes a child from another family.
4. Child-headed is whereby one of the child-heads the family.
5. A passport can also be used as a form of national identity.
6. A birth certificate can be acquired free of charge.
7. Roles of the mother are the same as those of the father.
8. It is the right of every child to have a birth certificate.
9. A driver’s licence can be acquired for free.
10. A passport expires.

34
 CHAPTER 3: CULTURAL HERITAGE: NORMS AND VALUES
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• define the concept of Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu.
• state the attributes of Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu.
• explain the importance of Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu.
• identify norms and values peculiar to the home, school, community and
workplace.
• describe the norms and values at home, school, community and work.
• describe indigenous and contemporary heirship practices.
• justify the importance of indigenous and contemporary heirship.
• explain rites of passage in different ethnic groups in Zimbabwe.
• examine the importance of rites of passage in different societies.
• describe the implications of the age of consent to sex.
• identify different indigenous courtship practices.
• outline advantages and disadvantages of different indigenous courtship
practices.
• discuss the age of consent to marriage as per the Constitution of Zimbabwe.
• identify different forms of indigenous entertainment.
• outline other uses of these forms of indigenous entertainment.
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the various aspects of Zimbabwean cultural heritage.
These include; the concept of Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu, norms and values, common
courtesies, concept of inheritance, indigenous courtship practices and indigenous
entertainment.
UNIT 3.1 THE CONCEPT OF UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU
The words unhu, ubuntu and vumunhu mean the same and they are used by
different people to describe good human behaviour. The word unhu is used by
the Shona people, ubuntu is used by the Ndebele while vumunhu is used by the
Tonga speaking people.
A person with unhu or ubuntu is able to choose between good and bad behaviour
and always behaves in a manner that is acceptable by society. In Shona language,
they say, Hapana nezvemunhu (there is no person in you) to describe a person who
has displayed bad behaviour. This means that the person being referred to is only
available in flesh but their behaviour does not make them a human being.
The concept of ubuntu is common in most African countries especially in southern,
central, western and eastern Africa amongst people of Bantu origin. The meaning
and principle of ubuntu is the same in all these African countries. One aspect
35
of ubuntu is that, at all times, the individual represents the people from among
whom he or she comes.
Ubuntu is an African philosophy that places emphasis
on ‘being human through other people’. It is reflected
in the phrase I am because we are. Ubuntu focuses on
the attention a human being gives to another such as
kindness, courtesy, consideration and friendliness.
Ubuntu speaks particularly about the fact that a human
being cannot exist as a human being in isolation
but rather is interconnected with others. A person
with unhu/ubuntu upholds the cultural standards,
expectations, values and norms of society. If a child
lacks unhu, the fault is usually attributed to their parents
for failing to train them. As such, the concept of ubuntu
Fig. 3.1 A person is a person is defined from a community point of view rather than
through others an individual’s point of view.
Attributes of unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu
The following words describe a person with ubuntu:
• hospitable
• warm
• generous
• respectful
• responsible
• dignity
• cooperation
• willing to share
• welcoming
• available to others
• compassion
Ubuntu in a school set up
In schools ubuntu can be shown through values such as; sharing, respect,
cooperation, forgiveness, caring, equality, compassion, tolerance, and empathy
for others. Students who possess these qualities have a great desire to learn and
work as a team.
The issue of discipline in schools demonstrate the concept of ubuntu among students
in the school environment. For example, a student with ubuntu accepts to be
disciplined. This is a sign of accepting responsibility for one’s actions and a desire to
learn from one’s mistakes.

36
Ubuntu in schools calls for dignity and respect for others. For example; if a school
has students from different backgrounds such as different religions, social classes
or ethnic groups in the same class, the school should treat all the learners equally
and equal opportunities should be given to all the students. This shows that the
school is embracing ubuntu.
Importance of unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu
• It promotes unity .
• Creates peaceful societies.
• Leads to the development of a nation socially, politically and economically.
• It defines good morals expected from members of a society.
• Makes one acceptable by others.
• They act as security measures for citizens by guarding against bad
behaviours.
• Award good behaviour and punish wrong doers.
• Provides identity to communities or nations.

Activity 3.1 Discussion

Discuss the importance of ubuntu in the following places:
• family
• school
• community

UNIT 3.2 NORMS AND VALUES

Norms
Norms are informal rules which govern behaviour of people in a society. Members
of a society acquire these norms through the process of socialisation. Norms also
differ from one place to another as they are closely related to people’s culture.
Norms refer to an acceptable way of behaving or doing things in a group or society
to which members must conform. They prescribe the type of behaviour that is
appropriate in various situations. For example, there is a certain type of behaviour
that is acceptable at weddings, funerals, in schools, playing grounds and churches.
At a funeral people are expected to be sorrowful as they mourn the deceased
person while at a wedding ceremony they are expected to be happy as they
celebrate with the bride and the groom. All the societies have got expected norms
which regulate or guide people’s behaviour in different settings. Hence with
norms, order is maintained in a society. A person with ubuntu will observe all the
norms of their society.

37
Norms at school
In a school set up, norms such as punctuality, respect, discipline and order
encourage behaviour that help students to do their work and discourage behaviour
that interferes with their studies. Some of the norms at school include:
• attending school on time.
• attending extra curriculum activities.
• doing school work.
• respecting teachers, visitors and all members of staff.
• respecting other students.
• following decisions from authorities and so on.
Norms at the work place
At the work place norms govern how people interact with each other, conduct
business, make decisions and communicate. Norms at a work place include;
starting work on time (punctuality), initiating ideas, respecting fellow workmates,
working as a team, dressing decently, caring and taking responsibilities.
Values
Values are ideas held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper
and good. Examples of values are wealth, success, order, happiness, cooperation,
patience, team work and respect. These things are desired in every society. In
addition, each school in Zimbabwe whether primary or secondary desires success
either in examinations or sporting activities.
Norms and values at home
Common courtesies – these are behaviours that show good manners and politeness.
In most African societies, both women and men are expected to display a certain type
of behaviour in different situations and circumstances in order to show that they have
good manners. For example, good manners can be seen when one is greeting other
people or talking to strangers.
Clapping hands – in most Zimbabwean communities, hands are clapped to thank
someone. This is done as a sign of appreciation of another person’s good cause.
For example, people can clap hands after a meal as a way of thanking the person
who would have provided the food. It is a way of appreciating the food as well as
the person who would have prepared the food. One can also clap hands during
greetings as a sign of respect for the person to whom the greetings are extended,
and to show good manners.
Table manners – when eating food, everyone is expected to sit down. Walking
up and down or standing when eating shows that a person does not have good
manners. Among the Shona people it is a taboo to eat whilst one is in a sleeping

38
position. For adults, conversations should be kept minimal during meal times
while children should be silent when eating.
Table manners among the Sotho and Tonga people - among the Sotho and
Tonga people, silence is also observed during meal times. More so, women would
sit on the ground or a mat with their legs crossed while their male counterparts sit
on wooden stools or benches. Women are discouraged to sit on chairs or benches
during meal times. For the Tonga people, one is not expected to leave his/her seat
while eating until they are full.
Receiving something from someone – to receive something from someone,
among the Shona people, a person is expected to clap hands first and then extend
both hands to receive the item or parcel. If a girl or a woman is receiving anything
from a man, she is supposed to kneel down, clap hands and receive with both
hands. If a man is receiving anything from a woman, he clap hands then use both
hands to receive, as a sign of good behaviour. Among the Tonga people, when
a woman is receiving anything, she kneels
down and then use both hands to receive it
without clapping hands.
Greetings – are usually characterised by
handshakes followed by verbal exchange of
words. At times people may call each other’s
totems when exchanging greetings as a sign
of respect. At times, one must kneel down Fig. 3.2 Greetings by a handshake
as a sign of respecting the person to whom
the greetings are extended. If people of the
same age greet each other, they shake hands.
This may be followed by verbal exchange of
greetings.
In Shona culture, if a woman is greeting a
man, she kneels down and extend hands for
a handshake. This is usually followed by verbal
Fig 3.3 E xchange of greetings between
exchange of greetings as well as the clapping
a woman and an old man
of hands. When a man meets his mother in law
on a path, he is expected to step aside, and kneels down to greet her.

Activity 3.2 Group work

Describe norms and values in the following places:
• home
• school
• community
• work

39
Activity 3.3 Role play
Dramatize some of the common courtesies found in your community.
Activity 3.4 Discussion
Discuss the view that bad manners among young people are as a result of
technology.

UNIT 3.3 THE CONCEPT OF INHERITANCE

The concept of heirship
An heir is a person who is entitled to receive inheritance, which can be something
left behind by someone upon death. Forms of inheritance include; houses, cars,
money, land and any property. In Zimbabwe, there are two systems of inheritance,
that is the indigenous and the modern inheritance system.
Indigenous inheritance system
Traditionally in Zimbabwe, the inheritance system was governed by customary law
alone. The indigenous inheritance system which was followed by the indigenous
people of Zimbabwe was derived from their culture. For example, in Shona culture
when a person dies, his or her spirit is considered to be dangerous until such a time
when a ritual of bringing home the person’s spirit is done (kurova guva). It is only
after this ceremony that the property of the deceased person can be distributed
to their relatives.
The inheritance ceremony is part of the kurova guva ritual. It usually takes place
a year after a person has died. It is done for a person who was considered to be
morally upright and had died a natural death meaning death as a result of illness
and not as a result of suicide. The spirit of a person who would have committed
suicide was regarded as bad hence could not be brought back home.
As part of the kurova guva ritual, the Shona people distribute all the personal belongings
of the deceased person which would have been kept in a safe place soon after the
funeral. As soon as the spirit of the deceased person has been brought back home to his
or her family, all that he or she left behind including wives in the case of a man are given
to his relatives.
The inheritance ceremony is supervised by the deceased’s old sister or her son
(muzukuru). The deceased’s widow(s) are expected to choose an inheritor among
their late husband’s relatives or brothers. The inheritor takes the responsibility of
caring and providing for the widow and her children.
Indigenous inheritance system of property
The indigenous inheritance systems differ from one culture to another. Below

40
are some of the inheritance practices of different indigenous cultures found in
Zimbabwe.
(a) Shona indigenous inheritance system
The heir inherit the deceased’s property. In the traditional inheritance system
women do not receive anything from their late husband’s property. The widow(s)
to be inherited normally have to pass through a rite called kudarika uta. This is
meant to prove that they did not commit any act of adultery and had remained
faithful to their late husband. In some instances, if the widows were found to be
unfaithful, they were considered to have defiled their late husband’s estate and
this would mean that a cleansing ritual was to be done before the distribution of
property.
In some cases, the widow would feel that she was too old to accept an inheritor. In
such a case, she would choose her oldest son to the responsibility of looking after
the family. She would continue to stay on the family home and work on the family
fields to produce food for the family. The brothers and sisters of her late husband
would support and look after her.
At times, the deceased would simply choose a sarapavana (who would be
responsible for the widow and her children but without being sexually involved
with him). He becomes the guardian of the children of the late spouse and
performs all the domestic duties that the late spouse would have been expected
to perform. The sarapavana could be a young brother of the deceased.
In some instances, the wife would choose to go away to her paternal home to live
with her parents. In most cases, this would occur when the wife chooses to marry
someone who is not related to her husband. In such a case, marriage is dissolved.
If a woman had died, her personal belongings in the form of blankets, pots and
plates are usually taken by those from her maternal home.
Once the inheritance matters are over, the Shona are satisfied that anything which
had to do directly with the deceased is over. This ceremony marks the end of the
mourning period for the deceased’s relatives.
(b) Xhosa indigenous inheritance system
Among the Xhosa people, a man’s oldest son was his heir and successor. The
heir would inherit the livestock, land and any other property belonging to the
deceased. However, each son inherited something from his father because during
his lifetime the father would keep livestock for each of his sons. The sons would be
given the livestock when they marry and start their own families. His clothes were
also distributed among his sons. Daughters did not inherit anything from their
fathers.
When a woman dies, the household utensils that she brought to the marriage

41
remain part of the property of her house. Her husband would determine the
distribution of her clothes and ornaments among her daughters.
(c) Venda indigenous inheritance system
Among the Venda people, when a man dies, his property was passed on to his
oldest son, in the case of a polygamous marriage, the oldest son of the senior
wife became the heir. This son became the head of the family unless he had
done something bad to disgrace himself in the eyes of his family. Under such
circumstances, the son next in line would be appointed by the deceased’s oldest
sister with the consent of his brothers to become the heir. If a Venda woman dies,
her youngest son would inherit her property.
Advantages of indigenous inheritance system
The following points are some of the strengths associated with the indigenous
inheritance system:
• the inheritance ceremony marks the end of the mourning period for the
widow and her children. It has a therapeutic effect for the deceased’s family.
• the widow and her children would have a protector and provider since
traditionally most women did not own land and were not gainfully
employed.
• the deceased outstanding debts including the bride price would be paid off
by the inheritor.
• allow the widow to satisfy her sexual needs in a way that is acceptable to
the society.
Disadvantages of the indigenous inheritance system
On the other hand, the indigenous inheritance system have got its weaknesses
described below:
• if the deceased has died of sexually transmitted diseases like HIV and AIDS,
it means that the inheritor is likely to face the same fate.
• the widow and her children lose all the deceased’s property.
• it increases the responsibilities of the new husband if he already has
another family.
Applicability of the indigenous inheritance systems in contemporary society
• The indigenous inheritance system is no longer effective because modern
inheritance laws regulate the sharing of the deceased’s property.
• The inheritance of widows is on the decline in most societies due to the
fear of contracting HIV and AIDS.
• The number of women who can provide for their families as a result of
education and employment is increasing.

42
Modern inheritance system
The law provides that upon the death of a person his/her family, namely his wife/
husband and children, shall have the right of use of the immovable property,
household goods and effects, vehicles, animals and crops, which they were using
immediately before the death of the deceased until the estate has been wound
up. The law prefers the deceased’s spouse as a custodian of the estate’s property
pending the appointment of an executor.
An executor
An executor is a person appointed to carry out the obligation of the deceased.
Duties of an executor
The executor has the following duties:
• list the property of the deceased in an inventory.
• publishes the estate in the Government Gazette and newspaper circulating
in the district where the deceased resided at the time of his death to inform
debtors and creditors so as to enable him to pay creditors and collect debts
for estate.
• prepares an account, which shows what the deceased had and what he
owed to creditors; and distributes the estate property to the beneficiaries.
Distribution of the estate property
If the deceased had a spouse and children, then the spouse is entitled to the house
and household goods. All legitimate children of the deceased will get an equal
share each from the residue of the estate after the spouse has been given her
entitlements.
If the deceased survived by more than one wife and had more than one child then
one third of his net estate is shared among his wives of which the first wife gets two
shares and the other wives get the remainder of the one third in equal shares. The
remaining two thirds of the net estate are shared equally amongst the deceased’s
children or their descendants if they have any. Where the deceased person is not
survived by a spouse but by a child or children, then the net estate should devolve
upon that child or those children in equal shares.
Importance of the modern inheritance system
This system is important in that it ensures the protection of the surviving spouse in
terms of their rights and access to property and things left behind by the deceased.
The following points show how this importance is ensured:
• Both men and women can inherit property
• Modern inheritance system in Zimbabwe allows the deceased’s family,

43
 namely his wife/husband and children to use immovable property,
household goods, animals and crops, which they were using immediately
before the death of the deceased until the estate has been distributed.
• If the deceased is survived by more than one wife and had more than one
child then one third of his net estate is shared among his wives of which the
first wife gets two shares and the other wives get the remainder of the one
third in equal shares. The remaining two thirds of the net estate are shared
equally amongst the deceased’s children or their descendants if any.
• If the wives were living in different houses owned by the deceased person
at the time of his death, then they each get ownership of the house and all
household goods in the house in which they lived, If they all lived in one
house and if it is impossible to get ownership then they will retain the right
to use the house.
• In case where the deceased is survived by one wife and one or more children,
the surviving spouse should get ownership of the house in which the spouse
lived at the time of the deceased person’s death together with all household
goods in that house. The children will each get an equal share from the
remainder of the net of the estate.
• Where the deceased person is not survived by a spouse but by a child or
children, then the net estate should devolve upon that child or those children
in equal shares.
• Under customary law an heir is only entitled to inherit the name, tsvimbo or
any traditional items of the deceased, which under customary law pass to
his heir.

Activity 3.4 Debate

Debate on the following topic, “the traditional inheritance system was better than
the modern system.”

UNIT 3.4 RITES OF PASSAGE

A rite of passage is a celebration which occurs when a person develops from one
stage into another. Rites of passage mark the transition from one life stage into
another. These traditions have been passed from one generation to the other and
are part of the community’s history. For example, ngoma initiation school as a rite
of passage among the Shangani people in Zimbabwe marks the boy’s graduation
into manhood.
Both males and females are prepared for the duties and responsibilities that await
them in the society. The way the rites are done differs from one society to the other
but these rites are important because they guide young people from one stage in
life into the next stage of one’s life and development, that is, from birth to death

44
and beyond. Rites of passage are common at birth, puberty, marriage and death.
Birth rites
The birth of a child is something to celebrate in many African families. But before
and after the baby’s arrival, there are many rituals to be observed by the expecting
parents, especially the mother. Birth rituals start during pregnancy whereby a
pregnant woman is expected to take certain medicines to ensure the health
development of the baby in her womb.
Soon after birth, the umbilical cord of the baby is cut, but a small piece is left
hanging to its navel and tied with a string. The mother and the baby are kept in
seclusion until the umbilical cord drops. This is done to protect the baby from evil
spirits and witchcraft. The baby’s water bath is also thrown away secretly in order
to protect the baby from witchcraft.
When the baby is born, the head and the body are shaped by warming one’s
hands on fire and then mould the baby’s head and body. A talisman is also used to
protect the baby from fontanelle (nhova). Another medicine known as chifumuro
among the Shona people is also worn in the baby’s neck or chest to protect it
from common diseases associated with new born babies. The umbilical cord is
very important in many African cultures.
Different tribes make use of different ways of disposing the umbilical cord
depending with the family’s traditions. In some communities’ people bury the
cord at the entrance to their house and others bury it in the fireplace. Those whose
totem has to do with water throw the cord in the river since their totem identifies
with fish, and throwing the cord in the water is a sign of respect for the spirits that
will help ensure the child’s health.
Among the Ndebele people, the umbilical cord and placenta are buried in the
floor of the house where birth takes place. These two are a symbol of attachment
between the mother and the baby. Their disposal symbolises that the child has
developed from surviving in her mother’s womb to exist as an individual in the
society. However, due to modernity and the influence of Christianity, most of these
rituals are disappearing.
Naming rites
Most African societies participate in the naming ceremony. However, the Shona
people have no special ceremony for the naming of a baby. Among the Ndebele
people naming would take place after the disposal of the placenta. The name of
the baby’s relative or ancestors could be chosen in order to please the ancestor
so that it could in turn bless the baby and its family. In some communities, at the
child naming ceremony, the infant receives gifts, and his/her father expresses his
gratitude by giving the midwife a goat.

45
(i) Naming rites in Shona culture
Among the Shona people a baby is in most cases named by his/her father, however,
he may grant permission to any of his relatives to name the baby. Every child is
given a name for identification. However, when a child is named, circumstances
happening in the family or community are taken into consideration. For example,
if the family is going through hard times the baby may be named, Nhamoinesu,
which means we are in problems.
(ii) Child naming rites in Tonga culture
Name giving ceremonies are popular and several names are bestowed on the
infant at a family festival. They call this occasion kudumuliya mwana (naming the
child). Libations are poured on the ground. The traditional names depend on
circumstances of birth, likeness to parents and ancestors. For example, the name
Masuzgo (suffering) may symbolically remind how the mother suffered at the time
of delivery. Child naming in Tonga culture marks the coming out ceremony for
mother and child from seclusion (muchisachi). The coming out ceremony is often
characterised by drumming, singing, and dancing of the family members.
Puberty and adolescence rites
Different societies have different rituals for puberty stage. Nevertheless, there are
certain rituals that are common to most African societies. These different rituals
that are performed by boys and girls are meant to promote their sexual identity as
well as their gender roles. For example, virginity testing and male circumcision are
still common in a number of African communities.
Girls rites
Girls rites varies from one cultural society to another as illustrated by the following
examples:
(a) Girls rites in Shangani culture
Among the Shangani people, girls are initiated into womanhood through an
initiation ceremony called komba. It is an initiation ceremony done in the month
of June and July and the graduation ceremony takes place in August. During the
initiation period, girls are taught wifehood duties, motherhood duties and cultural
ideals of a real Shangani woman.
Girls are also taught other things like good manners and respect for elders. It is also
during this initiation ceremony that girls are tested for virginity. One emphasis on
preserving virginity among the Shangani people is that a man feels secure when
he knows that his wife has not been touched by any other man.
When a girl is found to be a virgin, her status brings honour to her parents and
family. Girls who are not found to be virgins are made a public spectacle. For

46
the Shangani people, this tradition still exists and each year the Shangani girls
in Zimbabwe are initiated into womanhood through this rite of passage. Similar
rites also exist among the Varemba people of Zimbabwe and in some African
Traditional Religious groups like Guta Ra Mwari, who are still practising the rite of
virginity tests for boys and girls, above the age of thirteen, every year in the month
of August and September.
Importance of komba
• It signifies that the girl is mature, capable of getting married and bearing
children. A young girl who has not commenced menstruation cannot
attend the ritual.
• It encourages girls to remain virgins until marriage because of virginity
tests that are carried out during this initiation ceremony. This will in turn
protect the girls from HIV and AIDS and other STIs.
• The rite also prepares girls for marriage and the responsibilities and duties
that come with it. The ritual also enables them to face the realities of life.
• It makes the transition of young girls from adolescent to adulthood.
• The komba rite serves to pass on tradition from one generation to the next.
It expresses a people’s culture and so preserves the people’s tradition.
(b) Girls rites in Shona culture
Among the Shona people, when a girl reached puberty, she was sent to her aunt
or grandmother’s home who would teach her how to prepare for marriage. When
a girl begins menstruation, she is supposed to tell her grandmother or aunt who
would in turn inform her mother. The grandmother may give her special traditional
medical treatment meant to prevent her parents from developing backache which
is believed to occur if their daughter engages in sexual relations before marriage.
It was important for a girl to share with her grandmother or aunt about her first
menstrual flow because they were the ones who would teach her how to handle her
new experience. Menstruation also meant that she had become a fully developed
woman who was not supposed to play with boys lest she could fall pregnant.
In most African traditional societies, girls were constantly taken to the rivers
for virginity tests. A girl would undergo routine inspection for virginity. Among
the Shona people, she was taken to the river with other girls of her age by her
grandmother and other elderly women of the society. The girls would take turns
to lie down on the river bank and examined by an elderly woman. This practice is
still common among certain groups in Zimbabwe.
Among the Shona people, the bridegroom had a way of communicating with his in
laws about the condition in which he finds his bride in. If she had lost her virginity,
then her father would pay back some part of the bride price. This is so humiliating

47
that is why families made it a collective activity to safeguard the virginity of their
children.
Virginity tests were very important because they protected the girls from unwanted
pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. They also helped girls preserve their
virginity for fear of humiliation at virginity tests ceremonies. This would in turn
bestow honour and dignity to the girl and her family when she got married.
Among the Shona people, girls were instructed how to push their breasts upwards
every morning in order to give them a good shape. Girls would also go under a
mumveve tree and dance around it asking for the tree to provide them with large
breasts. Large breasts were desirable among the Shona people. Girls would also
use water insects to improve the size of their nipples for the suckling baby. Thus,
breasts are enlarged and nipples prepared so as to become ideal mothers and
wives.
(c) Girls initiation in Venda culture
The girls initiation among the Venda people consisted of three initiation phases
namely the vhusha, tshikanda and the domba. Vhusha was attended soon after
a girl’s first menstruation and then tshikanda and domba were done before the
girl got married. At vhusha ceremony, girls were prepared for their future roles as
wives and mothers.
These three initiation ceremonies were important because they marked the girl’s
graduation from adolescence and puberty into womanhood and adulthood. The
rites also prepared them for the important role of motherhood and wifehood
which were imminent.
(d) Girls adolescence initiation in Tonga culture
Initiation rituals for children upon reaching adolescence are common among the
Tonga. Girls are trained for their future roles as wives, which may include living
away from the village for a period of time and being given a new name to signify
adulthood.
Boys rites
Initiation rites for boys were performed differently depending on the culture in
question. Here are some of the examples of boys’ rites in most Zimbabwean cultures.
(a) Boys rites in Shangani culture
Among the Shangani people, boys are initiated into manhood through the rite of
circumcision known as ngoma initiation school. This rite takes place in the bush far
away from the community where the boys will be staying in camp receiving several
teachings. The Shangani practice of circumcision is totally different from the western
circumcision that people often see in modern day society. They have their special
way of carrying out this rite in an indigenous sense. In the past, the rite among the

48
Shangani was done between May
and July during winter, today it is
being done between August and
early September. The shift of season
for the rite was to ensure that there
are varieties of food for the initiates
after harvesting their crops.
After the ngoma initiation school,
the boys acquire cultural names
which they begin to use in the
community. However, they continue Fig. 3.4 Graduation ceremony of the Shangani
to use older names given to them at young males at the ngoma initiation school
birth in public places such as schools
and hospitals.
During the rite boys are also taught about adult life by the village elders. Boys
receive health lessons and exercises which reduces their risk of contracting sexually
transmitted infections and other ailments.
(b) Boys initiation rites in Xhosa culture
There is a circumcision initiation among the Xhosa people but in the African sense
not the modern day surgical circumcision characterised by the European influence.
In Xhosa culture, before a boy is circumcised, a ceremony is performed in which he
announces to relatives his intention to undergo circumcision. The initiates leave
homes to live in a special hut, called ibhoma, where they stay for the duration of the
ceremony.
The boys are circumcised by a specialist called ingcibi. The initiates will go to the river to
symbolically wash away their youthfulness. The circumcised boys will then be recognised
as men in their society and they will be qualifying to marry. Thus, for the Xhosa people,
circumcision is important because it transforms young men into adults. It also makes them
eligible for marriage.
(c) Boys adolescence rites in Ndebele culture
Traditionally among the Ndebele people when a boy emitted sperms for the first
time in wet dreams, he would wake up early in the morning and go to the river to
wash and come back naked and sits at the cattle kraal where other boys would find
him and beat him up with sticks. This was meant to make the boy strong. He would
flee into the forest where he stayed for three days while other boys were watching
him.
When he came back home, a traditional healer would be brought to strengthen him
with medicines. His father welcomed him as a man and give him a gift mostly in the
form of a domestic animal. The boy would also be taught about fatherhood.

49
(d) Boys rites in Shona culture
Among the Shona people, boys were given
numerous herbs to ensure that their sexual
reproductive systems were healthy. If the
boy was found infertile, a traditional healer
was consulted who would treat him.
This rite of passage was important for the
Shona people because sexual problems
were treated early in life. As such, instances
of sterility were rare. Fig. 3.4 A traditional healer
(e) Boys initiation rites in Venda culture
Among the Venda people, the boys’ initiation ceremony is called thondo. Every
Venda boy should pass through it for him to attain manhood. This ceremony is a
secretive ceremony where boys are trained a variety of things which include; self-
discipline, endurance, manners and manhood. The teachings are usually delivered
by a traditional healer.
Marriage rites
The rite of marriage is one of the most important rites of passage in African
communities. It represents not only the joining of two people but their families
as well. In other words, marriage negotiations are done by senior members of
the families. In most African communities, a girl is expected to be a virgin before
marriage.
(a) Shona and Shangani marriage rites
Among the Shona and Shangani people, losing virginity before marriage brings
disgrace to the whole family. Virgin girls are preferred as wives because the belief
is that if a girl is a virgin until marriage, she is likely to be faithful to her husband
after marriage. Additionally, the groom would send a blanket or cloth which
was pierced at the centre to the in-laws symbolising that their daughter was not
a virgin. This meant that they would return some of the cattle they would have
charged as bride price.
When choosing a wife, boys were instructed to consider how hard working she was,
instead of considering physical beauty. Among the Shona people, when choosing a
life partner beauty was insignificant. This was expressed through the Shona proverbs
like, Mukadzi mutsvuku akasaroya anoba (a beautiful woman is either a witch or a thief).
Good qualities were given more prominence than physical beauty, emphasis was put
on the girl’s character than on her good looks. In most African societies marriage
was always meant to result in procreation. Bareness among the Shona people
was treated as bad luck. In fact, in the event that a woman had failed to conceive,

50
measures would be taken to ensure that she produces off springs for her husband.
In Shona culture, if a marriage fails to produce children, measures such as the use
of substitute husband (kupindira) and polygamy were used.
One important component of marriage in most African societies was the payment
of the bride price. A woman would only go to her husband’s home after the bride
price negotiations have been completed. The bride price was a sign of love and
commitment to the woman by the man. It also shows that a woman is valuable,
and that a man must show his commitment by parting with some of his wealth in
order to get her.
(b) Marriage rites in Xhosa culture
Among the Xhosa people, traditionally, marriages were arranged by parents. Even
very young children were promised to each other by their fathers. A married man
would stay for some time with his parents and then secure his own homestead. If
a couple was having marital disputes, their problems were solved by their relatives
at family level.
Death rites
A death rite is any of the ceremonial acts or customs employed at the time of
death and burial. Throughout history and in every human society, the disposal
of the dead has been given special significance. Below are some of the death rite
practices in Zimbabwe.
(a) Death rites in Shona culture
Death in Shona culture is considered
as a rite of passage. The Shona
people believe that every death has a
cause. They attribute death mostly to
witchcraft activities.
Traditionally, when a person is about
to die, he or she was moved to a hut
that was not frequented by outsiders.
Soon after death the villagers were
notified of death through drums and
Fig. 3.5 People laying down the deceased
horns or by word of mouth. The body
of a deceased person was prepared for burial by close relatives. A year after death,
a ritual called kurova guva was done.
(b) Death rites in Ndau culture
Among the Ndau people, after the death of a chief, the information was kept a
secret until seven days. As part of mourning people would not do any hard work.

51
(c) Tonga death rites
In Tonga culture, one widely held belief is that, at death each person leaves a
shade or spirit, a muzimu. The muzimu commutes between the spirit world and
the world of humans. Information provided by Missionary Ventures International
(Zambia) indicates that funerals are significant ceremonies for the Tonga people.
Dancing, singing, and drumming are used to express grief.
During the funeral, or mourning period, the men sit outside and the women
inside the house of the deceased. Family and friends arrive to show respect and
condolences, and those that can, will contribute food or money to cover the costs
over this time. Certain ceremonies need to be performed to make sure the spirit of
the deceased is happy and at rest. After the burial, the people will leave to go back
to their families. If the husband who has died has a brother, he will often claim the
widow and children as a “second” family.
Age of consent to sex
The age of consent to sex refers to the minimum age at which an individual is considered
legally old enough to participate in sexual activity. In most indigenous societies, sex
was only preserved for the married people. It was a disgrace for both boys and girl to
be involved in premarital sex.
During puberty and adolescence, both boys and girls received sex education from
their grandfathers and aunties respectively. However, emphasis was on preserving
one’s virginity until marriage. This was very important as it protected children from
sexual abuse, unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
In modern day society both boys and girls tend to be sexually active at a very young
age. This usually exposes them to sexual abuse, STIs including HIV and AIDS, unwanted
pregnancies as well as school drop outs. In order to protect children from sexual abuse,
the age of consent to sex in Zimbabwe is 18 years old. Individuals aged 17 or below
in Zimbabwe are not legally able to consent to sexual activity, and such activity may
result in prosecution for statutory rape.

Activity 3.5 Discussion

Discuss the importance of the rites of passage to young people.
Activity 3.6 Resource person
Invite an old person from your community to talk to your class about the rites of
passage that are practiced in your community.

52
UNIT 3.5 INDIGENOUS COURTSHIP PRACTICES
Shona culture
Courtship describes a period when a boy and a girl began to be involved in love
affairs. In Shona culture when a girl was old enough to get married (mhandara),
she would stay at her parents’ home waiting for a suitable suitor to ask for her
hand in marriage. That suitor was supposed to be approved by the girl’s parents,
particularly her maternal aunt.
While at her parents’ home she was taught about womanhood duties and what
awaits her upon marriage. It was the duty of the girl’s grandmother and aunt to
deliver such teachings to the girl. The girl would be taught to remain virgin until
marriage. As a result, constant virginity tests were carried out to ensure that girls
guard their virginity jealously.
One important feature which was considered was the boy’s totem. A girl could not
date a boy who shares the same totem with her since the boy was considered a
relative. Such a relationship would lead to incest.
A girl was also taught about the importance of getting married to a family that was
well known to her family members (kuroorana vematongo). This was done because
they were afraid that she could marry into a bad family. For example, marrying a
stranger could result in the girl getting married to a family of lazy people, thieves
or even witches. A girl was expected to date a boy from a reputable family, well
approved by her own family and community.
At puberty, a boy was also taught about the meaning of marriage and adult life
by his paternal grandfather or uncle. Emphasis was on the importance of keeping
his purity until marriage. Boys were taught to control their sexual urges; they were
also not supposed to engage in premarital sex.
Any boy who impregnated a girl was taken to the chief’s court where he would
be made to pay damages as compensation to the girl’s father for dishonouring his
daughter. Such an offence would also ruin the boy and his family’s reputation in
the community. Boys were also given some medicine to ensure that their physical
development progressed well.
When a young man (jaya) saw a girl he liked, he did not go straight to the girl’s
family. He would first inform his grandfather about his interests in the girl. If the
grandfather approved that the girl came from a reputable family, then the boy
would make his intentions known to the girl. He did not go straight to the girl’s
home but would go to their neighbour where the girl was invited.
In some instances, the potential suitor would approach a girl while she was at
work with her parents, for example, working in the fields. He would help them

53
with the work at hand. The girl’s parents who understood the boy’s moves would
withdraw and leave the two alone. It was a way of giving them space to talk to
each other in privacy.
It was always the responsibility of a man to approach a woman. It was a taboo for
a girl to propose love to a man. If a woman loved a boy who was not aware of her
feeling she would try all sorts of tricks to draw the attention of the boy. She would
never initiate and propose love to a boy.
After a boy had proposed love to a girl, even if the girl was interested in the boy,
she would not accept the proposal there and then but would take time to accept
the proposal. This was a sign to show that the girl was a morally upright woman
(had ubuntu). More so, this would create ample time for the girl to consult her
aunt and grandmother about the reputation of the boy’s family. However, the boy
would not give up.
The boy would make use of persuasive language in an effort to win the girl’s
love like madetembedzo ekupfimbana (poetry that praised the girl’s attributes) to
flatter the girl. At times, real admiration was captured in praise poetry as a way of
exploring the physical attributes of the girl.
In the event that a boy would be too shy to propose love to a girl or it could be
that the boy lacked the ability to speak fluently, he would employ the service of a
go between (gwevedzi) who would talk to the girl on his behalf. However, in some
instances the go-between would cheat and get the girl for himself.
A few weeks after the two had fallen in love, they would exchange love tokens
known in Shona language as (nduma or rundakuda). This was in the form of their
personal belongings like clothing. The exchange of love tokens was done in
the presence of the girl’s paternal aunt. The love tokens were a sign of serious
commitment to their love which was expected to lead to marriage.
In the event that one of the two broke off their engagement after exchanging
love tokens without a good reason, the other partner could claim damages. Love
tokens were supposed to be returned if the relationship did not lead to marriage.
It was believed that a disappointed lover could use the love token to temper with
the fertility of the ex-lover as a way of revenge.
The two lovers were supposed to abstain from sexual activity until marriage. Once
their relationship had been approved by their relatives, marriage negotiations
would start. The boy’s family would send their go between (munyai or dombo) to
negotiate with the girl’s family.
The girl would join her husband’s family only after the bride price had been paid.
A girl was supposed to be a virgin until marriage. It was a disgrace to the whole
family for a girl to lose her virginity before marriage. This meant that the girl’s

54
family had to return part of the pride price to the boy’s family.
In the event that the boy came from a very poor family that could not afford to pay
the bride price, he would use the service marriage (kutema ugariri). The boy would
provide his bride price in the form of labour. He would stay with his in laws but
without engaging in sexual activity with his wife to be.
In the event that a man had proposed love to a girl without success, he would
ambush that girl on her way to fetch firewood or water and took her to his parents’
home (musengabere). On the other hand, a girl who would have loved a man for
a long time without being noticed by the man would impose herself on the man.
She would pack her bags and go to the boy’s home without consulting the boy
(kuganha).
Courtship among the Ndau people
Marriage among the Ndau people followed a lengthy courtship period. A man who
was interested in a certain young woman would consult her aunt or grandmother
to initiate the relationship.
At times courtship would lead to marriage after a process called ‘kufuva’ (providing
labour instead of bride price). Bride price would be paid in form of services or
goods. A goat could be sent from the husband’s family as a symbol that tied the
families together. In some instances, the groom would bring cattle or mice to the
bride’s father as a sign that he would be able to take care of his daughter.
Courtship among the Sotho people
Among the Sotho people courtship was initiated by the boy’s father. He would
make a marriage proposal to the girl’s parents. If the girl’s parents accepted
the proposal they would show their acceptance by offering the boy‘s father a
calabash of water. The boy, together with his friends would then visit the girl.
If she was willing to accept him as her future husband, she would give him a
scarf as a symbol of acceptance.
Furthermore, the girl would also offer him food to eat which he was expected
to reject as assign of true love. This rejection of food was proof to show that
the boy was not interested in the wealth of the girl’s family but rather his
intentions to marry her were based purely on love. Marriage was later sealed
by the payment of the bride price. This signified that the woman had now
become part of the boy’s family.
Courtship among the Venda
If a boy had reached a marriageable age, he would first consult his makhadzi
(aunt). Traditionally, the makhadzi would approve the girl and her family. The
boy would then visit the home of a girl. The girl’s parents will excuse themselves

55
to give him a chance to propose their daughter. This happened only when the
parents were in favour of a relationship between their daughter and the young
man. However, when the parents were not in favour of the relationship, they
would not excuse themselves, thus making it impossible for the young man to
propose love to their daughter.

At times, the boy would first inform his parents of his interests in a certain girl. The
boy’s family would find out if the girl came from a good family. Their fear was that
their son could marry in a family of bad reputation. If the girl or her family was
associated with bad things, the parents would not allow their son to marry the girl.
However, if they were satisfied with the family, they would send an intermediary to
the girl’s family with a marriage proposal to the girl.

At times the boy’s parents would search for an appropriate girl for their son once
he reached marriageable age. In the Tshivenda culture, marriage is not just an
affair between two individuals, but also an alliance between two families. For that
reason, marriage was not left in the hands of an individual to decide his or her own
partner for marriage.

Courtship among the Tonga people

In Tonga culture he who marries do so for the family. One would not marry without
the involvement of his or her family members. This was because of the belief that
marriage was the cementing of relationship between two families.

A man’s family would find a suitor for their son at an early age of the girl. The girl
would grow up while attached to a boy though she will not be knowing. This
process was called kweeba.

As the girl matures, the suitor would be doing household chores for the girl’s family
as a sign of loyalty to the in-laws.
Exchange of goods or services would be done between these families. The suitors
had no time or opportunity to meet and discuss love issues alone.
Advantages of indigenous courtship practices
1. The relatives of the boys and girls were involved in the courtship; hence the
relationship would in most cases lead to marriage.
2. The courtship practices did not encourage premarital sex, reducing chances of
unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases.
3. The poor people who did not afford the bride wealth had courtship system
which also provided them with an opportunity to marry.
4. Dating was always done with someone who came from a family known to the

56
 boy or girl concerned. This protected young girls and boys from marrying into
families of bad reputation.
Disadvantages of indigenous courtship practices
1. At times the marriages were not based on love especially in the case of
arranged marriages.
2. Sometimes a marriage proposal was rejected based on bad things done by
one’s family or relative. For example, if one’s father was lazy, it would not mean
that his children were also lazy.
Age of consent to marriage
According to the Constitution of Zimbabwe the age of consent to marriage is
18 years. Marriage is meant for adults. The right to marry and form a family is
meant for adults and not children.
Children below the age of 18 are not fully mature to understand the
responsibilities associated with marriage. Most of these children will still be in
school. It will be very difficult for them to focus on their education first before
getting married. It is difficult for children to concentrate on their school work
as well as cope with the responsibilities and challenges that may be brought
by marriage.
Modern courtship practices
Things have changed in the modern society because of technology and modernity.
Even the contemporary courtship practices have also changed. The current
situation in modern society is that the aunties and grandmothers who used to
provide guidance on marriage and courtship issues are not always available to do
so. Children now learn things from televisions, internet and friends. The internet
has exposed them to things like online matchmaking and dating.
Online dating services such as Match.com and eHarmony.com allow people
to meet prospective dates based on interests and preferences. Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, WhatsApp, emails and smart phones allow young people
to meet partners easily and initiating a relationship becomes easy. However,
the disadvantage of internet dating is that not everything about the potential
partner is available on internet. It is important to note that in the modern society
some elements of indigenous dating are still common in some societies.
Activity 3.7 Discussion
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of indigenous courtship practices.
Activity 3.8 Debate
Indigenous courtship practices were better than modern courtship practices.

57
UNIT 3.6 INDIGENOUS ENTERTAINMENT
Entertainment refers to any activity that holds the attention and interest of people
and at the same time giving them pleasure and delight. In pre-colonial Africa, the
indigenous people had their own ways of entertaining themselves.
The most common forms of indigenous entertainment in Africa were storytelling,
drama, dance, music and games. All these activities were used as ways of
entertaining people as well as imparting indigenous traditions, customs and
culture.
Through entertainment, children’s behaviour would be moulded. It was during the
evening when people would enjoy such kind of entertainment. The evenings were
considered as the most suitable time for performing all sorts of entertainment
activities because by that time everyone would have finished their domestic work.
Games
Games in Africa were performed as part of entertainment. They played an important
role in the lives of children of both sexes. In the process of entertainment children
learnt important aspects of life. Games were meant to mould children’s character
as well as to give moral lessons about life. Some games trained children’s memory,
instilled discipline, fairness and other life skills. Other games would also provide
children with an opportunity to learn the adult roles that they would assume upon
adulthood.
The games they played did not only entertain them but also sharpened their cognition
and enhanced their physical fitness, especially those games that involved physical
exercises. Some of the games would be played by boys or girls only. While in other
games both sexes would combine. The boys’ only games were more dangerous such
as boxing, wrestling and riding donkeys.
There were also games that could be played by both boys and girls, for example,
swimming, jumping, role play and dancing. Role play (mahumbwe) was of
paramount importance because it gave children the room to learn their adult roles
in an enjoyable way. It was aimed at producing successful marriages. Young boys
and girls were paired to act as husband and wife. The boys would do the fatherly
duties such as making shelter and hunting while the girls would assume motherly
duties like cooking, sweeping, fetching water and firewood.
Examples of indigenous games
• Mahumbwe /intuntu (role play)
• Zai rakaora (rotten egg)
• Nhodo/liketo (game of stone)
• Tsoro (draughts)

58
 • Sipoti sipoti (round and round)
• Sarura wako (choose your partner)
• Do do zengera uyo mutii? (guess what tree is that?)
• Kupe (Sotho game)
• Chitsvambe/ Chisila
• Mngqwayi (stick throwing game)
Intuntu - is a Tonga game which was played by both boys and girls. The concept
of the game is similar to mahumbwe which is common among the Shona people.
In this game children were prepared for adulthood by assuming different gender
roles imitating what happens in a real family set up under the guidance of aunts,
uncles and grandparents.
Mngqwayi - is a stick throwing game common among the Kalanga people. The
game is usually played by boys in summer on grasslands and riverbanks. They
would play using long sticks which are blunt on one end. The game was not only
a form of entertainment for young boys but also provided physical training for
them.
Folktales
Another form of indigenous entertainment was storytelling. Folktales are stories
passed from one generation to another through oral tradition. They are passed
from one generation to the other through storytelling. A senior member of the
family like a grandmother or grandfather was responsible for storytelling. It
was done only in the evening after supper when the children had finished their
household chores.
Folktales were a way of passing down traditions from generations to generations.
Besides being a source of entertainment folktales also provided moral lessons
that would instil cultural values in children. Folktales prepared children for adult
life through lessons that were drawn from them. Things like honesty, conflict
resolution, hardworking, kindness and hospitality were taught to children through
folktales.
A common folktale in Zimbabwe is about the hare and baboon. In folktales animals
are accorded human attributes, it is common to find animals, talking, singing or
demonstrating other human characteristics such as greed, jealousy, honesty, etc.
These animals are used to deliver the moral lessons of life.
Dance and music
Dance and music go hand in hand. Music in most cases is accompanied by dances.
Dance and music were other sources of entertainment. Just like folktales and
games, indigenous dances and music also inculcated cultural values and tradition
in African children. The traditional dances of the Zimbabwean people include;

59
muchongoyo, mbakumba, shangara, mhande, mbende (jerusarema), gule wamukulu
(nyao), jiti, ngororombe, mbaqanga, imbongi, isitshikisha, ndayo, and tshikona.

Fig 3.7 Cultural warriors performing jerusarema dance in Harare

The various ethnic groups had unique dances, for example, muchongoyo dance
was common among the Ndau people
of Chipinge and jerusarema/mbende
dance was common among the Zezuru
people. Dance and music were used to
transmit the tribal standards of doing
things. Different skills were needed to
perform the different dances.
A good dancer was assumed to be an
intelligent person and unsuccessful
Fig 3.8 Hwamanda
dancers were ridiculed. Being a poor
dancer meant that a person could have
a hard time in securing a marriage
partner. Children would learn songs
from their peers as well as their elders.
At times songs were found in games since
certain games included singing. Music
was also found in folktales, whereby a
storyteller in the process of narrating a
story would involve her audience through
singing. Singing would make the folktale
more interesting and easy to remember.
Fig. 3.9 Mbira

60
Songs and dances were an interesting and
enjoyable way of teaching children. Music
and dance thus played a dual purpose in the
lives of the indigenous people, entertainment
as well as providing moral lessons about life.
Musical instruments
Dance and music go hand in hand with musical
instruments. There were different types of Fig 3.10 Hosho
indigenous instruments that were used. Some
of them are still in use today. These include; drums, rattles, mbira, hwandanda and
hosho (shakers), magagada (rattles) and wooden clappers (makwa).
Some traditional Zimbabwean instruments are facing the danger of extinction,
such as chizambi, chipendani, tsuri, mukwati wenyere.

Activity 3.9 Educational tour

Visit any indigenous dance group in your community. Learn the type of dance
they perform and perform them at your school.
Activity 3.10 Discussion
Discuss the other functions of indigenous forms of entertainment

Interesting facts
1. The Mbende/Jerusarema dance in 2005 was listed on the UNESCO
masterpieces of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity list.
2. If a girl was not found to be virgin after marriage in Shona culture, her father
would pay back some part of the bride price to the boy’s family.
3. People of the same totem were not supposed to marry because they were
considered to be related.
Summary of the chapter
• The words unhu, ubuntu and vumunhu mean the same and are used by
different people to describe good human behaviour.
• Norms and values are important in maintaining order in the home, at
school, work place and in the society.
• Courtesies show good behaviour and politeness.
• In the past boys and girls would marry from families which were known by
their relatives.
• Premarital sex was a taboo in most indigenous communities in Zimbabwe.
• A rite of passage marked the transition from one life stage into another. For
example, circumcision among the Shangani people marks the transition

61
 from boyhood to manhood.
• Indigenous entertainment was in different forms such as games, folktales,
dance and music.
• Besides entertaining people, games, folktales, music and dance also
inculcate people’s traditions, cultures and customs.
Glossary of terms

Indigenous – originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native.

Ritual – a religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed
according to a prescribed order.
Menstruation – the process in a woman or girl of discharging blood and other
material from the lining of the uterus at intervals of about one
lunar month from puberty until the menopause, except during
pregnancy.
Puberty – the period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become
capable of reproduction.
Culture – the way of life of a group of people which include their norms, values,
beliefs, customs and traditions, their food, entertainment, marriage, etc.
Heritage – something that is passed down from one generation to another.
Norms – informal understandings that govern the behaviour of members of a
society
Values – important and lasting beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture
about what is good and desirable.
Courtesies – polite behaviour that shows respect for others
Inheritance – the practice of passing on property or goods, upon the death of an
individual
Heir – a person who inherits or has a right of inheritance in the property of another
following the latter’s death.
Tribe – a group of people that includes many families and relatives who have the
same language, customs, and beliefs.
Ceremony – a formal religious or public occasion, especially one celebrating a
particular event.
Adolescence – the period following the onset of puberty during which a young
person develops from a child into an adult.
Tradition – the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation,
or the fact of being passed on in this way.
Consent – permission for something to happen or agreement to do something.
Virginity – the state of never having had sexual intercourse.

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Revision Exercises
Multiple choice questions
1. Which word describes a person with ubuntu?
A. boastful B. mean C. greedy D. respectful
2. In a school set up, norms help students to ___________
A. disobey their teachers B. disobey their prefects
C. reject punishment D. do their work
3. Calling people with their totems is a sign of ___________
A. respect B. pride C. intelligence D. disobedience
4. A rite of passage is done when an individual ________
A. progresses from one developmental stage to another.
B. is respectful of elders.
C. is a good hunter.
D. loves rituals.
5. The Shangani initiation ceremony for girls is called _________
A. virginity test B. komba C. masha D. vatsvatsvi
6. Bride price payment is a sign of ________
A. love and commitment to the woman B. purchasing a wife
C. oppressing women D. equal rights
7. A boy who impregnates a girl without the intention of marrying her was ____
A. taken to the chief’s court and fined B. forced to marry the girl
C. beaten by the elders D. chased away from the village
8. A boy from a poor family would pay the bride price in form of __________
A. cash B. rituals C. labour D. lobola
9. People of the same totem were not supposed to marry because __________
A. they did not love each other B. they could not pay the bride price
C. they did not have love tokens D. they were related
10. Exchange of love tokens was a sign of _________
A. maturity B. betrayal C. disloyalty D. commitment
11. A girl would join her husband’s family ________
A. after virginity tests.
B. after rite of passage.
C. after the bride price negotiations had been completed.
D. premarital sex.
12. _________ was a game for boys only.
A. Boxing B. Role play C. Sarura wako D. Nhodo
14. Folktales are passed from one generation to the other _________
A. in written form B. in videos
C. through telling D. through radios
15. Which of the following is not an indigenous game __________?
A. mahumbwe B. sarura wako C. nhodo D. video games

63
16. Muchongoyo dance was commonly performed by the ___________
A. Zezuru people B. Ndau people C. Venda people D. Korekore people
17. Which dance appears on the UNESCO Masterpieces of the oral and intangible
heritage of humanity list?
A. mbakumba B. mbende/jerusarema C. muchongoyo D. mhande
18. Besides entertaining children, indigenous games also helped by _________
A. making children to be physically fit.
B. making children to be lazy.
C. making children to disobey parents.
D. making children to defy orders.
19. Circumcision among the Shangani people is a sign of __________
A. cowardice B. manhood C. fear D. childhood
20. Which dance was common among the Zezuru people?
A. mbende B. muchongoyo C. jiti D. nyawo
Structured Questions
1 (a) Define term unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu. [2]
(b) List three attributes of unhu. [3]
(c) Why are norms and values important at school? [3]
(d) Why is discipline important at school? [2]
2. (a) Define the concept of heirship. [2]
(b) Outline how the indigenous inheritance system was done. [4]
(c) List two disadvantages of the indigenous inheritance system. [2]
(d) Give two advantages of the modern inheritance system. [2]
3. (a) State two advantages and two disadvantages of indigenous courtship
practices. [4]
(b) List any two modern dating platforms in Zimbabwe. [2]
(c) State the reason why people of the same totem are not supposed to marry.
[2]
(d) Give two disadvantages of modern dating process. [2]
4. (a) Explain three functions of games. [3]
(b) List four indigenous musical instruments. [4]
(c) State any three indigenous dances in Zimbabwe. [3]
5. (a) Outline the role of music in folktales. [3]
(b) List any two key features of the Venda courtship practices. [2]
(c) State three advantages of such practices identified above. [3]
(d) Indicate the significance of love tokens in indigenous courtship practices.[2]

64
Essay Questions
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of indigenous courtship practices.
[20]
2. Explain the various ways that can be used to promote ubuntu in schools. [20]
3. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of the indigenous inheritance
system. [20]
4. Explain how technology is affecting indigenous courtship practices in
Zimbabwe. [20]
5. (a) Discuss the traditional inheritance system in Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Describe the birth and death rites in Zimbabwe. [10]

65
EXAMINATION I
PAPER 1: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 hour 15 mins)
There are 40 questions in this paper. Answer all questions in a separate paper. For each
question there are 4 possible answers, A, B, C, and D. Choose the one ou consider correct.
1. Which of the following things is normally learned during the socialisation
process?
A. the roles we are to play in life B. the culture’s norms
C. the language of the people D. all of the above
2. When does socialisation begin?
A. at the time when an individual is conceived.
B. at high school.
C. on entering nursery school or kindergarten.
D. when children reach puberty and are able to understand the reasons for
society’s rules.
3. Which of the following types of people go through socialisation process______
A. babies B. teenagers C. elderly people D. all of the above
4. Which of these is the best definition of an agent of socialisation?
A. a formal government position for a person whose role is to teach social
norms.
B. the people, organisation and institutions that play a role in our socialisation
process.
C. the people, organisation and institutions whom we socialise
D. the people with whom we socialise or hang out with
5. Agents of socialisation in the home does not include_____
A. school B. parents C. brothers and sisters D. grandparents
6. Each family is ____ of the society.
A. a cell B. a threat C. an outcast D. a union
7. A peer group is made up of __________ and social status and who share
interests.
A. people who are similar in age B. young people
C. family members D. schoolmates
8. The repetitive practicing of basic skills by an individual is an example of which
kind of educational method?
A. formal B. informal C. technical D. practical
9. A teenager who decides NOT to steal because she believes it is wrong even
though no one is looking would be guided by____________
A. internal socialisation B. external socialisation
C. secondary socialisation D. adult socialisation
10. In early childhood, family members are generally responsible for the process
of____
A. primary socialisation B. secondary socialisation
66
 C. subculture socialisation D. adult socialisation
11. The primary agent of socialisation during childhood is______
A. friends B. school teachers C. family D. mass media
12. What is a family?
A. these are people living together.
B. a group of people related by blood, marriage or adoption, who live.
together in one household.
C. these are brothers and sisters.
D. members of the community.
13. A traditional type of family which consists of two parents and children is
known as _________
A. polygamous family B. extended family
C. nuclear family D. single parent family
14. Do not cry over spilled milk. This statement is a ______
A. proverb B. idiom C. riddle D. folklore
15. Which of the following is an indigenous hunting tool?
A. plate B. grinding stone C. winnowing basket D. snare
16. All of the following are identification documents except _____
A. birth certificate B. school certificates
C. national identity card D. passport
17. What is a child-headed family?
A. a family in which a minor is taking care of the family.
B. a family with many children.
C. a family were the children tells parents what to do.
D. a family were one parent is raising children on his/her own.
18. Which family is likely to have more problems than the other families from the
following?
A. polygamous B. monogamous C. single parent D. child-headed
19. All of the following are traps except _____
A. mouse trap B. fish trap C. cage trap D. bow and arrow
20. All of the following national identity documents are acquired for a fee except
_____
A. passport B. lost national identity card
C. driver’s licence D. birth certificate
21. Which of the following is not found on a birth certificate _____
A. picture B. mother’s details C. father’s details D. child’s details
22. All of the following are indigenous productive tools except _____
A. winnowing basket B. grinding stone C. mortar and pestle D. spear
23. The following indigenous hunting tools do not kill animals except _____
A. fish trap B. cage trap C. bucket trap D. bow and arrow
24. In a school set up, norms help students to ___________
A. disobey their teachers B. disobey their prefects

67
 C. reject punishment D. do their work
25. Calling people with their totems is a sign of ___________
A. respect B. pride C. intelligence D. disobedience
26. A rite of passage is done when an individual ________
A. progresses from one developmental stage to another.
B. is respectful of elders.
C. is a good hunter.
D. loves rituals.
27. The Shangani initiation ceremony for girls is called _________
A. virginity test B. komba C. masha D. vatsvatsvi
28. Bride price payment is a sign of ________
A. love and commitment to the woman B. purchasing a wife
C. oppressing women D. equal rights
29. A boy from a poor family would pay the bride price in form of __________
A. cash B. rituals C. labour D. lobola
30. People of the same totem were not supposed to marry because __________
A. they did not love each other B. they could not pay the bride price
C. they did not have love tokens D. they were related
31. Exchange of love tokens was a sign of _________
A. maturity B. betrayal C. disloyalty D. commitment
32. A girl would join her husband’s family ________
A. after virginity tests B. after rite of passage
C. after the bride price negotiations had been completed D. premarital sex
33. _________ was a game for boys only.
A. boxing B. role play C. sarura wako D. nhodo
34. Folktales are passed from one generation to the other _________
A. in written form B. in videos C. through telling D. through radios
35. Which of the following is not an indigenous game __________?
A. mahumbwe B. sarura wako C. nhodo D. video games
36. Which dance was common among the Zezuru people?
A. mbende B. muchongoyo C. chinyambera D. nyawo
37. Muchongoyo dance was commonly performed by the ___________
A. Zezuru people B. Ndau people
C. Ndebele people D. Korekore people
38. Which dance appears on the UNESCO Masterpieces of the oral and intangible
heritage of humanity list?
A. mbakumba B. mbende/jerusarema C. muchongoyo D. mhande
39. Besides entertaining children, indigenous games also helped by ________
A. making children to be physically fit B. making children to be lazy
C. making children to disobey parents D. making children to defy orders
40. Circumcision among the Shangani people is a sign of __________
A. cowardice B. manhood C. fear D. childhood

68
PAPER 2
SECTION A: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS (Time: 2 hours) [100 marks]
Answer all questions in this section. Each question carries 10 marks.
1. (a) Define the term socialisation. [2]
(b) What is the role of the following family members in socialisation?
(i) Father [2]
(ii) Mother [2]
(iii) Siblings [2]
(iv) Grandparents [2]
2. (a) List any three agents of socialisation in the home. [3]
(b) State any three things an individual can learn through socialisation in the
home. [3]
(c) Give two reasons why you think socialisation is important. [2]
(d) Name any two things that people achieve from socialisation. [2]
3. (a) What is a family? [2]
(b) List any four types of families. [2]
(c) Name any four indigenous hunting tools. [4]
(d) Identify two indigenous productive tools. [2]
4. (a) List four national identification documents given to individuals in
Zimbabwe. [4]
(b) Write down any four proverbs that you know in your indigenous language.
[2]
(c) What are folklores? [2]
(d) Give two reasons why folklores are important in our society. [2]
5. (a) Define the concept of heirship. [2]
(b) List two disadvantages of the indigenous inheritance system. [2]
(c) State two advantages of indigenous courtship practices. [2]
(d) List any two modern dating platforms in Zimbabwe. [2]
(e) Explain why people of the same totem were not supposed to marry. [2]
6. (a) List four indigenous musical instruments. [4]
(b) State any three indigenous dances in Zimbabwe. [3]
(c) Explain the role of music in folktales. [3]
SECTION B: ESSAY QUESTIONS
Answer any two questions in this section. Each question carries 20 marks.
7. (a) Write an essay in which you describe the role in your life that some family
members have played in your socialisation. [10]

69
 (b) The family is a major agent of socialisation for us. Briefly describe how
socialisation takes place in the home? [10]
8. Describe the features of any two of the following documents:
(a) Birth certificate [10]
(b) Identity card [5]
(c) Passport [5]
9. “Indigenous productive tools are no longer useful in this modern world charac-
terised by the use of machines and technologies”. Write an essay debating on
the relevance of indigenous productive tools in Zimbabwe. [20]
10. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of the indigenous inheritance
system. [20]
11. (a) Discuss the traditional inheritance system in Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Describe the birth and death rites in Zimbabwe. [10]

70
 CHAPTER 4: NATIONAL HISTORY: SOVEREIGNTY
AND GOVERNANCE
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
• identify the hunter-gatherer and herders communities.
• describe the economic, social and political systems of the Khoi Khoi and
the San.
• explain the heritage passed on by the San and Khoi Khoi.
• outline the hierarchy of indigenous leaders.
• explain the significance of chieftainship.
• describe how indigenous leaders are enthroned.
Introduction
In this chapter, our focus is on the hunter-gatherers’ communities that is, the San
and Khoi Khoi people. We are going to concentrate on their economic, social and
political activities as well as the heritage that we have received from the San and
Khoi Khoi. This chapter will also look at the traditional leaders of Zimbabwe. The
chapter will highlight the hierarchy of traditional leaders, their role as well as their
significance.
What is sovereignty?
Sovereignty is the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any
interference from outside sources or bodies. No other person, group, tribe or state
can tell a sovereign entity what to do with its land and/or people.
What is governance?
Governance has been defined to refer to structures and processes that are designed
to ensure accountability, transparency, responsiveness, rule of law, stability, equity
and inclusiveness, empowerment, and broad-based participation.

UNIT 4.1 PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES

Pre-colonial societies in Africa are those societies which existed in Africa before
European colonisation, such as the San and Khoi Khoi. The San were hunter-
gatherers whereas the Khoi Khoi were herders or pastoralists.
The hunter-gatherers of Southern Africa
(a) The San
Hunter-gatherers is a term for people who survive by hunting and gathering food.
The hunter-gatherers of Southern Africa are known by different names such as

71
San, Soaqua, Sarwa, Basarwa, and Twa meaning people without domestic livestock
or people who forage for their food. Dutch settlers called them the Bushmen.
However, this term was considered to be disrespectful. It comes from the Dutch
word, “bossiesman”, which means “bandit” or “outlaw”.
Evidence of rock paintings suggest that the San, who now live in the Kalahari
desert were the first people to live in Central and Southern Africa but they were
displaced by Bantu speaking people. The San have the oldest gene pattern
among human beings. All other people on the planet, Europeans, Black Africans,
Asians, North and South Americans, Australians are all descendants from this
original gene type. The San are believed to be the ancestors of human kind.
Archaeologists believe that the San are the original descendants of the Homo
sapiens (modern day men).
Characteristics of the San
• The San are much shorter than other members of the black people
• They are short in stature
• When speaking they create characteristic “click” sounds.
• They are yellowish brown in complexion
• Their skin wrinkles develop very early
Social organisation of the San
The San people were nomads. This implies that they did not stay in one permanent
place but would rather move from one place to the other. They were always on the
move in search of animals and fruits.
The San did not build permanent structures to shelter them. They preferred using
rock shelters and huts made of branches with some grass on top. They used the
material that was readily available to make
shelter. Shelter was made by women and
it took them less than an hour to make it.
The San existed in small family groups of
about 12-40 people. They lived in small,
independent and self-sufficient family
groups. Food and water sources were
shared equally among members. Their
society was an egalitarian society. Men
and women had different roles but were Fig. 4.1 The San hut
treated as equal.
Fire was an important part of the San’s lives. It was the responsibility of the men
to make fire. They would use two fire sticks that they would carry with them at all
times. They would rub the two sticks together until it made a spark to light some

72
dry grass. Fire was important because
it provided warmth, light and was also
used to cook food.
Among the San, birth was generally
not a big issue, there was not much
preparation except that they made
use of traditional herbs with the help
of an elderly woman, a mother would
give birth behind a bush. If a child
was born during a period of drought Fig. 4.2 The San men making fire
conditions or when the mother was
breastfeeding another baby, she would relieve the new born baby of suffering
by ending its life. This was because she would not be able to breast feed both
children. This was accepted behaviour because they lived in a harsh climate.
The San lived in a polygamous society. This means a man could have more than
one wife. San marriages were very simple. Marriage took place early in life. Girls
would marry around 9 years to boys around the age of 14 years. The boy’s parents
would arrange his first wedding. At the wedding, the young man would have to
bring an animal that he had killed as proof to his in-laws that he would be able to
provide for their daughter.
The bride’s mother would paint her daughter with the fat of this animal and mix
it with red powder to decorate her face. The groom would then join his bride’s
family.
Political organisation
The San did not have a formal political structure. They had no chief, leader or any
authority figure of some sort. Decisions were made on consensus. Disputes were
resolved through discussions where people concerned had to be heard until an
agreement was reached. The San were democratic and allowed every adult male
to participate in the affairs of the whole community. Elders held regular meetings
which were open to all male adults of the village. If bigger disagreements
happened, the group would just split and go their separate ways.
Leadership among the San was a preserve for people who have lived within
that group for a long time. However, such people would be mature and of good
character. These people commanded respect from the rest of the group members.
Membership in a group was determined by residence. As long as a person lived
on the land of his group, he maintained his membership. However, some people
earned respect because of certain skills they possessed, such as hunting and
tracking of animals.
The San also believed that no individual owned the land and that everybody had

73
the right to use it. Land was owned by a group and they regarded it as a sacred
gift from God. The San could also hunt on land that was owned by another group,
however they had to seek permission from the land owners first.
Economic activities
The San were excellent animal trackers and hunters. San trackers would follow the
tracks of an animal across any kind of surface or terrain. Their skills even enabled
them to distinguish between the tracks of a wounded animal and that of the rest of
the herd. They would stay close to waterholes for them to be able to catch animals
when they came to drink water.
Men would hunt using bows and arrows and trapping small animals. The San
invented their own type of bow and arrow in order to hunt effectively. The
arrows were treated with poison
and this would enable a small group
of hunters to kill large animals such
as antelope or buffalo. Although the
poison worked slowly, eventually it
would kill even the largest animal.
This poison was prepared from
insects and plants.
Small animals were caught in snares
and traps. San hunters worked as a
team and the man whose arrow killed
the animal had the right to distribute
Fig. 4.3 San hunters meat to the members of the group.
The hunted animals were a source of
meat while the bones were used for making tools and ornaments. The hides were
tanned for blankets and clothing.
The San’s clothing was made from available materials like leather from the game
they caught. Children sometimes only wore beads and the men short leather
pants, while women wore their leather cloaks, made of antelope skin.
While the San men were skilled hunters, their women were experts in searching for
edible mushrooms, bulbs, berries and melons. Fruit collection was a more reliable
source of food as compared to hunting.
Children would stay at home to be watched over by those remaining in camp like
old people. Breast feeding mothers would carry their children during gathering
trips. Their gathering gear would include a hide sling, blanket, and cloak to carry
foodstuffs, firewood, or young children and a digging stick.
The San women were also responsible for collecting and preparing medicinal

74
plants for the treatment of different diseases. Egg shells were also used to collect
and store water following good rains, in anticipation of the hot, dry season.
Rock art among the San
San rock paintings are one of Southern Africa’s great heritage. Most of their
paintings hold deep spiritual and religious meanings. The San paintings were
done by traditional healers whilst
they were in trance. The San mainly
used red, orange, brown, white, black
and yellow in their paintings. San rock
art is one of the great archaeological
wonders of the world and it is a
mirror which reflects the glories of
the African past.
The figure on the South African Coat
of Arms, comes from the Linton panel.
Fig. 4.4 San rock art
A famous panel of rock art is housed
and displayed in the South African Museum in Cape Town. In 1917, this panel was
removed from the farm of Linton in the Eastern Cape.
San beliefs and religion
The San generally believed in the supremacy of one powerful god. At the same
time, they recognised the presence of lesser gods. The greater god was associated
with life and the rising sun, and the lesser god with illness and death.
To the San people, death was a very natural thing. If someone in the group died,
the group would leave and never make a camp on that place again. They would
never knowingly cross the place where someone was buried. They believed that
the spirit of the dead person remained active above the grave, and they did not
want to offend it. They tried to avoid places where someone was buried.
The San placed importance on ritual dances which they believed to heal the group.
These were the great medicine dance (healing dance) and the rain dance. Every
member of the group was free to participate. During these dances women usually
sat around a fire as they sang and clapped their hands. The men danced around the
women. As they danced, the dancers entered into a trance. They entered into the spirit
world where they could plead for the souls of the sick.
Rites of passage were also done for both boys and girls. For boys, the rituals were
associated with killing an antelope. During the ritual, a boy was taught how to
track an antelope and how it falls once shot with an arrow. He became an adult
when he killed his first antelope.
In the girls’ puberty rituals, a young girl was isolated in her hut at her first

75
menstruation. The San women would perform the Eland Bull Dance where they
imitated the mating behaviour of the eland cows. A man would play the part of the
eland bull, usually with horns on his head. This ritual would keep the girl beautiful,
free from hunger and thirst.
(b) The Khoi Khoi
The Khoi Khoi were first herders or pastoralists in Southern Africa.They were
known as hottentots, a name given to them by the European settlers. It is believed
to have originated from the Dutch word ‘Hottentotoo’ which means stammering.
They called themselves Khoi Khoi meaning men of men, in order to distinguish
themselves from those who did not have livestock. They chose this name to show
pride in their past and culture. The Khoi Khoi were nomadic pastoralists meaning
they kept livestock and at the same time moved from place to place in search of
pasture.
Physical characteristics
• Generally taller than San (attributed to the greater protein intake of
pastoralists).
• They had a brown yellowish complexion.
Economic activities
The Khoi Khoi were nomadic pastoralists. They followed a seasonal pattern of
movement from one pasture to another. They kept herds of sheep, goats and cattle
which provided them with a balanced, stable diet. All livestock were individually
owned. The Khoi Khoi trained their oxen to carry their goods when they moved to
another camp.
The sheep, goats and cattle that they
owned were a sign of wealth. Wealth
was measured by the number of cattle
and other livestock that a person
owned. For this reason, they only killed
their cattle and sheep when there
were special feasts or celebrations, like
weddings or funerals. They got meat
from the animals they would have
hunted, at times they would eat meat
from their livestock that would have
died or raided from their enemies. Fig. 4.5 
Khoi Khoi artifacts which include
clay pots
The Khoi Khoi also ate and drank milk
from their animals. Cattle and goats were milked. Milk was an important source of
nutrients for the Khoi Khoi. Milk could be stored in pots and allowed to sour to be

76
eaten later. As they moved from one place to the other, milk was carried in bags
that were made from cattle hides.
At times, they also hunted wild animals. The Khoi Khoi men hunted, using bows
and arrows, spears, traps and snare pits.
Like the San women, the Khoi Khoi women were also responsible for gathering
food from the forest. They collected a wide range of plants like mushrooms,
bulbs, berries, roots, fruits, vegetables and melons from the forest. Women were
also responsible for making clay pots to store water and milk. The clay pots that
women made were suited to a nomadic way of life. These pots had two special
handles which could be tied onto the back of the cattle when the group moved.
The Khoi Khoi were also involved in barter trade. They traded with other Khoi Khoi
groups and the San. They traded livestock for iron and copper. After their contact
with Europeans they also traded for things like beads, copper rings, copper
bracelets and tobacco.
Social organisation
The Khoi Khoi people lived in villages of between 30 and 50 huts. There were
usually more than 100 people in each village. The Khoi Khoi huts were made from
tree branches and reed mats. The branches would be covered by reed mats. They
were easy to take down and rebuild in a new place. When the group moved to a
new place the mats could be rolled up and taken with them. In winter, animal skins
were hung on the inside of the house to keep out the cold. The Khoi Khoi would
move to another place if there was no enough grazing land for their livestock. In
the event that a member of their group died, they would also change camp.
The Khoi Khoi believed in rites of
passage. There were rituals that were
done when a person passes one life
stage to the other. There were rituals
for the birth of a child, adulthood,
marriage and death. During these
rituals, the person being initiated was
kept separate from the other people
in the group for a few days. They
believed that this would keep them
Fig. 4.6 Khoi Khoi hut
safe while their life was changing.
When the person joined the group again, livestock were killed for a feast. Rich
people would provide livestock for such big feasts.
The family was an important institution for the Khoi Khoi society. The custom was
that the bridegroom had to spend the first months of marriage (until the birth of
the first child) living at the village of his parents-in-law. Thereafter, the bride was

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expected to spend the rest of her marriage in the village of her husband. Khoi Khoi
men would seek marriage partners from other clans.
Khoi Khoi society was hierarchical. Those who owned livestock were regarded
as wealthy and those without livestock were servants. This was because animals
provided food, clothes and transport. Their society was completely different from
the San, who were all considered equal and shared everything. The poor would
work as herdsmen, some form of servants. A herdman would receive a lamb in
payment for service.
Musical instruments
The Khoi Khoi had remarkable musical talents and their musical instruments show
that they were creative. They made a number of musical instruments such as the
bow, drum and flute.
The most notable Khoi Khoi bow was called the bora. It was a type of whistle. The
bow was made from a pliable branch of the acacia tree and the strings from the
back of a buck. Attached to one end was a sharpened feather pen on which they
blew. Such bows could produce beautiful
rhythms. Both men and women could play
the bow.
The most popular instrument was a
flute made of reed, often accompanied
by humming. The flute was about 40
centimetres long. The Khoi Khoi also made
drums. Drums were made by covering their
clay pots with sheepskin. Boys were taught
Fig. 4.7 Khoi Khoi musical instrument from a young age to play these instruments.

Clothing
The Khoi Khoi manufactured skins into clothing, bags, and blankets, and threaded
reeds together to make sleeping mats and mats to cover their round houses.
Women wore an apron, cloak and loin cloth for warmth and protection. They
would wear necklaces, bracelets and anklets for decoration. The men wore a cloak
and loin cloth for protection.
Religious organisation
The Khoi Khoi god was called Tsui-Goab. Khoi Khoi people believed that he not
only created people, but also controlled the rain, animals, plants and the health of
people. The Khoi Khoi prayed in the early morning with their faces turned towards
the east where Tsui-Goab’s first light appears.
The Khoi Khoi attached special significance to the moon. They believed that

78
the moon was powerful and able to send messages to humans. The new and
full moons were important times for rainmaking rites and dancing. They feared
disaster whenever there was an eclipse of the moon.
All adult Khoi Khoi possessed a basic knowledge of plant usage for medicinal
purposes, but certain individuals had developed higher levels of expertise in
herbal medicine. Some of this knowledge remains important today.
Political organisation
The Khoi Khoi had a hierarchal political organisation. This was due to the fact that
they lived in large groups as compared to the San. Their societies were governed
by chiefs and village headmen.
Appointment into power was based
on the wealth the individual had. A
village was headed by a headman.
Several villages would form a tribe
which was headed by a chief.
The chiefs were usually the richest
people with the most livestock.
With the help of a council of elders,
they made important decisions for
the group, for example; they would
decide when to move. The chief was
also instrumental in solving conflicts
among his members as well as to Fig. 4.8 Khoi Khoi village
maintain order in the society.
On important rituals and festives, rich people like chiefs and headmen would
provide livestock to be slaughtered for everyone to eat. However, although the
chief had authority and was respected by members of the group, he did not own
land or the resources on it. There was an understanding that land could never be
an individual’s property.
Legacy left by the San and the Khoi Khoi to modern society
The San and Khoi Khoi relied on traditional herbs and plants for treatment of
different ailments and diseases. Traditional medicine was also used in pregnancy
and during rituals. Today, most African societies still use traditional medicine in
many ways. Some of the traditional medicines are now packaged and are available
from supermarkets.
The San and Khoi Khoi left a legacy of their history on cave walls in many areas
including some parts of Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa. For example,
Linton Panel is one of the most famous pieces of rock art made by the San. Human

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figures on the court of arms were derived from images on the Linton Panel. The
figures are depicted in an attitude of greeting which symbolises unity. Nowadays
people travel from all over the world to see some of the magnificent works of art
left by these people. It has allowed modern society to learn a great amount about
this ancient culture of nomadic people. Today modern artists follow the footsteps
of the San and Khoi Khoi of using works of art to depict their beliefs and way of life.
The hunter- gatherers also left a legacy of musical instruments such as the flute
and drums which are still being used nowadays. Ritual dances and rites of passage
are also common among most African societies.

Activity 4.1 Educational tour

Arrange an educational tour and visit a rock art site close to your community. What
do the rock paintings portray?
Activity 4.2 Discussion
Discuss the way of life of the San and Khoi Khoi people of Southern Africa.
Activity 4.3 Art
Draw and label some of the tools that were used by the San and Khoi Khoi.

UNIT 4.2 TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP

A traditional leader is a person who derives his power and authority from tradition
and culture. Before colonisation, traditional leaders were the sole government
which governed the country. They drew their authority and legitimacy from an
unwritten body of local customary law. Their office was based on hereditary rather
than elections. In Zimbabwe, they are responsible for communal lands in the rural
areas. They command a lot of respect in the rural areas. Nowadays traditional
leaders operate alongside modern state structures. They work hand in hand with
the rural district council.
Hierarchy of indigenous leaders
The chief is at the top of the hierarchy, followed by the headman and the village
headman at the bottom. Chiefdom boundaries are usually marked by natural
features such as hills and rivers which are known to the members of that community.
Each chiefdoom has a history which tries to justify their chieftainship in the area
they rule. For example, certain mystical powers are ascribed to the founder of the
chieftainship.
In his rulership the chief is assisted by some elders in the community. These elders
do not necessarily belong to the chiefly clan but are appointed by the chief on the
basis of their wisdom and allegiance to the chief.

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The traditional leaders’ hierarchy of power is illustrated here:
Chief

Headman

Village head

Installation of chiefs
When a chief dies, his position should be inherited by his successor. At the installation
ceremony, the new chief will sit in a prominent position in front of his people. The
new chief will be given emblems associated with his/her position. Traditionally,
it used to be a headdress, spear and a handful of soil to indicate ownership of
land. In contemporary society, the government introduced new emblems of office
namely cloak, a pitch helmet and a stick. Nowadays a government official must
formally install the new chief together with a senior member of the dynasty. The
installation ceremony is a festive accompanied by indigenous songs and dances.

Fig. 4.9 Installation ceremony of a chief Fig. 4.10 Chiefs in their full regalia

Roles of chiefs, headmen and village headmen

Below are the roles of traditional leaders as enshrined in the Traditional Leaders
Act of Zimbabwe Chapter 29:17.
Role of chiefs in Zimbabwe
(a) Chiefs are custodians of indigenous culture and values. It is their duty to
promote and uphold cultural values in their community.
(b) To prevent unauthorised settlement and use of land.
(c) To supervise headmen and village heads in their community.
(d) Perform judicial functions.
(e) Overseeing the collection by village heads of levies, taxes, rates and charges

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 payable in terms of the Rural District Councils.
Duties of the headmen
The roles of headmen in their communities are as follows:
(a) To assist the chief to perform his duties.
(b) To report to the police as soon as the commission of any crime or offence in his
area, the presence of the corpse of any person who has died suddenly or was
found dead or is suspected of having died violently or in an unnatural way, the
suspicious disappearance of any person and any actual or threatened public
unrest likely to disturb the public peace.
(c) To carry out all lawful and reasonable orders given by his chief.
(d) To recommend to the chief persons for appointment as village heads and,
where appropriate, to recommend their removal from office.
(e) To report all criminal acts, acts of misconduct and violations of customs and
traditions to the chief and any other appropriate authority.
(f ) To preside over a ward assembly.
(g) To oversee, through the ward assembly, the disposal of settlement rights in
Communal Land and the admission of new settlers in the area under him.
(h) To keep an up-to-date register of the villages and village heads under him and
to keep the chief and the rural district council informed of any changes to the
register.
(i) To mediate in local disputes involving customary law on matters such as lobola,
elopement, burials, domestic disputes, etc.
Duties of the village head
Village headmen work hand in hand with the headmen and the chiefs. They
inform the chiefs and the headmen about the things that will be happening in
their villages. Their duties include the following:
(a) To assist the chief and headman in the performance of their duties.
(b) To carry out all lawful and reasonable orders of the chief or headman.
(c) To lead his village in all traditional, customary and cultural matters.
(d) To settle disputes involving customary law and traditions, including matters
relating to residential, grazing and agricultural land boundaries and, where
necessary, to refer these matters for settlement by the headman.
(e) To preside over the village assembly.
(f ) To collect levies, taxes and other charges payable in terms of the Rural District
Councils.

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(g) To ensure the security of schools, clinics, contour ridges, water points, roads,
culverts, public fencing and any other public property and, where necessary,
to report any damage or potential damage to any such property to the police.
(h) To assist in apprehending and securing offenders against the law and generally
to ensure observance of the law by all inhabitants, and immediately to report
any contravention of the law to the police.
(i) To promote sound morals and good social conduct among members of his
village; and
(j) To maintain an up-to-date register of names of the inhabitants of his village,
and their settlement permits.
Activity 4.4 Discussion
Discuss the importance of traditional leadership in contemporary Zimbabwe.
Activity 4.5 Role play
Dramatize the proceedings of a traditional court whereby the chief is solving a
domestic dispute.

Interesting facts
1. Archaeologists believe that the San are the original descendants of the Homo
sapiens
2. San men would make fire by rubbing two sticks together until it made a spark
to light some dry grass.
3. The Khoi Khoi were first herders or pastorlists in Southern Africa.
4. Khoi Khoi huts could be moved from one settlement to the other.
Summary of the chapter
• The San and Khoi Khoi people are known as the hunter gathers of Southern
Africa.
• Hunting and gathering was their main source of food.
• While men were responsible for hunting, women collected fruits and other
edible plants.
• The San left magnificent rock paintings in countries such as Zimbabwe,
Botswana and South Africa.
• Unlike the San who had no political leaders, the Khoi Khoi had a hierarchical
political structure.
• In rural areas, traditional leadership is the immediate form of government.
• The chief is at the top of the hierarchy of traditional leaders.

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Glossary of terms
Custodian – a person responsible for looking after something.
Legitimacy – conformity to the law or to rules.
Homo sapiens – the species to which modern man belong
Legacy – something handed down by a predecessor
Descendants – belonging to the same lineage
Hierarchy – a system in which members of an organisation or society are ranked
according to relative status or authority.
Government – a group of people with the authority to rule a country or state.
Customary law – traditional common rule or practice that has become an intrinsic
part of the accepted and expected conduct in a community,
profession, or trade and is treated as a legal requirement.
Indigenous – originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native.
Colonisation – the action or process of settling among and establishing control
over the indigenous people of an area.
Pastoralist – is a person who herds livestock, often as a nomadic wanderer without
a set farm area.
Archaeologist – a person who studies human history and prehistory through
the excavation of sites and the analysis of artefacts and other
physical remains.
Egalitarian – believing in or based on the principle that all people are equal and
deserve equal rights and opportunities.
Polygamy – the practice or custom of having more than one wife at the same
time.
Consensus – a general agreement.
Democratic – is an attitude or a system that treats everyone equally.
Clan – a group of people of common descent; family.

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Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. San rock paintings were done by_____________
A. healers B. hunters C. both men and women D. young men
2. The San were an egalitarian community. This means that they were______
A. classless B. hierarchical C. repressive D. oppressive
3. The two human figures on the Linton panel are found on the coat of arms of
which country?
A. Zimbabwe B. Botswana C. South Africa D. Namibia
4. The Khoi Khoi lived in villages of between_________
A. 30-50 huts B. 15-20 huts C. 90-100 huts D. 5-10 huts
5. The San initiation ceremony for boys was associated with _______
A. hunting B. menstruation C. making fire D. gathering fruits
6. The Khoi Khoi hut was made up of______
A. dry grass B. pole and dhaka C. dhaka D. tree branches and mats
7. Chiefs among the Khoi Khoi were selected on the basis of______
A. livestock possession B. number of children C. hunting skills D. painting skills
8. Livestock was slaughtered during_____
A. important gatherings B. drought C. winter season D. harvest
9. According to Khoi Khoi customs the bridegroom was supposed to stay at his in
laws ____
A. for the rest of his life B. until the birth of the first child
C. until he killed an antelope D. until they allow him to go
10. The Khoi Khoi separated a person being initiated into another developmental
stage because_____
A. the person was not supposed to talk.
B. the person was special.
C. the person had to learn some dances.
D. it was a way to keep them safe while they were changing.
11. The Khoi Khoi god is known as______
A. new moon B. stammers C. Bantu D. Tsui-Goab
12. The San are also known as____
A. the bushman B. Dutch C. Bantu D. traders
13. Which of the following was used to pay Khoi Khoi servants?
A. lamb B. cats C. meat D. fruits
14. The San people would move from place to place_____
A. in search of minerals B. in search of animals and fruits
C. in search of rock paintings D. in search of women
15. Traditional leaders draw their authority from ______
A. culture and tradition B. headman
C. rituals D. traditional music and dance

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16. San shelter was made by_______.
A. both men and women B. women C. young people D. men
17. Who is on the top of the hierarchy of traditional leaders?
A. chief B. headman C. village head D. elders
18. The Khoi Khoi flute was made of __________
A. reeds B. plastic C. clay D. iron
19. The Khoi Khoi people were also known as the _______
A. Bantu B. Hottentots C. San D. Dutch
20. The Khoi Khoi used _______ for fetching water.
A. egg shells B. clay pots C. buckets D. reeds

Structured Questions
1. (a) What are pre-colonial states? [2]
(b) Define the term hunter – gatherers. [2]
(c) Identify four economic activities of the San. [4]
(d) List two physical characteristics of the San. [2]
2. (a) What are nomads? [2]
(b) List three materials that were used to build the San hut. [3]
(c) Give three uses of fire by the San people. [3]
(d) What were eggshells used for among the San people. [2]
3. (a) State three features of the Khoi Khoi social organisation. [3]
(b) Identify two traits of the Khoi Khoi political organisation. [2]
(c) Mention three food items gathered by the Khoi Khoi women. [2]
(d) In what ways was the Khoi Khoi society more advanced than that of the San?
[3]
4. (a) Draw and label the hierarchy of traditional leaders. (4)
(b) Outline three ways in which the traditional chiefs are appointed in modern
day Zimbabwe. [3]
(c) State the significance of traditional leaders in contemporary Zimbabwe. [3]
5. List the roles of the following traditional leaders:
(i) Village Headman [4]
(ii) Headmen [4]
(iii) Chief [2]
Essay Questions
1. Discuss the social and political organisation of the Khoi Khoi. [20]
2. Compare and contrast the economic activities of the San and Khoi Khoi. [20]
3. Discuss the view that traditional leadership is still relevant in Zimbabwe. [20]
4. Explain the decline of the population of the San and Khoi Khoi in Southern
Africa. [20]

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 CHAPTER 5: NATIONAL HERITAGE
Chapter objectives
At the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
• define a national symbol, a monument, a shrine, natural resources and a
pledge.
• identify national symbols, shrines and monuments of Zimbabwe.
• explain the importance of the national symbols, shrines and monuments
of Zimbabwe.
• sing the national anthem.
• know the origins and importance of a national schools’ pledge.
• understand the types of natural resources and ways of conserving them.
Introduction
The chapter will address different issues to do with our own Zimbabwean
indigenous inheritance system. Heritage can refer to practices or characteristics
that are passed down through the years, from one generation to the next. Therefore,
the chapter will discuss the things that we inherited from our forefathers or
ancestors as a nation. Some of them include; a national symbol, the monuments,
holy national shrines, natural resources and the like. All these are important to our
day to day lives directly or indirectly because they define who we are as a nation.
The chapter will use a learner centred approach to tackle these concepts.

UNIT 5.1 NATIONAL SYMBOLS

National symbols defined
A national symbol is a symbol of any entity considering and manifesting itself to
the world as a national community. National symbols intend to unite people by
creating visual, verbal, or iconic representations of the national people, values,
goals, or history.
Types of national symbols in Zimbabwe
The symbols of Zimbabwe have carefully been chosen to represent the country’s
history, legacy, its beliefs and values. There are a number of national symbols in
Zimbabwe and the four most regarded that one must know among all are: national
flag, national anthem, national bird and the national coat of arms. Each of these
symbols will be discussed below.
(i) The national flag of Zimbabwe
Flags represent a nation and are symbolic of a nation’s identity. The flag stirs up a
sense of pride as they think of what they or others before them went through and

87
those that died during the making of their country. The Zimbabwean flag tells its
own story with the various colours and symbols that make up the flag. More often
than not, in various sporting activities people use national flag colours as they put
on sports wears with national flag colours.
The Zimbabwean flag consists of
seven even horizontal stripes of
green, yellow, red and black with a
white triangle containing a red five-
pointed star with a Zimbabwe Bird.
The present design was adopted on
18 April 1980, when Zimbabwe won
her independence from the colonial
Fig. 5.1 Zimbabwean flag
British government.
The soapstone bird featured on the flag represents a statuette of a bird found at
the ruins of Great Zimbabwe. The bird symbolises the history of Zimbabwe; the
red star beneath it stands for the nation’s aspirations but is commonly believed to
symbolise socialism, and the revolutionary struggle for freedom and peace.
• The flag is not just merely for display, every element on the flag has a
meaning. The national flag of Zimbabwe is made up of five different colours
which include; green, yellow, red, black and white. Officially, the colours of
the Zimbabwean flag carry political, regional, and cultural meanings.
• Green represents the vegetation, agriculture and land resources of
Zimbabwe. It is a constant reminder of the importance of the land that is
now indigenously owned, thanks to the liberation struggle and the Land
Reform Programme. Vast lands are now under the control of Zimbabweans
who were once confined to barren land in reserves during the colonial
period.
• Yellow stands for the wealth of minerals in the country, predominantly
gold, diamonds, nickel, asbestos, silver only to mention a few.
• Red symbolises the blood shed during the first and second liberation
struggles (Chimurenga or Umvukela), the blood of the sons and daughters
of Zimbabwe who sacrificed their lives for the future of the country.
• Black indicates the heritage, race and ethnicity of the black majority. The
black stripe is a constant reminder of how black people have risen and
taken their rightful place as they were once treated as third-class citizens
in their own country.
• The white triangle is a symbol of peace, tranquillity and freedom that
Zimbabweans are enjoying today.
• The golden bird, known as the Zimbabwe Bird is the national symbol of

88
 Zimbabwe as an important part of history. It exemplifies the strong bond
that ancestral humans had with animals, nature and spiritual guides and it
is treated with a high level of importance and respect.
• The red star which is located behind the Zimbabwe Bird represents the
nation’s aspirations and a bright future for the country.
There are certain guidelines for the use, display and disposal of the national flag
of Zimbabwe. The flag should never be allowed to come into contact with the
ground. Should the flag reach a stage where it is no longer deemed worthy of
the public eye, such as when it is torn and tattered, it should be destroyed in a
dignified way with all due care and respect.
(ii) Zimbabwe Bird
The stone-carved Zimbabwe Bird is the national emblem of Zimbabwe, appearing on
the national flag and coat of arms of Zimbabwe and banknotes and coins (Zimbabwean
dollar). It probably represents the bateleur eagle or the African fish eagle. The bird’s
design is derived from a number of soapstone sculptures found in the ruins of the
ancient city of Great Zimbabwe.
Various explanations have been advanced to
explain the symbolic meaning of the birds. One
suggestion is that each bird was erected in turn
to represent a new king, but this would have
required improbably long reigns. More probably,
the Zimbabwean Bird represents sacred or
totemic animals of the Shona that is bateleur
eagle (in Shona – chapungu), which was held to
be a messenger from God and the ancestors, or
the fish eagle (in Shona – hungwe) which it has
been suggested was the original totem of the
Shona.
Fig. 5.2 The Zimbabwean Bird

(iii) National coat of arms

The coat of arms depicts two kudus on the left and right, each standing on top
of an earthly mound composed of stalks of wheat, a pile of cotton, and a head
of maize. At their feet, there is also a banner emblazoned with the Zimbabwean
national motto (Unity, Freedom and Work). The shield itself is green, featuring
fourteen waves of alternating white and blue waved lines at top (chief argent),
and also at the centre of the shield a representation of the ancient Kingdom of
Great Zimbabwe is shown.
Placed behind the shield are an agricultural hoe (to the left) and an automatic

89
rifle (to the right). The meanings of
the Zimbabwean coat of arms are as
follows:
1. Kudus – the unity of Zimbabwe’s
various ethnic groups.
2. Earthly mound with plants – the
need to always provide for the
Zimbabweans.
3. Motto banner – the need to maintain
national unity and the preservation
of freedom.
4. Green shield – the fertility of the
country’s soil and water.
5. Great Zimbabwe – the historical Fig. 5.3 The Zimbabwe national coat of arms
heritage of the nation.
6. Hoe and rifle – celebrates the struggle for peace and democracy, as well as
the proud work-ethic of the Zimbabwean people. They also symbolise the
transition from war to peace.
7. Strips of silk of gold and green – the national financial enterprise and the
protection of the economy.
8. Red star – hope for the future of Zimbabwe.
9. Zimbabwe Bird – symbolises national identity.
10. Blue and white wavy lines – Victoria Falls and water which brings prosperity.
(iv) National anthem of Zimbabwe
The current national anthem of Zimbabwe was introduced in March 1994 after a
nationwide competition to replace the old one, God Bless Africa (Ishe Komborera
Africa) with a distinctly Zimbabwean song. The winning entry was a Shona
song written by Professor Solomon Mutswairo. It has been translated into other
Zimbabwean local languages. Here are the lyrics of the Zimbabwe national
anthem song called “Ngaikomborerwe Nyika yeZimbabwe” in Shona, “Kalibusiswe
Ilizwe leZimbabwe” in Ndebele and “Blessed Be the Land of Zimbabwe” in English:
Shona Ndebele
Simudzai mureza wedu weZimbabwe Khangelan’ iZimbabwe yon’ ihlotshiwe
Yakazvarwa nemoto wechimurenga; Ngezintaba lang’ miful’ ebukekayo,
Neropa zhinji ramagamba Izulu kaline, izilimo zande;
Tiidzivirire kumhandu dzose; Iz’ sebenzi zenam’, abantu basuthe;
Ngaikomborerwe nyika yeZimbabwe. Kalibusisiwe ilizwe leZimbabwe.

90
Tarisai Zimbabwe nyika yakashongedzwa Nkosi busis’ ilizwe lethu leZimbabwe
Namakomo, nehova, zvinoyevedza Ilizwe labokhokho bethu thina sonke;
Mvura ngainaye, minda ipe mbesa Kusuk’ eZambezi kusiy’ eLimpopo
Vashandi vatuswe, ruzhinji rugutswe; Abakhokheli babe lobuqotho;
Ngaikomborerwe nyika yeZimbabwe. Kalibusisiwe ilizwe leZimbabwe.
Mwari ropafadzai nyika yeZimbabwe
Nyika yamadzitateguru edu tose;
Kubva Zambezi kusvika Limpopo,
Navatungamiri vave nenduramo;
Ngaikomborerwe nyika yeZimbabwe.
English
And may the Almighty protect and bless our land.
Look at Zimbabwe, a land so wondrously lovely
With mountains, and rivers cascading, flowing free;
May rain abound, and fields be fertile;
May we be fed, our labour blessed;
And may the Almighty protect and bless our land.
Oh God, we beseech Thee to bless our native land;
The land of our fathers bestowed upon us all;
From Zambezi to Limpopo
May leaders be exemplary;
And may the Almighty protect and bless our land.
It is crucial to know that singing the National Anthem as a chorus is not good
enough but understanding the words that make up the anthem is what brings
about development. Each of the words embedded in the national anthem if strictly
adhered to has a very good way of boosting the development we crave for in our
dear nation.
Importance of national symbols
• These symbols are often rallied around as part of celebrations of patriotism
or aspiring nationalism (such as independence, autonomy or separation
movements). For instance, any national gathering in Zimbabwe is opened
by the singing of the National Anthem.
• They are designed to be inclusive and representative of all the people of
the national community for example the Zimbabwean Bird represents
all the citizens of Zimbabwe despite ethnic belonging, language, age or
political affiliations.
• These symbols can be used to instil pride and unity in a nation’s population.
It explains why all the national symbols of Zimbabwe apply to all
Zimbabweans.

91
 • Symbols are meant to express the history and culture of a nation. Our
national history and culture resides in these symbols.
• They exemplify the rich cultural fibre that resides at the core of the country.
• Incite a deep sense of pride in the hearts of Zimbabwean citizens.
• Popularize the object chosen such as the Zimbabwe Bird (hungwe), among
others.
• National symbols are used to direct public attention, integrate citizens, and
motivate public action and creating bonds and reinforcing goals among
citizens.
• National symbols are so strong that they create harmonious societies.
• The symbols are essential to the Zimbabwe’s identity; they define what
Zimbabwe stands for and how she would like to be known to the world.

Activity 5.1 Educational tour

Talk to your teachers to help you organise an educational tour as form one students
to visit the Great Zimbabwe ruins located in Masvingo.
Activity 5.2 Singing
As a class, organise one lesson that you harmonize your voices singing the national
anthem in all the languages you understand. Create time to ask each other the
meaning of the national anthem to the people of Zimbabwe and help each
other to understand the lyrics of the national anthem song. What lessons do you
draw from the national anthem song? What is expected of you when singing the
national anthem?

UNIT 5.2 NATIONAL MONUMENTS

Definition of a national monument
It is a place of historic, scenic, or scientific interest set aside for preservation by
authorities. A national monument can also be defined as a monument constructed
in order to commemorate something of national importance such as the country’s
founding, independence or a war. It can also be defined as a series of structures or
areas deemed to be of national importance and therefore afforded protection by the
state as part of a country’s cultural heritage.
In Zimbabwe, there are many national monuments but here we are going to
discuss just a few. These include; the Great Zimbabwe Ruins, Victoria Falls and
Chinhoyi Caves.

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(i) Great Zimbabwe national monument
Great Zimbabwe stone ruins lies in south-eastern Zimbabwe, about thirty kilometres
southeast of Masvingo town. The central area of ruins extends about two hundred acres,
making Great Zimbabwe the largest of more than one hundred and fifty major stone ruins
scattered across most of the African countries.
It is estimated that the central ruins and surrounding valley supported a Shona
population of 10,000 to 20,000. Its economy was based on cattle husbandry, crop
cultivation, and the trade of gold on the coast of the Indian Ocean. Great Zimbabwe
was the heart of a thriving trading empire from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The
word zimbabwe, the country’s namesake,
is a Shona (Bantu) word meaning “stone
houses.”
The site is generally divided into three
main areas: the Hill Complex, the Great
Enclosure, and the Valley Ruins. The Hill
Complex, is believed to have been the
spiritual and religious centre of the city.
South of the Hill Complex lies the Great
Enclosure, the largest single ancient
Fig. 5.4 Great Zimbabwe Ruins in Masvingo structure in Africa. Its inner wall runs
along part of the outer wall leads to
the Conical Tower. The purpose of the tower is unknown, but it may have been a
symbolic grain bin symbol.

Fig. 5.5 The Great Enclosure Wall Fig. 5.6 The Conical Structure Fig. 5.7 Soapstone bird

By 1200 C.E., the city had grown strong, and was well known as an important
religious and trading centre. Some believe that religion triggered the city’s rise to
power, and that the tall tower was used for worship. The people of Great Zimbabwe
most likely worshipped Mwari, the supreme god in the Shona religion.
Great Zimbabwe’s prosperity continued until the mid-15th century. At this time,
the city’s trade activity declined and the people began to migrate elsewhere. The
exact cause of the evacuation remains a puzzle, but many historians agree that a
decline in soil quality and fertility was probably a major factor. The Great Zimbabwe
state has declined, but the House of Rock still stands. In 1986, UNESCO added Great
Zimbabwe to the list of World Heritage sites.
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The importance of Great Zimbabwe Ruins
• Great Zimbabwe is a clear testimony to the cultural richness of Southern
Africa’s past and is celebrated as an African contribution to world
civilization. This ancient Zimbabwe site is of tremendous cultural, political,
and scientific significance.
• To most Zimbabweans, Great Zimbabwe is a reminder of the tremendous
achievements of our forebearers and as such it is a rich source of inspiration.
For this reason, it was proclaimed a national monument in 1937.
• During the struggle for freedom from colonial rule, nationalists saw Great
Zimbabwe as a symbolic pillar of resistance. In 1961 an African Nationalist
political party adopted the name Zimbabwe (Zimbabwe National Party).
Subsequently several nationalist groups adopted the name.
• The site gave its name to the country, formerly called Rhodesia, at the
attainment of independence in 1980. In 1986 the site was inscribed on the
UNESCO World Heritage list, implying that it is of outstanding universal
value.
• Great Zimbabwe continued to be an important religious centre after its
collapse in the15th century. In the 18th and 19th centuries religious
performances including rainmaking ceremonies were undertaken here.
Rainmakers have always thronged to the place, a practice that has survived
to this day. Leaders of a local religion, Guta Ra Mwari visited the sacred
place in 1992 to perform rainmaking rituals at the sanctuary.
• In the late 19th century numerous soapstone figurines in the form of a
bird were found in the ruins; this Zimbabwe Bird later became a national
symbol, incorporated into the Zimbabwe flag and shown in other places
of high honour like the Zimbabwean money and at the Reserve Bank of
Zimbabwe building in Harare the capital city.
• Great Zimbabwe ruins remained a lifetime tourist attraction place. Tourists
across the world visit the place to visualise the architectural skills of the
Shona people. Today, there are about 20,000 tourists who visit the site each
year.
• Great Zimbabwe as a cultural heritage has effected sustainable
development of local communities living in its vicinity. The community has
derived a number of benefits from the site which are economic, cultural,
educational, social and environmental.
• There is employment creation of the local people which is coupled with
community projects as Shona village and Craft Centre which generate
revenue to the local communities. This is basically economic empowerment
of the local people.

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 • Environmental conservation which has the capacity to benefit future
generation is also realised and there is social sustainability through
maintenance of cultural values.
• It is a cultural heritage which also supplies raw material for the creative
entertainment industries, such as film, fashion, advertising, and television. It
constitutes a stage for a whole array of motion pictures for these industries.
• (ii) Victoria falls or Mosi-oa-Tunya
• Victoria Falls, or Mosi-oa-Tunya (Tokaleya Tonga: The Smoke That Thunders),
is a waterfall in Southern Africa on the Zambezi River at the border of
Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the world.

Fig. 5.8 Victoria falls

David Livingstone, the Scottish missionary and explorer is believed to have been
the first European to view Victoria Falls on 16 November 1855, from what is now
known as Livingstone Island, one of two land masses in the middle of the river,
immediately upstream from the falls on the Zambian side. Livingstone named his
discovery in honour of Queen Victoria of Britain, but the indigenous Tonga name,
Mosi-oa-Tunya, which means “The Smoke That Thunders” continues in common
usage as well. The World Heritage list officially recognizes both names.
Middle Stone Age tools (50 000 years ago) and Late Stone Age (10 000 or 2000 years
ago) weapons and digging tools have also been found. Iron using Khoisan hunter
and gatherers displaced these Stone Age people and in turn were displaced by
Bantu tribes such as the southern Tonga people known as the Batoka or Tokalea,
who called the falls Shungunamutitima. These people still live in the area today.
The Matabele, later arrivals, named them aManz’ a Thunqayo, and the Batswana

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and Makololo (whose language is used by the Lozi people) call them Mosi-oa-
Tunya. All these names mean essentially “the smoke that thunders.”

Fig. 5.9 Khoisan hunters and gatherers

Later many more tribes arrived, these included the Matabele and the Makololo tribe,
also still present in the area. It was members of this Makololo tribe that escorted David
Livingstone the first person to spread the word of the existence of the falls to the Western
World on16 November 1855.
David Livingstone was obviously not the first person to see the Victoria Falls,
although he is always credited as having discovered it. In 1989 Victoria Falls was
inscribed as a World Heritage Site. World Heritage sites belong to all the peoples of
the world, irrespective of the territory on which they are located.
The importance of Victoria Falls
• Mosi-oa-Tunya continues to be revered as a sacred site among the local
tribes.
• Being one of the greatest physical spectacles in Africa it stands to reason
that it has attracted so much interest from us humans over time and
therefore the area is steeped in history and mystery.
• Leads to state of the art infrastructural development. Today several hundred
thousand visitors from around the world trek to the falls each year; several
hotels, restaurants, campgrounds, and other tourist businesses cater to
them. This waterfall located in Southern Africa on the Zambezi River is one
of the world’s largest waterfalls. The natural wonders of the falls area attract
millions of visitors each year.
• UNESCO’s World Heritage listing describes it as “a superlative natural
phenomenon with exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance
and an outstanding example of significant geological features and active
land formation processes.”
• It nurtures a localised rainforest under its constant spray shadow.

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 • It has not only showcased the high points of diverse civilizations, but tied
humankind together in the common pursuit of intellectual excellence and
self-expression.
• It is a source of foreign currency for Zimbabwe and Zambia.
• Improves the standards of living to its surrounding communities.
• It strengthens bilateral relations between Zimbabwe and Zimbabwe.
(iii) Chinhoyi Caves
Traditionally, Chinhoyi Caves were called “Chirorodziva,” which means the “Pool of
the Fallen”. The name, is believed was inspired by an incident involving the Nguni
tribe in the 1830s. While moving northwards, the tribe surprised a group of Shona
tribe heroes, who were living near the caves. The Nguni raiders flung them to their
deaths, inspiring the oral tradition that whispers of the bones of the fallen that are
believed to still cover the bottom of the pool.

Fig. 5.10 Chinhoyi Caves

The Chinhoyi Caves are named after a local chief who used them as a refuge from
Ndebele raiders. Until a few years ago, the remains of Chief Chinhoyi’s grain bins
could be seen in some of the underground passages. Excavations in and near the
caves have revealed that people have stayed in and near the caves from early
times.
The Chinhoyi Caves are composed of limestone and dolomite, and consist of a
system of tunnels and caverns, the extent of which is still unknown. The main
feature of the Chinhoyi Caves is known as “The Wonder Hole”, which is in fact a
large cavern with a collapsed roof. The walls of the Wonder Hole drop vertically
down for one hundred and fifty feet to “Chirorodziva” (Pool of the Fallen). The pool
is unbelievably blue and crystal clear which reflects great depth and non-flowing
water.
It is believed that the caves were being used as a stronghold by an outlaw called
Nyamakwere who murdered many victims by throwing them into the Silent Pool.
The notorious Nyamakwere was eventually defeated and killed by a Headman

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called Chinhoyi who became a VaShona Chief, hence the name Chinhoyi given
to the nearby town. Chief Chinhoyi and his followers used the caves as a refuge
from raiding tribes such as the Ndebele people.
The area close to the caves was first declared a national monument and a National
Park with its existing boundaries in 1957. It was then designated as a Recreational
Park in 1975.
The importance of Chinhoyi Caves
• Caves can be used for domestic cold storage, air conditioning, and water
supply purposes because of their constant temperatures, people have
used caves to store food, such as potatoes and apples. People have also
used caves to store cheese during the aging process.
• Scientists value caves as natural underground laboratories. Of paramount
importance is the fact that caves and other solution cavities in limestone
have a direct bearing on the underground water system.
• Caves provide a unique subsurface habitat for rare animals.
• Caves have a purely aesthetic value, and a sense of adventure and
exploration they provide.
• Tourism in cave and karst areas is big business. Recreational activities in
scenic areas also include car touring, boating, hiking, fishing, camping,
swimming, backpacking, nature watching, and photography.
• Caves have an archaeological value. Our present knowledge of the early
development of human beings and their cultures is intimately associated
with the exploration and study of caves. People have long used caves as
dwelling places, burial sites, storehouses, and ceremonial places.
• They can serve as natural “museums,” preserving fascinating remnants of
what life was like in this region thousands and sometimes millions of years
ago.
Significance of national monuments
• The national monument aims to represent the nation and serve as a focus
for national identity. They help the country to earn foreign currency from
tourists.
• Provides a source of pride and patriotism among citizens.
• They are the symbols of political, social, economic and cultural life of the
nation.
Activity 5.3 Project-based learning
Find any monument found in your surrounding local area. Explain why it is called a
monument and its importance to your community. How best can it be protected?

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UNIT 5.3 NATIONAL SHRINES
A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific ancestor, hero, martyr,
saint or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated.
(i) National Heroes Acre
The National Heroes Acre carries the richness of a people’s struggle against the brutal
oppressive regime. There lies the leadership of a people’s revolution, those who
sacrificed their life to bring change in Zimbabwe politics thereby shaping not only
the country’s developmental pattern but also the region.
The shrine is situated seven kilometres west of the city centre of Harare. It was
constructed by North Korean architects. The National Heroes Acre is shaped like two
AK 47 assault rifles lying with their backs to each other with the graves symbolizing
the magazine.
The main attractions are the statue and
tomb of the Unknown Soldier, the Eternal
Flame, the murals depicting stages of the
liberation struggle, as well as the museum
which holds various exhibitions.
The shrine attracts tourists seeking to
understand the tradition and making of
Zimbabwe. Daily foreign nationals, local
Fig. 5.11 Zimbabwe National Heroes Acre school children and college students
throng the shrine to share and learn
about the acre where some of Zimbabwe’s finest political and developmental minds
are buried.
Currently almost two hundred national heroes and heroines are buried at the
National Heroes Acre and not only to give birth to Zimbabwe through the
liberation struggle but were instrumental in shaping the post independent era.
Among those who rest at the centre is the late vice presidents; Dr Joshua Nkomo,
Simon Muzenda, Joseph Msika and John Nkomo.
Ideally the Heroes Acre pays due homage to these individuals who are no longer
with us, but need to be remembered and honoured not only because of their
great works. It is therefore a monument for past, present and future generations
of Zimbabweans.
The bronze statue of the Unknown Soldier is one of the most important items
on the site consisting of three individuals, two men and one woman who
represent the unknown men and women who lost their lives in the struggle for
independence. One of the men is holding a rocket launcher while the woman
is holding a gun and the other man a flag. The statue has basically become the

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official symbol of the liberation struggle heritage.
Some of the walls of the monument were constructed to resemble Great Zimbabwe
while the graves were built a similar style to the Khami National Monument. The entire
Heroes Acre site is shaped in the form of an AK-47 which is one of the most prominent
and important weapons that was used during the struggle for independence.
Behind the statue and tomb of the Unknown Soldier is the Freedom Tower
which atop it burns the Eternal Flame. This flame stands for the aspirations of
Zimbabweans to be a free and independent nation and is symbolic of the flame
that was lit at independence in April 1980. The flame also stands for the spirit of
all the people who died during the struggle.
Flanking the statue and tomb of the Unknown Soldier are murals that depict various
stages of the liberation struggle during the 1960s and 1970s culminating in the
attainment of independence in 1980.
The first hero to be buried on site was Comrade George Silundika in April 1981
and then in August 1981 there were reburials of some of the comrades who had
lost their lives outside of the country during the struggle such as Comrade Herbert
Chitepo, Josiah Magama Tongogara and Jason Ziyaphapha Moyo.
Every year in August, Zimbabwe celebrates National Heroes Day recognising and
honouring the lives of those buried at the National Heroes Acre as well as those
who lost their lives abroad and buried at sites such as Chimoio and Nyadzonya in
Mozambique and Freedom Camp in Zambia.
The importance of the National Heroes Acre
• The National Heroes Acre was built to commemorate the fallen heroes of
Zimbabwe.
• The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is another important feature of the
national shrine. It was designed to honour all the people who participated
in the liberation war.
• The presence of a woman shows that women were an integral part of the
liberation struggle as well.
• It is a symbol that also depicts the bravery, courage and unity of the
liberation fighters.
• Reminds us of our history. Behind the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is a
symbol of a cave reminding us that blacks used to be buried in caves.
(ii) Njelele Shrine
Njelele, also known as Mabweadziva or Matonjeni is a prominent rainmaking shrine
located outside the south-western part of the Matopo National Park in the Khumalo
communal area approximately hundred kilometres south of Bulawayo. It is not clear

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when Njelele was first established in the Matopo Hills. The origins of Njelele dates back
to about the 14th century when the Mbire ethnic group migrated from around Lake
Tanganyika southwards and eventually settled at Great Zimbabwe.
The establishment of the Mwari shrine
at Njelele could have been associated
or coincided with a shift of the Rozvi
administrative power from Great
Zimbabwe to the Matopo Hills. The
cult has essentially remained a Shona
institution although the Ndebele later
adopted the Mwari cult giving it a new
Fig. 5.12 Njelele National Shrine
name Mlimo, and consulted the oracle
when rains failed or when personal advice was needed.
Oral tradition recalls that Lobengula housed some of the Mwari cult priests at his
19th century settlement of Bulawayo so that he could seek advice from them in
times of crisis. The cult’s influence also spread as far afield as the country’s southern
districts of Chivi in Masvingo and people came as far as Gutu to consult the oracle
at Njelele during periods of drought and other problems.
The main attribute of Njelele is the gallery in the rocks. There are also several small
tunnels, which lead to the shrine’s various chambers from the narrow entrance
between two tall rocks. An assortment of skulls and horns of big game, iron hoes,
clay pots containing water, cloth and beads, piles of tobacco, hatchets, and spears
are kept in one of the caves at Njelele. It is believed these objects were offerings to
the presiding deity. Mwari, as he is known among the Shona speaking people, is
believed to have lived at Njelele.
The personal presence of Mwari at Njelele was indicated by his voice. The Shona
people believed that Mwari was the highest and final authority behind their
ancestors (vadzimu).
The secret behind the respect accorded to sacred areas and their environments
lies in the taboos that are associated with them. The traditional Shona believed
that the spirits reside in forests, mountains, caves, hollow trees and pools, closely
linking intangible aspects of heritage with these tangible places.
Individual groups were and are still not allowed visiting a sacred place or its
environs in the absence of the official priest or priestess or his/her appointee.
Songs of praise precede the approach to the shrine and an appropriate person
leads the visitors to the shrine, this way no mischief is envisaged.
Mwari could be consulted at Njelele through his voice, which was heard when
invoked. During rainmaking ceremonies, traditional beer was brought in clay pots
by pre-pubescent and post-menopausal women and placed outside the shrine.

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This was to ensure that the shrine’s purity is maintained and would not be defiled
by married women who still experience their menstrual periods.
The priest and messengers would step back a few metres from the shrine and
the spokesperson would clap hands, praising and asking Mwari for rain. After
considerable time of clapping hands, praises and requests, Mwari’s voice would
be heard advising the priest and messengers on procedures and requirements for
the requests to be granted.
The voice of Mwari is believed to be heard from the rocks. The stone at Njelele is
believed to have talked until 1914 according to historians. However, there were
also regular visits by priests and messengers from various chiefs throughout the
country to appease Mwari by sacrificing and presenting him with cattle and beer.
The cult could also be consulted and Mwari invoked in times of illness and death,
domesticated animal diseases, during agricultural seasons of sowing and reaping,
succession disputes, personal and ethnic groups, natural phenomenon such as rainfall
failure, and even times of politics and war.
It is taboo to cut down a tree in a sacred place. Failure to observe that would result
in individuals or their families or the entire community being punished by the
aggrieved spirits. When an animal fleeing from hunters entered the shrine, the
chase was immediately called off. The animal was regarded as part of the sacred
herd.
The year at Njelele commenced in August to September with a thanksgiving after
the harvest. This was started with the priestly dances in various parts of the region,
and then followed by pilgrimage of the traditional healers and the few select
members of the community who went to Njelele to offer gifts and requests for the
ensuing year.
The importance of Njelele Shrine
• It is a national cultural heritage site.
• It is a prominent rainmaking shrine.
• The adherents of the traditional Mwari and the ancestral spirit attach great
respect to the environment because they argue, that it is a home of Mwari
and spirits live in.
• The cult is consulted and Mwari invoked in times of illness and death,
domesticated animal diseases, during agricultural seasons of sowing
and reaping, succession disputes, personal and ethnic groups, natural
phenomenon such as rainfall failure, and even times of politics and war.
• The most common and respected ritual is that of the first fruit harvesting
which used to be conducted by the local elderly women and children below
puberty who moved from one farm to another harvesting the first fruit,

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 uniting the community and exposing the need to feed first and protect the
vulnerable elderly widows and children.
• Njelele assumed higher values when prominent leaders and liberation war
soldiers consulted the oracle for guidance and security for instance the late
Vice President Joshua Nkomo visited the shrine in 1954 when he started
the journey to liberation struggle.
• The sacred place is instrumental in conserving the environment and its
biodiversity since cutting down trees at the shrine is forbidden.

Activity 5.4 Discussion in groups

Do you think Njelele shrine is still relevant in our modern-day society? Give your
reasons.
Activity 5.5 Poetry
Write a poem of not more than 200 words chronicling the importance of Zimbabwe’s
national heritage sites like Njelele Shrine, Great Zimbabwe and National Heroes
Acre.
Activity 5.6 Educational tour
Organise an educational tour to any of the national monument place of your
choice located in the nearest place you reside.
Activity 5.7 Research Assignment
Conduct a research based on the names of people buried at the National Heroes
Acre and justify why they were buried there. How many heroes and heroines are
buried at the National Heroes Acre since 1980 up to now? After conducting your
researches, you must present the findings to your classmates.

Interesting facts

1. Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River is located on the border between the
countries of Zambia and Zimbabwe in the continent of Africa. The Zambezi
River is one of the largest and longest rivers in Africa. It flows 1,687 miles across
Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique until it
reaches the Indian Ocean.
2. Njelele, Matonjeni or Mabweadziva, is the religious name for Matopo Hills. It
was the spiritual shrine of Murenga, which is where the name Chimurenga or
liberation war, comes from. Murenga had a daughter called Nehanda and a
son, Chaminuka.

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Summary of the unit
• National symbols instil pride and unity in a nation’s population. They are
meant to express the history and culture of a nation. Some of the types of
national symbols include national flag, national anthem, national bird and
national coat of arms.
• The national monument aims to represent the nation and serve as a focus
for national identity. They help the country to earn foreign currency from
tourists. Their examples include Great Zimbabwe ruins, Victoria falls, and
Chinhoyi Caves.
• A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific ancestor,
hero, martyr, saint or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are
venerated. In the case of Zimbabwe, National Heroes Acre and Njelele
Shrine are the most popular examples.
Glossary of terms
Emblem – an object or its representation, symbolizing a quality, state, class of
persons.
Legacy – anything handed down from the past, as from an ancestor or predecessor.
Ethnicity – social group that shares a common and distinctive culture, religion,
language, or the like.
National symbol – is a symbol of any entity considering itself and manifesting
itself to the world as a national community.
Soapstone – is a type of metamorphic rock.
Bateleur eagle (hungwe) – a short-tailed African eagle with mainly black plumage
and a bare red face.
Vicinity – the area or region near or about a place.
Sustainable – the quality of not being harmful to the environment or depleting
natural resources, and thereby supporting long-term ecological
balance.
Sacred – entitled to veneration or religious respect by association with divinity or
divine things.
Excavations – to make hollow by removing the inner part.
Historian – a person who writes or studies history, especially one who is an
authority on it.
Karst – landscape underlain by limestone which has been eroded by dissolution,
producing ridges, towers, fissures, sinkholes and other characteristic
landforms.
Prepubescent – a person who has not yet reached puberty.
Menopausal – the period in a woman’s life (typically between the ages of 45 and
50) when menstruation ceases.

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Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The national symbol can be defined as ____________
A. the Zimbabwe Bird.
B. Great Zimbabwe ruins.
C. iconic representations of the national people.
D. a symbol of any entity considering and manifesting itself to the world as a
national community.
2. National symbols represent __________________
A. the Shona B. all the people of Zimbabwe
C. the Ndebele people D. the Tonga people
3. Which one of the following is not a national symbol?
A. Great Dyke of Zimbabwe B. Zimbabwe Bird
C. National Anthem D. National flag
4. Four most regarded national symbols in Zimbabwe include __________
A. national bird, paintings, agriculture and mining.
B. national coat of arms, forests, tobacco farming and national anthem.
C. sovereignty, freedom, gold and birds.
D. national flag, national anthem, national bird and the national coat of arms.
5. Zimbabwean flag consists of four horizontal stripes of which colour?
A. Blue, red, yellow and purple B. red, yellow, white and orange
C. green, yellow, red and black D. yellow, blue, grey and red
6. Zimbabwe won her independence from the colonial government on which day?
A. 18 April 1980 B. 18 April 1981 C. 18 April 1984 D. 22 December 1987
7. What does the white triangle in the national flag of Zimbabwe represents?
A. history of Zimbabwe.
B. forests and vegetation.
C. peace, tranquillity and freedom enjoyed by Zimbabweans today.
D. the ancestral world.
8. The Zimbabwe Bird’s design is derived from a number of soapstone sculptures
found at __________
A. Khami ruins B. ruins of the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe
C. Njelele Shrine D. Victoria Falls
9. The national coat of arms in Zimbabwe have how many kudus?
A. one B. two C. three D. five
10. Blue and white wavy lines found on the national coat of arms represents
_______
A. national identity
B. blood
C. Victoria Falls and water which brings prosperity
D. future of Zimbabwe

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11. The current national anthem of Zimbabwe was introduced which year to
replace the old anthem?
A. 18 April 1980 B. 22 December 1987 C. March 1994 D. March 1991
12. The Zimbabwean national anthem song was written by ____________
A. Dr Lazarus Dokora B. Professor Solomon Mutswairo
C. Oliver Mtukudzi D. Aaron Chiundura Moyo
13. A national monument can be defined as ____________
A. a historic place.
B. a place of historic, scenic or scientific interest set aside for preservation by
authorities.
C. a series of structures.
D. attractive buildings in the city of Harare.
14. What does the abbreviation UNESCO stands for?
A. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation.
B. United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural Organisation.
C. United Nations Funding.
D. Union of National Governments.
15. In which year was the Great Zimbabwe ruins added to the World Heritage Sites
list by UNESCO?
A. 1980 B. 1986 C. 1990 D. 1994
16. Victoria Falls is one of the ___________ wonders of the world.
A. seven B. three C. nine D. twelve
17. Traditionally, Chinhoyi caves were called _______ which means the pool of the
fallen.
A. Chinhoyi B. Chirorodziva C. Nyamakwere D. Nguni
18. The first hero to be buried at the National Heroes Acre is George Silundika.
When was, he buried there?
A. April 1980 B. April 1981 C. August 1981 D. January 1982
19. Njelele Shrine is well known as a rainmaking shrine. Where is it located in
Zimbabwe?
A. Gweru B. Masvingo
C. one hundred kilometres south of Bulawayo D. Harare
20. In the past, people could consult the oracle at Njelele during __________
A. drought periods and other problems B. spare time
C. night D. winter season
21. The red star which is located behind the Zimbabwe Bird represents the nation’s
_____
A. aspirations and a bright future for the country.
B. Great Zimbabwe Ruins.
C. bateleur eagle.
D. blood shed during the liberation struggle.

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22. The flag of Zimbabwe should never be allowed to come into contact with ____
A. criminals B. ground C. children D. old aged people
23. Red star found on the National Coat of Arms represents ____
A. blood shed by liberation war fighters.
B. peace and tranquillity.
C. a united Zimbabwe.
D. hope for the future of Zimbabwe.
24. Identify any two late Vice Presidents of Zimbabwe buried at the National Heroes
Acre ______
A. Jason Ziyaphapha Moyo and Josiah Tongogara
B. Joshua Nkomo and Simon Muzenda
C. Solomon Mujuru and Leopold Takawira
D. Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi
25. The bronze statue of the Unknown Soldier is one of the most important items
at the National Heroes Acre consisting of three individuals ____
A. two men and one woman.
B. three men.
C. two women and one man.
D. three women.

Structured Questions

1 (a) Define a national symbol. [2]

(b) Describe each of the following national symbols in Zimbabwe:
(i) The national flag of Zimbabwe [2]
(ii) The Zimbabwe Bird. [2]
(iii) National coat of arms. [2]
(iv) National anthem of Zimbabwe. [2]
2. (a) What is a national symbol? [2]
(b) State the significance of any two national symbols of your choice. [4]
(c) What steps should be taken to dispose the national flag if it has become torn and
tattered. [4]
3. (a) What is a national monument? [1]
(b) Where is the Great Zimbabwe ruins located? [1]
(c) 
What is the symbolic meaning of the Zimbabwe Birds found at Great
Zimbabwe Ruins? [5]
(d) Briefly describe why the Great Zimbabwe collapsed around the 15th Century.
[3]
4. (a) Name the first European who saw the Victoria Falls on 16 November 1855. [1]
(b) Identify the other name recognised by UNESCO for Victoria falls. [1]
(c) Explain the significance of the Victoria Falls to the people of Zimbabwe. [3]

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 (d) Identify the other name for Chinhoyi Caves. [2]
(e) Which type of rocks composed the system of tunnels and caverns at Chinhoyi
Caves? [3]
5. (a) Name any two national shrines in Zimbabwe. [2]
(b) Give two reasons why National Heroes Acre is important in Zimbabwe. [2]
(c) Name any five heroes and heroines buried at the National Heroes Acre that
you know. [5]
(d) Identify the location of the Njelele Shrine. [1]
Essay Questions
1. (a) Explain the features of the Zimbabwe flag. [15]
(b) Discuss the symbolic importance of the Zimbabwe Bird. [5]
2. (a) Explain the characteristics of the national coat of arms in Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Write the lyrics of the national anthem of Zimbabwe in any indigenous
language of your choice. [5]
(c) Discuss the importance of national symbols. [5]
3. (a) Describe the economic, social and political benefits of the Great Zimbabwe
to the people of Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Why Victoria Falls was declared one of the seven wonders of the world by
UNESCO? [5]
(c) Explain why Chinhoyi Caves is also called Chirorodziva. [5]
4. (a) Explain the meaning of the bronze statue of the Unknown Soldier found at
the National Heroes Acre of Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Describe the religious importance of Njelele Shrine to the nation of
Zimbabwe. [10]

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UNIT 5.4 NATIONAL SCHOOLS PLEDGE IN ZIMBABWE
Definition of a pledge
A pledge is a promise, a vow, a commitment, an oath, a covenant, a bond and a
guarantee. The word “pledge” means, a solemn promise, a valuable item given as
a guarantee that a debt will be paid or a token of love or loyalty. Therefore, when
we say, we pledge to Zimbabwe our country, we are both making or we have both
made a “solemn promise to the nation to do something for its advancement or
growth.”
Origins of school pledge in Zimbabwe
The national schools pledge of Zimbabwe has a wording extracted from the
preamble of the Constitution of Zimbabwe which was overwhelmingly adopted
by Zimbabweans during the referendum held on 17 March 2013.
The pledge aims to instil patriotism and
commitment to the national interest. It was
introduced in schools in May 2016 and was
officially launched at Harare High School by
Primary and Secondary Education permanent
secretary, Dr Sylvia Utete-Masango and
replicated in all the country’s ten provinces.
Fig. 5.13 Secondary school students During the launch ceremony Dr Sylvia Utete-
reciting the national pledge Masango reiterated that children needed to
familiarise themselves with the Constitution of
Zimbabwe and cherish the value of hard work.
It is worth mentioning that the national schools pledge is an extension of the
Constitution of Zimbabwe into the education curriculum as defined by its
preamble content. The Constitution directs the Ministry of Education to promote
public awareness of the Constitution of Zimbabwe which is been partially satisfied
by this pledge.
Importance of a national schools pledge
• The pledge is poised to inculcate the national value systems into junior
citizens from early childhood development up to secondary school level.
This would certainly facilitate children to recognise their identity.
• This national commitment will enable children to appreciate local
traditional cultures and the natural resources endowed to the country.
• This gives them the impetus to guard jealously and defend their national
heritage for their universal benefit as bona fide citizens of this republic.
• The fundamental aspects of the pledge are not only peculiar to Zimbabwe,

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 but are also found and highly revered in various countries across the globe
like the United States of America, Singapore and India, among other nation
states.
• It plays a pivotal role to develop nationalistic spirit in the citizens of a
country.
• The pledge certainly has a lot of history, and this could be another thing
which makes it believed to be so important.
Schools pledge of Zimbabwe
Almighty God, in whose hands our future lies, I salute the national flag.
United in our diversity by our common desire for freedom, justice and equality.
Respecting the brave fathers and mothers who lost lives in the Chimurenga/
Umvukhela and national liberation struggles.
We are proud inheritors of our national resources.
We are proud creators and participants in our vibrant traditions and cultures.
We commit to honesty and the dignity of hard work.
This pledge is universal to every Zimbabwean without racial or tribal segregation.
It accommodates every Zimbabwean citizen in a fair, patriotic and nationalistic
manner.
Meaning of Zimbabwe schools pledge
The following is a summary of the national schools pledge:
• it enshrines the preamble of the Zimbabwean Constitution which is the
supreme law of the land.
• it inculcates the national flag as the rallying point of every citizen.
• the pledge recognizes the diversity of our cultures, thinking, ideologies
and way of life to attain the universal good of freedom, justice and equality.
• children are being oriented to the fundamentals of democracy and good
governance as core values cherished in Zimbabwe.
• another crucial aspect of the pledge is remembering the efforts given by
the gallant sons and daughters of Zimbabwe who died during the first
and second Chimurenga/Umvukhela to liberate the country from colonial
bondage.
• Zimbabwean heritage cultures and traditional way of life is also upheld as
pupils are being taught to love the way our forefathers used to lead their
lives.
• loyalty in the last statement can be understood as being submissive,
respectful and humbleness to authorities as well as the rules that govern
the country.
• dignity also deals with truthfulness, and sincerity which is fairly earned.

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Let us all adhere to these promises that we have made to this country and not
forget that it is an oath that binds us together as a nation which needs to be taken
into serious consideration. Therefore, it is expected of us all to put our collective
strength together in order to achieve the desirable goal in this country and fight
the enemies of progress.
Case study of schools’ pledge in India
The national pledge is an oath of allegiance to the Republic of India. It plays a pivotal
role to develop nationalistic spirit in the citizens of a country. The Indian national
pledge was originally composed in Telugu language by writer Pydimarri Venkata
Subba Rao in 1962. It was first read out in a school in Visakhapatnam in 1963 and was
subsequently translated into various regional languages. The Central Advisory Board
on Education meeting in 1964 in Bangalore, under its chairman M. C. Chagla, directed
that the pledge be read in schools and that this practice be introduced by 26 January
1965.
Indians usually recite Indian national pledge in the events organized for public
gathering and is narrated in school assemblies in the country, and during the
Independence Day and Republic Day celebrations. Almost all opening pages of school
textbooks carry its printing to develop the nationalistic spirit in students. The following
national pledge is an oath of allegiance to the Republic of India:
India is my country and all Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect and treat everyone with
courtesy.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone, lies my happiness.
Case study: South Africa schools pledge
In February 2008 the South African government started a public participation process
to create a pledge (or oath) of allegiance to be recited daily by school children. The
pledge was initiated by Education Minister Naledi Pandor.
The pledge is based on the preamble of the Constitution of South Africa. The national
schools pledge support nation building and individual commitment to positive values.
The intention is to get young people to understand the nation’s values from an early
age.
The national schools pledge of South Africa:
We the youth of South Africa,
Recognising the injustices of our past,
Honour those who suffered and sacrificed for justice and freedom.

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 We will respect and protect the dignity of each person, and stand up for justice.
We sincerely declare that we shall uphold the rights and values of our constitution
And promise to act in accordance with the duties and responsibilities
That flow from these rights.

Activity 5.8 National schools pledge

Recite the national schools pledge of Zimbabwe to your friends, in front of your
teachers, to national gatherings and lead the pledge during assembly time.
Activity 5.9 Comparative study
Make a comparative study between the Zimbabwean national schools pledge and
the South Africa national schools pledge. What are the similarities and differences
drawn from these pledges.
Activity 5.10 Critical thinking
In your own view, to what extent does the national schools pledge of Zimbabwe
contribute to patriotism and loyalty to the people of Zimbabwe in terms of nation
building.
Activity 5.11 Drama
Write a short drama about the Zimbabwe national schools pledge. The drama
should consist of not less than 5 and not more than 10 characters. The characters in
the play should demonstrate the values of the pledge to the people of Zimbabwe
and measures that should be taken to inculcate it into all the citizens.
Activity 5.12 Role playing
Organise a national event based on the theme of national schools pledge quiz,
where you assemble different schools across the country to deliberate on the
importance of national schools pledge.
Activity 5.13 Project-based learning
Carry out a project of translating the National Schools Pledge into your own
indigenous language without changing its meaning from the English version.

UNIT 5.5 NATURAL RESOURCES

Definition of natural resources
Natural resources are materials provided by the earth that humans can use to
make more complex (human-made) products. Natural resources are useful raw
materials that we get from the earth. They occur naturally, which means that
humans cannot make natural resources. Instead, we use and modify natural
resources in ways that are beneficial to us. Natural resources are things that come

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from nature, such as plants, animals, soil, minerals, energy sources (like sunlight,
fossil fuels), air, and water. These natural resources are used to meet the needs of
all living things, including people.
Introduction to natural resources
Ever since the earth was inhabited, humans and other life forms have depended
on things that exist freely in nature to survive. These things include water (seas
and fresh water), land, soils, rocks, forests (vegetation), animals (including fish),
fossil fuels and minerals. They are called natural resources and are the basis of life
on earth.
All these mentioned above are natural, and they exist in nature. No human created
them. We tap into their supply to survive and also to function properly. Natural
resources are all connected in a way. Therefore, if one is taken away, it will affect the
supply or quality of all others. For example, if water is eliminated from an area, the
vegetation, soils, animals and even the air in that area will be affected negatively.
Natural resources can be consumed directly or indirectly. For instance, humans
depend directly on forests for food, biomass, health, recreation and increased living
comfort. Indirectly forests act as climate control, flood control, storm protection
and nutrient cycling.
Raw materials
Sometimes, natural resources can be used as raw materials to produce something.
For instance, we can use a tree from the forest to produce timber. The timber is
then used to produce wood for furniture or pulp for paper and paper products. In
this scenario, the tree is the raw material.
Every item in your home was made from a raw material that came from a natural
resource. The tea mug, electricity at home, bread, clothes, and so on. Each of
them came from a natural resource. Natural resources come in many forms. It may
be a solid, liquid or gas. It may also be organic or inorganic, renewable or non-
renewable.
Types of natural resources
Natural resources are derived from the environment. Some of the resources are
essential to survival, while others merely satisfy societal wants. Every man-made
product in an economy is composed of natural resources to some degree.
There are numerous ways to classify the types of natural resources, they include the
source of origin, the state of development, and the renewability of the resources.
In terms of the source of origin, natural resources can be divided into the following
types:

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(a) Biotic – these resources come from living and organic material, such as forests
and animals, and include the materials that can be obtained them. Biotic natural
resources also include fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum which are formed
from organic matter that has decayed.
(b) Abiotic – these resources come from non-living and non-organic material.
Examples of these resources include land, fresh water, air, and heavy metals
(gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.).
Natural resources can also be categorized based on their stage of development
including:
(a) Potential resources – these are resources that exist in a region and may be used
in the future. For example, if a country has petroleum in sedimentary rocks, it
is a potential resource until it is actually drilled out of the rock and put to use.
(b) Actual resources – these are resources that have been surveyed, their quantity
and quality has been determined, and they are currently being used. The
development of actual resources is dependent on technology. Good examples
of actual resources in Zimbabwe include; gold, diamonds in Marange, platinum
in Ngezi, only to mention a few.
(c) Reserve resources – this is the part of an actual resource that can be developed
profitably in the future. The Great Dyke belt found in Zimbabwe is a reserve of
many mineral resources that shall benefit future generations.
(d) Stock resources – these are resources that have been surveyed, but cannot be
used due to a lack of technology. An example of a stock resource is hydrogen.
Natural resources are also classified based on their renewability:
(a) Renewable natural resources – these are resources that can be recovered.
Renewable resources are those that are constantly available and can be
recovered. Examples of renewable resources include sunlight, water, air, and
wind. They are available continuously and their quantity is not noticeably
affected by human consumption.
(b) Non-renewable natural resource – is a resource of economic value that cannot
be readily replaced by natural means on a level equal to its consumption. Most
fossil fuels, such as oil, natural gas and coal are considered non-renewable
resources in that their use is not sustainable because their formation takes
billions of years.
Case study: Distribution of natural resources
Natural resources are not evenly distributed all over the world. Some places are more
endowed than others — for instance, some regions have lots of water (and access to
ocean and seas). Others have lots of minerals and forestlands. Others have metallic

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rocks, wildlife, fossil fuels and so on.
For example, the US has the world’s largest coal reserves with 491 billion short tons
accounting for 27% of the world’s total. Australia is the world’s largest net exporter of
coal accounting for 29% of global coal exports.
China remains the largest producer of gold
with a 14% share of the global production.
The United States, Russia, and Canada are the
leading producers of timber and pulp. Annual
exports of primary and secondary wood
products from tropical forests have exceeded
Fig. 5.14 World crude oil production US$ 20 billion in recent years and further
increases are anticipated.
Many countries have developed their economies by using their natural resources. Some
also get a lot of income from their resources in the form of tourism and recreation. Brazil
and Peru for example, make a lot of money from the Amazon Forests, which is super
diverse in trees and animals.
Crude oil is another important natural resource. From crude oil, we get many petroleum
products such as petrol, diesel and gas. We use these to fuel our cars and provide energy
to warm and cool our homes. But crude oil is not evenly distributed all over the world.
Below is an illustration of how much each region of the world produces.
International and local trade has its roots in the fact that resources are not evenly
distributed on the earth’s surface. Regions with crude oil can drill oil and sell to regions
without oil, and also buy resources such as timber and precious metals (gold, diamonds
and silver) from other regions that have them in abundance.
The uneven distribution is also the root of power and greed in many regions. Some
countries use their wealth in resources to control and manipulate regions with fewer
resources. Some countries and regions have even
gone to war over the management, ownership,
allocation, use and protection of natural
resources and related ecosystems.
Importance of natural resources
Natural resources are available to sustain the
very complex interaction between living things
and non-living things. Humans also benefit
immensely from this interaction. All over the
world, people consume resources directly or
indirectly.

Fig. 5.15 Food and drink

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The three major forms include food and drink, housing and infrastructure, and
mobility. These three make up more than 60% of resource use.
Food and drink – this includes agricultural products as well as naturally occurring
foods such as game, fish from fresh water and seas, seeds and nuts, medicines,
herbs and plants. They also include drinking water, as well as water for sanitation
and household use. Think of ceramic plates, silverware (spoons, forks and knives),
cans, milk packages, paper and plastic cups, they are all made from raw materials
which come from our natural resources.
Mobility – this includes automobiles, trains, water vessels, airplanes, together with
all the fuel that powers them.
Housing and infrastructure – include all the houses, public places, roads and
constructed objects you have in your area. Think
about all the energy for heating and cooling that we
consume in our homes. Can you imagine where all the
wood, metals, plastic, stone and other materials came
from?
Beyond these three major areas of resource
consumption, we consume much more resources from
our environment on a daily basis. Natural resources
Fig. 5.16 Housing and are also important in the sense that:
infrastructure
• they give foreign currency to a country.
• natural resources are a source of employment.
• they alleviate poverty.
• they uplift the Gross Domestic Product of people that is improving their
standards of living through value addition and beneficiation.
Threats to natural resources
There are several things posing a danger to natural resources. Some of them
include:
(i) Overpopulation – this is probably the most significant threat that natural
resources face. The world’s population is increasing at a very fast rate. The increase
in populations mean that there will be pressure on almost all-natural resources. For
example, with more mouths to feed and people to house, more land will need to
be cultivated and developed for housing. More farming chemicals will be applied
to increase food production. Many forests or vegetative lands will be converted
to settlements for people, roads and farms. These have serious repercussions on
natural resources.

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(ii) Climate change – the alteration in climate patterns as a result of excessive
anthropogenic is hurting biodiversity and many other abiotic natural resources.
Species that have acclimatized to their environments may perish and others will
have to move to more favourable conditions to survive. Global warming is the
result of human-caused pollution any more than it can cause powerful hurricanes,
tsunamis, earthquakes, floods, and even solar flares.
(iii) Deforestation – when a region
loses its biodiversity, it becomes more
vulnerable to other environmental
elements. Deforestation disrupts the
natural balance of ecological systems
in the area where the trees have
been harvested and far beyond. Food
production can be impacted due to
drought and erosion directly linked to Fig. 5.17 D
 eforestation taking place in
the loss of forests. Taka forest of Zimbabwe
(iv) Species extinction – an alarming
rate of species extinction is happening worldwide. As of the year 2010, the rate of
loss is estimated to be more than 1,000 times the normal rate. Greater preservation
tactics and strategies are needed with laws put into place to protect species.
Once more, manmade pollution is the culprit along with land encroachment by
developers. Both causes are created by consumer demands as people branch out
into areas that were once remote habitats for various species.
(v) Environmental pollution – land, water and air pollution directly affect the health
of the environments in which they occur. Pollution affects the chemical make-up
of soils, rocks, lands, ocean water, freshwater and underground water, and other
natural phenomena. This often has negative impacts.
(vi) Corruption – there are some leaders occupying strategic positions involved
in corrupt activities that endanger the natural resources like minerals, animals,
forests and so on. They give unauthorised permissions to poachers and other
private organisations to carry out unlawful activities in return for favours like sex,
money and property. This has seen many elephants being unlawfully killed by
poachers using cyanide chemicals in Zimbabwe game parks, minerals extracted
for personal gains and so forth.
Conservation of natural resources
The role of natural resources in sustaining life on earth is extremely important and
we must ensure that we protect the environment and also make it easy for it to
replenish itself naturally. There are several ways of conserving natural resources.
Here are some of the ways:

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(i) 
Education and public awareness – all stakeholders must aim to provide
information and raise public awareness about the wonderful natural resources
we have and the need to ensure its health. Even though there is a lot of
information in the public domain, campaigners must try to use less scientific
terms, and avoid complex terminology to send the message across. Once people
understand how useful our natural resources are, they will be better placed to
preserve them.
(ii) Individuals, organisations and nations – people should understand to give back
to the environment by way of reducing waste, recycling waste and becoming
a part of the solution. We can achieve this in our homes and workplaces by
reducing waste and also by recycling the waste we create.
(iii) Governments and policy – governments must enforce policies that protect
the environment. They must ensure that businesses and industries play fair
and are accountable to all people. Incentives must be given to businesses that
use recycled raw materials and fines to those that still tap from raw natural
resources. Businesses must return a portion of their profits to activities that
aim at restoring what they have taken out of the environment. For instance,
the Community Share Ownership Trust in Zimbabwe is meant to benefit the
locals.
Activity 5.14 Songs and poetry
Compose songs and poems that educate the people of your community about
good ways of conserving natural resources.
Activity 5.15 Critical assessment
What kind of natural resources are found in Zimbabwe and why do you think some
nations are interfering with Zimbabwe’s natural resources? What can your leaders
do to ensure that there is no conflict from this scenario?
Interesting facts
1. One of the most important natural resource is water. Our earth is a water planet
and ¾ of the planet is covered with this life-giving resource. Interestingly we
do not have enough supply. But 97% of all the water on the planet is salty, we
cannot drink it. Only 3% is freshwater, and 2% of that is frozen in the ice caps or
in glaciers. In reality, we only have 1% of freshwater available.
2. Trees play a vital role in moderating the climate and lowering erosion. They get
rid of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store high quantities of carbon
in their tissues.
3. The national schools pledge is an oath of allegiance and was officially launched
on 3 May 2016 at Harare High School in Zimbabwe by Dr Olivia Utete-Masango,
the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education.

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Summary of the chapter
• It is important to note that, the fundamental aspects of the pledge are not
only limited to Zimbabwe, but are also found in various countries across
the globe like the United States of America, Singapore and India, among
other nation states.
• Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from the earth. They
occur naturally, which means that humans cannot make natural resources.
Glossary of terms
Nationalism – spirit or aspirations common to the whole of a nation.
Patriotism – devoted love, support, and defence of one’s country that is national
loyalty.
Natural resources – are materials or substances occurring in nature which can be
exploited for economic gain.
Conservation – the careful utilization of a natural resource in order to prevent
depletion.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. A national pledge is meant to _________
A. destroy people.
B. instil fear.
C. instil patriotism and commitment to national interest .
D. consolidate power.
2. The national schools pledge was officially launched by Dr Sylvia Utete-Masango
in May 2016 at which school?
A. Harare High School B. Mpopoma High School
C. Nemakonde High School D. Umzingwane High School
3. The national pledge is defined as _____________
A. a promise to commitment.
B. an oath.
C. a covenant.
D. a solemn promise, a vow, a commitment, an oath, a covenant, a bond and a
guarantee.
4. The pledge is universal to every Zimbabwean without _________
A. national identity card B. racial, language or tribal segregation
C. birth certificate D. age
5. Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from ___________
A. earth B. heaven C. humans D. friends

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6. Natural resources are categorized into two types. Which one of the following is
correct?
A. perishable and non-perishable
B. renewable and non-renewable
C. plants and animals
D. fossil fuels and soils
7. Non-renewable resources are those that ___________
A. can be reproduced B. more like minerals
C. have to be conserved
D. cannot be easily replaced once they are destroyed
8. Which one of the following is correct?
A. renewable resources can be recovered
B. renewable resources are man made
C. renewable resources are useless
D. renewable resources take long to be replaced

Structured Questions

1. The wording in national schools’ pledge in Zimbabwe is extracted where? [1]

(a) When was the national schools pledge launched and by who? [2]
(b) What is meant by a pledge? [1]
(c) Give three reasons for the importance of the national pledge. [3]
(d) It is advised that every student should know the schools pledge. Write the
national schools pledge word for word. [3]
2. (a) Define a natural resource. [1]
(b) Define what is a renewable natural resource and give three examples. [3]
(c) Define what is a non-renewable natural resource and give two examples. [2]
(d) Differentiate a renewable and non-renewable resource. [4]
3. (a) Why are natural resources important? [2]
(b) Identify four threats to natural resources. [4]
(c) Explain what happens when natural resources are too few or too many in a
country. [4]
4. (a) Briefly discuss the role of government in natural resource conservation. [4]
(b) Explain two ways of conserving natural resources. [2]
(c) How do natural resources benefit human beings? [4]
5. A renewable resource is one that can be replaced, either naturally or by man. A
non-renewable resource is one that cannot be replaced in a timely manner or
at all by nature or by man. Complete the table below by listing resources under
the correct heading. [10]

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 Renewable resources Non-renewable resources

Example: trees Example: gold

Essay Questions
1. (a) Describe the evolution of the school pledge in Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Explain the importance of the schools’ pledge. [5]
(c) Write the lyrics of the schools’ pledge of Zimbabwe. [5]
2. Explain the following types of natural resources and give examples:
(i) biotic [5]
(ii) abiotic [5]
(iii) renewable resources [5]
(iv) non-renewable resources [5]
3. Explain any five ways of preserving natural resources. [20]
4. Discuss the threats to natural resources that you know. [20]

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 CHAPTER 6: CONSTITUTION OF ZIMBABWE
Chapter objectives
At the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
• define what a constitution is.
• explain the functions of a constitution.
• describe the process of constitution making.
• know at least one case study of a constitution making process.
• understand the reasons for the formulation of a new constitution in
Zimbabwe.
• know the role of citizens in formulating a constitution.
• summarize the contents of the Constitution of Zimbabwe.

Introduction
The chapter will address the key issues central to the constitutional developments
which took place in Zimbabwe. The Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe
Amendment (No. 20) of 2013 hereinafter referred to as the Constitution of
Zimbabwe is the supreme law of the country. This means any law, practice, custom
or conduct inconsistent with it is invalid to the extent of its inconsistency. The
chapter is presented in a learner centred approach where students have a role to
play in their learning.
Definition of a constitution
A constitution is a document in which most important laws of the land is
authoritatively ordained. Others define a constitution as a set of rules and customs,
written or unwritten, legally established by which a government conducts its
affairs.
Functions of a constitution
(a) Constitutions can declare and define the boundaries of the political community.
These boundaries can be territorial (the geographical borders of a state, as well
as its claims to any other territory or extra-territorial rights) and personal (the
definition of citizenship). Thus, a country’s constitution often distinguishes
between those who are inside and those who are outside the country.
(b) Constitutions can express the identity and values of a nation. As nation building
instruments, constitutions may define the national flag, anthem and other
symbols, and may make proclamations about the values, history and identity
of the nation.
(c) Constitutions can declare and define the rights and duties of citizens. Most
constitutions including that of Zimbabwe have a declaration of fundamental

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 rights applicable to citizens.
(d) Constitutions can establish and regulate the political institutions of the country.
It does this by defining the various institutions of government; prescribing
their composition, powers and functions; and regulating the relations between
them. It is almost universal for constitutions to establish legislative, executive
and judicial branches of government.
(e) Constitutions can divide power between different layers of government or sub-
state communities. Many constitutions establish decentralized processes for the
sharing of power between provinces, regions or other sub-state communities.
(f) Constitutions can commit states to particular social, economic or developmental
goals. This may take the form of judicially enforceable socio-economic rights,
directive principles that are politically binding on the government, or other
expressions of commitment or intent.

UNIT 6.1 THE CONSTITUTION MAKING PROCESS

Constitution making process attempts to represent the will of the people, to
achieve a consensus on the future of the state and to ensure respect for universal
principles such as respect for human rights and democratic governance.
It can be defined as the act of giving ideas from which a constitution is produced.
Constitution-making is therefore a process where a people agree to and reach an
understanding among them to make a document that shall be the supreme law
of their country. Constitution writing entails several distinct steps, beginning with
agreement on ground rules and formats and ending with ratification. The stages
outlined here summarize current practice around the world.
Step 1 – when the existing constitution may not provide sufficient guidance, the
process opens with deliberations about the appropriate format for subsequent
discussions. The breadth of participation at this stage and the issues considered
vary from place to place. Often these conversations take place in the context of
round tables and meetings between the leaders of the incumbent government
and the most important opposition groups.
Step 2 – the preparation of an interim constitution or a set of essential features is
the second step in the process. Interim documents sometimes reinstate an earlier
constitution, selectively amended, to serve as a basis for coordination during the
transition period.
Step 3 – development of the initial text, the basis for preparation of the final draft,
comes next. The handling of this stage varies widely and may involve a prior period
of public consultation. The development of a first draft rested with an appointed
commission whose members are selected by the executive, the members of a round

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table, a legislature, or some other authority.
Step 4 – in most countries, an elected or indirectly elected assembly has primary
responsibility for debating, amending, and adopting the draft. Public hearings or
a period for written comment may precede the final stages of deliberation.
Step 5 – ratification is the final step in the constitution writing process. Most
countries including Zimbabwe require a national referendum for ratification.
Countries vary in the length of time set aside for civic education and campaigning
prior to the vote. Some of the countries give responsibility for ratification to the
legislative assembly.
Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013
It was after the March 2008 general elections when there was no candidate who
got 50 +1 % vote to win the presidency between presidential candidate, Robert
Mugabe of Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front (ZANU PF), Morgan
Tsvangirai of Movement for Democratic Change (MDC-T) and Arthur Mutambara
of the other Movement for Democratic Change faction (MDC-M). This resulted in
an election rerun on 27 June 2008.
In that June 2008 election Robert
Mugabe of ZANU PF won the
election to become the President
of Zimbabwe. However, the MDC
two formations rejected the
election results. Consequently,
resulting with power sharing
agreement facilitated by former
President of South Africa Thabo
Mbeki. This followed the new
Fig. 6.1 Morgan Tsvangirai who was representing agreement between these three
MDC-T (left), Robert Mugabe, ZANU PF (centre) parties to share power in what
and Arthur Mutambara of MDC-M (right) is known as the Government
of National Unity (GNU). It was
necessitated by the signing of the Global Political Agreement (GPA) which was
meant to solve the political, social and economic problems facing the country.
These three parties agreed to come up with a new constitution before holding
elections after five years of its formation. The process of formulating the new
constitution was thus started in June 2010 to March 2013. The following discussion
will explain some of the processes which took place in crafting a new Constitution
in Zimbabwe. The constitution making process was led by a Constitutional
Parliamentary Committee (COPAC) which had its members drawn from the three
political parties that signed the GPA and were represented in parliament.

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Article VI of the GPA of 15 September 2008 focused on the constitution making
process. It stated that it was a fundamental right and duty of Zimbabwean
people to make a constitution by themselves and for themselves in an inclusive
and democratic manner. Article VI gave COPAC the mandate to coordinate the
constitution making process. It also highlighted how the Select Committee of
Parliament was to be set up. Article VI of the GPA also stipulated that the draft
constitution recommended by the Constitutional Committee should be subjected
to a referendum.
The process started with a First All Stakeholders Conference that agreed on
the seventeen thematic areas of the constitution and established seventeen
subcommittees of COPAC. This was followed by a public outreach programme
during which the population was consulted on what they wanted to see in the
new constitution. During this public outreach programme, there were 4 821
meetings held throughout the country and fifty-one written submissions and 2
397 electronic submissions were received from Zimbabweans within and those in
diaspora.
The outreach program started with the deployment of COPAC’s outreach personnel
to the country’s ten provinces on 21 June 2010. This was then followed by the
induction of outreach team members on 22 June 2010. The induction exercise was
facilitated by the Select Committee members who were charged with supervising
the outreach process in the country’s various provinces. Manicaland, Masvingo
and Midlands provinces each had ten teams each with ten people, Mashonaland
East and Mashonaland Central had nine teams each with ten people, Matebeleland
North and Mashonaland West had seven teams with ten people each while
Matebeleland South had six teams with ten people each.
On the 3rd of May 2011, COPAC officially launched the sitting of the Thematic
Committees which focused on seventeen thematic areas. The Thematic
Committees comprised members of parliament, political parties’ representatives
and representatives of Civil Society who functioned as team members, team
leaders, rapporteurs and technical advisors.
After completion of the sitting of the Thematic Committees, the next phases of
the constitution making process included drafting, a Second All Stakeholders
Conference, presentation of the draft constitution to parliament and a referendum.
Following this process, a final draft Constitution was adopted by all the main
political parties and put before a national referendum on 16 March 2013 where it
was endorsed by an overwhelming majority of people who voted and enacted by
the president to become a law.
Here are summarized points of the constitution making process in Zimbabwe:
• agreement by political leaders of the three leaders of GNU to formulate a

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 new constitution.
• the appointment of the Constitutional Select Committee.
• first All Stakeholders Conference to map the road.
• outreach consultations with the citizens (citizen participation) all over the
country.
• information feeding.
• sitting of thematic committees.
• drafting stage led by COPAC.
• second All Stakeholders Conference.
• draft constitution debate in parliament.
• referendum.
• presidential assent (adoption).
• Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013
Reasons for the 2013 Constitution in Zimbabwe
The crafting of the new Constitution of Zimbabwe was largely influenced by the
transformative process which sort to change the quality of the Lancaster House
amended constitution by providing for essential rights which were not given in
the old constitution and widening the scope of others. In other words, the general
public and civic society of Zimbabwe was never given an opportunity to discuss its
contents. There was never any public debate regarding what should be included in
it. The constitution was not owned by the people.
The inadequacy of the 1980 Constitution in providing a supreme law that reflected
the desires and wishes of the people of Zimbabwe and the sovereign itself are
evidenced by the proposal of the 2000 Kariba Draft Constitution. A number of
aspects from the old constitution needed reform and it is imperative to highlight
which crucial areas have been addressed and the context in which the reform of
constitutional policy has been undertaken.
Some of them include:
(i) Dual citizenship – the recognition of this right will open up doors for Zimbabwe
citizens who have been unfairly deprived of their right to freedom of movement
and participation in processes given to citizens such as the right to vote. The
people formerly commonly referred to as aliens, who were born in Zimbabwe but
of parents from the Southern African Development Countries (SADC) region are
now Zimbabweans by birth and as such they are entitled to vote or be voted for.
(ii) National values and principles of governance – the Constitution of Zimbabwe
sets out in its preamble the need to “entrench democracy, transparent and

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accountable governance and the rule of law”. The new Constitution of Zimbabwe
reiterates the principles on good governance for the first time explicitly in chapter
two which includes topics such as “good governance, national unity, peace and
stability, fostering of fundamental rights and freedoms and foreign policy.”
(iii) Reform of the electoral system – the recent developments in the Zimbabwe
Electoral process have mainly centred on the issue of Diaspora voting and special
voting. To deny one the right to vote is equal to a human rights violation. The right
to vote is enshrined in Section 67 of Zimbabwe’s Constitution and nowhere in this
provision is it stated on the difference in voting rights between citizens within the
country’s borders and those living abroad.
(iv) Land reform – section 289 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe explain the
principles guiding policy on agricultural land with noteworthy is section 289 (c)
which states that, “the allocation and distribution of agricultural land must be
fair and equitable having regarded the gender balance and diverse community
interests”. Provision (f ) goes on to say that, no person may be deprived arbitrarily
of their right to use and occupy land. These provisions introduce a new framework
on agricultural land policy.
(v) The disabled people’s rights – the people living with disabilities are now entitled
to the means to make them more self-reliant and to state funded education and
treatment when they need it.
(vi) Establishment of the Constitutional Court – there is now established a
Constitutional Court which among other things deals with the protection of the
people against human rights abuses.
(vii) Powers of the Anti-Corruption Commission – the Anti-Corruption Commission
can direct the Commissioner General of police to investigate and act on alleged
corruption and when so ordered the Commissioner General of police shall obey
the directive.
(viii) Limits of Presidential Office – the president has a limited term of office
of a maximum of two five year terms. Other key officers of the state including
commanders of security services, permanent secretaries, and the clerk of
parliament also have limited terms of office.
Role of citizens in formulating a constitution
Citizen involvement in constitution making is increasingly considered to be
essential for the legitimacy and effectiveness of the process.
• Constitutional design is more participatory if the mass public has more
opportunities to both oversee and engage in the process.
• The phases of constitution making include drafting, consultation,

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 deliberation, adoption, and ratification. The citizens are all involved in each
and every stage of the constitution making process.
• The modal form of participation in constitutional design is the power to
ratify or approve the charter, usually by referendum on the final document
as a whole.
• Another mode of citizen participation involves direct consultation with
the public or representative groups at various stages, which might occur
before, during, or after the drafting of the initial text.
• Consultation also plays a legitimating role, at least when there is the
appearance of listening to the views expressed.

Activity 6.1 Drama

Write a drama that encompasses all the stages of constitution making process and
the role played by citizens in constitution making. The characters in drama should
converse in indigenous languages.
Activity 6.2 Project-based learning
Download the Constitution of Zimbabwe on the website of the Ministry of Justice,
Legal and Parliamentary Affairs of Zimbabwe – www.justice.gov.zw/index.php/
downloads?download=2:zimbabwe-constitution. Read its provisions from the
preamble to the last chapter. Make an effort as computer literate students to create
a software application that disseminate the Constitution of Zimbabwe to all citizens
via their mobile phones. Upload the application on Google Play for easy access.

UNIT 6.2 SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION OF

ZIMBABWE
The summary does not contain all the details in the Constitution of Zimbabwe but
the only more critical information on the main provisions.
The Preamble
The preamble expresses and acknowledges colonial injustices, honours the sacrifices
of the men and women who fought to overcome the injustices. It also looks to the
future with a resolve to live in a democratic society based on the rule of law, hard
work, respect for and enjoyment of the fundamental human rights and freedoms,
unity, our natural resources and attain prosperity for all citizens.
Chapter 1: Founding Provisions (sections 1-7)
Zimbabwe is founded on the following values and principles:
• Zimbabwe is a unitary, democratic and sovereign republic.
• the Constitution is its supreme law and any law, practice custom or conduct

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 inconsistent with the Constitution is invalid.
Chapter 2: National Objectives (sections 8-34)
Zimbabwe has the following National Objectives, which enjoin the State, within
the limits of available resources, to:
• ensure good governance by
appointing public officers on merit,
combating corruption and abuse of
power and adequately funding all
institutions of the State;
• promote national unity, peace and
stability;
• protect fundamental human rights
and freedoms;
• promote the interests of children,
the youths, elderly persons,
persons with disabilities, veterans
of the liberation struggle, workers,
the family and marriage; Fig. 6.2 The Constitution of Zimbabwe

• provide free and compulsory basic

education to all children.
Chapter 3: Citizenship (sections 35-43)
Zimbabwean citizenship is by birth, descent or registration. All citizens are equally
entitled to:
• protection by the State, to passports and other travel documents and birth
certificates and other identity documents issued by the State.
• citizens by birth are persons who are born in Zimbabwe by a mother or a
father who was a Zimbabwean citizen or any of their grandparents was a
Zimbabwean citizen by birth or descent; or who, if born outside Zimbabwe,
either of their parents was a Zimbabwean citizen and ordinarily resident in
Zimbabwe but working outside the country for the State or an international
organisation.
Chapter 4: Declaration of Rights (sections 44-87)
Every person and the State are bound by the Declaration of Rights. The fundamental
rights and freedoms are as follows:
• every person has a right to life but the law may permit the death penalty
for murder in aggravating circumstances; the death penalty must not be

129
 imposed on a woman or a person who was less than 21 years when the
offence was committed or is more than 70 years old and the right of the
unborn child is protected in Zimbabwe. Abortion is prohibited by law.
• every woman has equal dignity of the person with men including equal
opportunities in political, social and economic activities.
Chapter 5: The Executive (sections 88-115)
• executive authority derives from the people and must be exercised in
accordance with this Constitution.
• the President is Head of State and Government and Commander-in-Chief
of the Defence Forces.
Chapter 6: The Legislature (sections 116-117)
The Legislature consists of Parliament
and the President. The legislative
authority derives from the people.
Chapter 7: Elections (sections 155-
161)
Elections must be peaceful, free and
fair, conducted by secret ballot, based
on universal adult suffrage and equality
Fig. 6.3 Parliament of Zimbabwe of votes, and free from violence.
Chapter 8: Judiciary and the
Courts (sections 162-193)
Judicial authority derives from the
people and is vested in the courts,
namely, the Constitutional Court, the
Supreme Court, the High Court, the
Labour Court, the Administrative Court,
the magistrates courts, the customary
courts and other courts established by
Fig. 6.4 High Court of Zimbabwe or under an Act of Parliament.
Chapter 9: Principles of Public Administration and Leadership (sections 194-
198)
This chapter sets out the principles governing public administration. These
principles cover government and all its institutions, local authorities, parastatals
and government companies and the people who hold positions in these public
institutions.

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 Chapter 10: Civil Service (sections 194-205)
Members of the Civil Service are persons employed by the Government. Not
included in the Civil Service are the police, the defence forces, prison officers,
members of the judiciary and staff of Parliament.
Chapter 11: Security Services (sections 206-210)
Security Services are made up of the Defence Forces, the Police, Prisons, intelligence
services and any security service permitted by law.
Chapter 12: Independent Commissions Supporting Democracy (section 211-
253)
There are 5 of them, namely:
• the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission;
• the Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission;
• the Zimbabwe Gender Commission;
• the Zimbabwe Media Commission;
• the National Peace and Reconciliation Commission.
Chapter 13: Institutions to Combat Corruption and Crime (sections 254-263)
Zimbabwe Anti-Corruption Commission and National Prosecuting Authority
Chapter 14: Provincial and Local Government (sections 264-266)
The devolution of power to provincial and local government authorities is to ensure
participation by all citizens in Zimbabwe. As such, it is not about the promotion of
divisionism, secessionism, or the promotion of disunity.
Chapter 15: Traditional Leaders (sections 280-287)
This chapter recognizes traditional leadership under customary law, customary and
traditional purposes under Chiefs, head persons and village heads in the communities
under their jurisdiction.
Chapter 16: Agricultural Land (sections 288-297)
• All citizens, regardless of race,
have a right to hold, occupy, use
or dispose of agricultural land.
• Its allocation must be fair and
equitable having regard to the
fact that it is a finite resource and
part of the common heritage,
gender balance and diverse
community interests.
Fig. 6.5 Agricultural land in Zimbabwe

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 • Its use must promote food security and employment subject to conservation
for future generations.
Chapter 17: Finance (sections 298-317)
• Financial management of public finances.
• There must be transparency and accountability and funds must be
expended prudently, economically and effectively.
Chapter 18: General and Supplementary Provisions
• All commissions have corporate status.
• Only members of independent commissions, the Judicial Service
Commission, Anti-Corruption Commission and the Land Commission have
protected tenure; the rest serve at the pleasure of the President.
• Chairpersons and deputy chairpersons of commissions must be of different
genders.

Activity 6.3 Poems

In a group of five, write a poem praising Zimbabwe for formulating its own
constitution. One of your representatives should recite that poem to the whole
class.
Activity 6.4 Debate in groups
1. Divide your class into two sides with equal member participants. One of the
group members should argue that constitutionalism is a new development
to Zimbabwe introduced by colonialists. The other group should refute this
argument saying that constitutionalism dates back to pre-colonial states like
Great Zimbabwe.
2. Death penalty should be removed in the Constitution of Zimbabwe as a
punitive measure to law offenders. Support or refute this statement giving
your own views.
Activity 6.5 Critical thinking
Your school is proposing to create a new constitution which regulates the behaviour
of students. Critically discuss with your classmates what features should be found in
your school constitution.
Activity 6.6 Role playing
Carry out an outreach programme as a class to teach the members of your
community about the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe. Explain to
them the key elements of the constitution and how it benefits them.

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Interesting facts
The Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013 was passed by the Parliament of Zimbabwe
on the 15th of May 2013 and assented to by the former President Robert Gabriel
Mugabe on the 22nd of May 2013.
Summary of the chapter
• A constitution is a set of rules and customs, written or unwritten, legally
established by which a government conducts its affairs.
• Constitutions can express the identity and values of a nation. As nation
building instruments, constitutions may define the national flag, anthem
and other symbols, and may make proclamations about the values, history
and identity of the nation.
• Constitution making process attempts to represent the will of the people,
to achieve a consensus on the future of the state and to ensure respect
for universal principles such as respect for human rights and democratic
governance.
• The final draft Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013 was adopted by all the
main political parties and put before a national referendum on 16 March
2013 where it was endorsed by an overwhelming majority of people who
voted and enacted by the president to become a law.
• The shortcomings of the 1980 Lancaster House Constitution which was
not owned by the people of Zimbabwe led to the formulation of the new
Constitution of Zimbabwe.
• The Constitution of Zimbabwe starts with a preamble which was written
by all the Zimbabwean citizens and it views and values their feelings.
Glossary of terms
Extra-territorial rights – are rights of foreigners outside of their own country.
Nation building – is constructing or structuring a national identity using the power
of the state.
Legislative – an arm of government which have the function of making laws of a
country.
Judiciary – the branch of government charged with the interpretation of laws and the
administration of justice.
Executive – is the organ exercising authority in and holding responsibility for the
governance of a state. The executive executes and enforces law.
Decentralization – is the transfer of authority from central to local government.
Supreme law – highest in rank of law. A constitution is a supreme law of a country.

133
Human rights – are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality,
place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion,
language, or any other status.
Public consultation – is a regulatory process by which the public’s input on matters
affecting them is sought.
Referendum – a vote in which all the people in a country or an area are asked to give
their opinion about or decide an important political or social question
through voting.
Ratification – the action of signing or giving formal consent to a treaty, contract, or
agreement, making it officially valid.
Amendment – a minor change or addition designed to improve a text or piece of
legislation.
Good governance – is used to describe how public institutions conduct public affairs
and manage public resources.
Foreign policy – a government’s strategy in dealing with other nations.
Constitutional court – is a high court that deals primarily with constitutional law.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. A constitution is ___________
A. a document written by politicians.
B. combination of laws.
C. a document in which the most important laws of the land is authoritatively
ordained.
D. fundamental principles of governance.
2. What is a constitution making process?
A. a process that respects human rights.
B. universal principles of democracy.
C. a consensus on the future of the state.
D. a process that attempts to represent the will of the people to ensuring respect
for human rights and democratic governance.
3. What does the abbreviation GPA stands for?
A. Global Political Agreement B. Government of Zimbabwe
C. Government of National Unity D. Constitution of Zimbabwe
4. What does COPAC stands for?
A. Parliamentary Committee B. Constitutional Committee
C. a people driven constitution D. Parliamentary Selectee Committee

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5. The constitution making process in Zimbabwe had how many thematic areas of the
constitution?
A. 18 B. 21 C. 17 D. 22
6. Why Zimbabwe abandoned the Lancaster House Constitution with a new one?
A. it was funny B. it was not owned by the people of Zimbabwe
C. it was archaic D. it was long overdue
7. The Kariba Draft Constitution was drafted and rejected by the people of Zimbabwe
in which year?
A. 2000 B. 2001 C. 2007 D. 2009
8. Citizens are all involved in __________ stage(s) of the constitution making
process.
A. 1 B. 2 C. each and every D. few
9. The stages of constitution making process include _________
A. consultation
B. drafting, consultation, deliberation, adoption and ratification
C. drafting, deliberation and adoption
D. consultation, deliberation, adoption and ratification
10. The Lancaster House Constitution was signed which year?
A. 1980 B. 1989 C. 1979 D. 1987
11. When was the national referendum to adopt a Constitution of Zimbabwe
Amendment (No. 20) held?
A. 16 March 2013 B. 18 April 1980 C. 16 April 2013 D. 16 May 2013

Structured Questions
1. (a) Define a constitution. [2]
(b) Explain any two functions of the constitution. [2]
(c) How does the process of constitution making process begin? [6]
2. (a) Give two reasons why the Lancaster House Constitution was replaced by the
Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 20) of 2013. [2]
(b) What is the role of citizens in the formulation of a constitution? [4]
(c) Identify any four phases of making a constitution. [4]
Essay Questions
1. Examine the functions of a constitution. [20]
2. Explain the constitution making process using any case study of your choice.
[20]
3. (a) Why did Zimbabwe adopt a new constitution in 2013? [10]
(b) Describe the role of citizens in constitution making process. [10]
4. Briefly summarize the contents of the Constitution of Zimbabwe. [20]

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EXAMINATION II
PAPER 1: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 hour 15 mins)
There are 40 questions in this paper. Answer all questions in a separate paper. For each
question there are 4 possible answers, A, B, C, and D. Choose the one ou consider correct.
1. San rock paintings were done by_____________
A. healers B. hunters C. both men and women D. young men
2. The Khoi Khoi people lived in village of between_________
A. 30-50 huts B. 15-20 huts C. 90-100 huts D. 5-10 huts
3. Chiefs among the Khoi Khoi were selected on the bases of______
A. livestock possession B. number of children
C. hunting skills D. painting skills
4. According to Khoi Khoi customs the bridegroom was supposed to stay at his in
laws ________
A. for the rest of his life B. until the birth of the first child
C. until he killed an antelope D. until they allow him to go
5. The Khoi Khoi god is known as______
A. new moon B. stammers C. Bantu D. Tsui-Goab
6. The San are also known as____
A. the bushman B. Dutch C. Bantu D. traders
7. The San people would move from place to place_____
A. in search of minerals B. in search of animals and fruits
C. in search of rock paintings D. in search of women
8. Traditional leaders draw their authority from ______
A. culture and tradition B. headman
C. rituals D. traditional music and dance
9. San shelter was made by_______.
A. both men and women B. women C. young people D. men
10.___________ is on the top of the hierarchy of traditional leaders.
A. chief B. headman C. village head D. elders
11. The Khoi Khoi flute was made of __________
A. reeds B. plastic C. clay D. iron
12. The Khoi Khoi people were also known as the _______
A. Bantu B. Hottenots C. San D. Dutch
13. National symbols represent __________________
A. the Shona B. all the people of Zimbabwe
C. the Ndebele people D. the Tonga people
14. Which one of the following is not a national symbol?
A. Great Dyke of Zimbabwe B. Zimbabwe bird
C. National Anthem D. National flag
15. Zimbabwean flag consist of four horizontal stripes of which colour?
A. Blue, red, yellow and purple B. red, yellow, white and orange
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 C. green, yellow, red and black D. yellow, blue, grey and red
16. Zimbabwe won her independence from the colonial government on which
day?
A. 18 April 1980 B. 18 April 1981
C. 18 April 1984 D. 22 December 1987
17. What does the white triangle in the national flag of Zimbabwe represents?
A. history of Zimbabwe.
B. forests and vegetation.
C. peace, tranquillity and freedom enjoyed by Zimbabweans today.
D. the ancestral world.
18. The national coat of arms in Zimbabwe have how many kudus?
A. one B. two C. three D. five
19. A national monument can be defined as _________________
A. a historic place.
B. a place of historic, scenic or scientific interest set aside for preservation by
authorities.
C. a series of structures.
D. attractive buildings in the city of Harare.
20. In which year was the Great Zimbabwe ruins added to the World Heritage Sites
list by UNESCO?
A. 1980 B. 1986 C. 1990 D. 1994
21. Victoria Falls is one of the ___________ wonders of the world.
A. seven B. three C. nine D. twelve
22. Traditionally, Chinhoyi Caves were called _______ which means the pool of the
fallen.
A. Chinhoyi B. Chirorodziva C. Nyamakwere D. Nguni
23. The first hero to be buried at the National Heroes Acre is George Silundika.
When was, he buried there?
A. April 1980 B. April 1981 C. August 1981 D. January 1982
24. In the past, people could consult the oracle at Njelele during __________
A. drought periods and other problems B. spare time
C. the night D. winter season
25. The red star which is located behind the Zimbabwe Bird represents the nation’s
_____
A. aspirations and a bright future for the country.
B. Great Zimbabwe Ruins.
C. bateleur eagle.
D. blood shed during the liberation struggle.
26. Identify any two late Vice Presidents of Zimbabwe buried at the National
Heroes Acre_______
A. Jason Ziyaphapha Moyo and Josiah Tongogara
B. Joshua Nkomo and Simon Muzenda

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 C. Solomon Mujuru and Leopold Takawira
D. Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi
27. The bronze statue of the Unknown Soldier is one of the most important items
at the National Heroes Acre consisting of three individuals of which gender?
A. two men and one woman B. three men
C. two women and one man D. three women
28. A national pledge is meant to _________
A. destroy people.
B. instil fear.
C. instil patriotism and commitment to national interest.
D. consolidate power.
29. The national schools pledge was officially launched by Dr Sylvia Utete-Masango
in May 2016 at which school?
A. Harare High School B. Mpopoma High School
C. Nemakonde High School D. Umzingwane High School
30. The pledge is universal to every Zimbabwean without _________
A. national identity card B. racial, language or tribal segregation
C. birth certificate D. age
31. Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from ___________
A. earth B. heaven C. humans D. friends
32. Natural resources are categorized into two types. Which one of the following
is correct?
A. perishable and non-perishable B. renewable and non-renewable
C. plants and animals D. fossil fuels and soils
33. A constitution is ___________
A. a document written by politicians.
B. combination of laws.
C. a document in which the most important laws of the land is authoritatively
ordained.
D. fundamental principles of governance.
34. What does the abbreviation GPA stands for?
A. Global Political Agreement B. Government of Zimbabwe
C. Government of National Unity D. Great Political Associates
35. What does COPAC stands for?
A. Parliamentary Committee B. Constitutional Committee
C. a people driven constitution D. Parliamentary Selectee Committee
36. The constitution making process in Zimbabwe had how many thematic areas
of the constitution?
A. 18 B.21 C. 17 D. 22
37. Why Zimbabwe abandoned the Lancaster House Constitution in 2013?
A. it was funny. B. it was not owned by the people of Zimbabwe.
C. it was archaic. D. it was long overdue.

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38. The Kariba Draft Constitution was drafted and rejected by the people of
Zimbabwe in which year?
A. 2000 B. 2001 C. 2007 D. 2009
39. Citizens are all involved in __________ stage(s) of the constitution making
process.
A. 1 B. 2 C. each and every D. few
40. The Lancaster House Constitution was signed which year?
A. 1980 B. 1989 C. 1979 D. 1987

PAPER 2
SECTION A: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS (Time: 2 hours) [100 marks]
Answer all questions in this section. Each question carries 10 marks.
1. (a) What are pre-colonial states? [2]
(b) List three materials that were used to build the San hut. [3]
(c) Identify three food items gathered by the Khoi Khoi women. (2)
(d) Draw and label the hierarchy of traditional leaders. [3]
2. (a) Define a national symbol. [2]
(b) Describe each of the following national symbols of Zimbabwe:
(i) The national flag of Zimbabwe. [2]
(ii) The Zimbabwe Bird. [2]
(iii) National coat of arms. [2]
(c) What is a national monument? [1]
(d) Where is the Great Zimbabwe ruins located? [1]
3. (a) Name any two national shrines in Zimbabwe. [2]
(b) Give two reasons why National Heroes Acre is important in Zimbabwe. [2]
(c) Name any five heroes and heroines buried at the National Heroes Acre that
you know. [5]
(d) Identify the location of the Njelele Shrine. [1]
4. (a) Define a natural resource. [1]
(b) Define what is a renewable natural resource and give three examples. [3]
(c) Define what is a non-renewable natural resource and give two examples. [2]
(d) Differentiate renewable and non-renewable resources. [4]

5. (a) Briefly discuss the role of government in natural resource conservation. [4]
(b) Explain two ways of conserving natural resources. [2]
(c) How does natural resources benefit human beings? [4]
6. (a) Define a constitution. [2]
(b) Explain any two functions of the constitution. [2]

139
 (c) How does the process of constitution making process began? [2]
(d) Give two reasons why the Lancaster House Constitution was replaced by the
Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013. [2]
(e) What is the role of citizens in the formulation of a constitution? [2]

SECTION B: ESSAY QUESTIONS

Answer any two questions in this section. Each question carries 20 marks.
7. Compare and contrast the economic activities of the San and the Khoi Khoi
people. [20]
8. (a) Explain the characteristics of the national coat of arms in Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Write the lyrics of the national anthem of Zimbabwe in any indigenous
language of your choce. [5]
(c) Discuss the importance of the national symbols. [5]
9. (a) Explain the meaning of the bronze statue of the Unknown Soldier found at
the National Heroes Acre of Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Describe the religious importance of Njelele Shrine to the nation of
Zimbabwe. [10]
10. (a) Describe the evolution of the school pledge in Zimbabwe. [5]
(b) Explain the importance of the schools’ pledge. [10]
(c) Write the wording of the schools’ pledge of Zimbabwe. [5]
11. Explain the constitution making process using any case study of your choice.
[20]

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 CHAPTER 7: RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Chapter objectives
At the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
• define an entitlement.
• list some indigenous forms of entitlement.
• examine the importance of entitlement of motherhood and fatherhood in
indigenous families.
• identify the rights and responsibilities of children in Zimbabwe.
• distinguish between rights and responsibilities of children in contemporary
societies.
Introduction
Zimbabwean knowledge system is a hub of rights and responsibilities accorded
to people of different ages. The cultures of Zimbabwe are diversified with good
norms and practices. Mothers and fathers since pre-colonial societies are entitled
to certain privileges and immunities in any given community despite their age,
language, or religion. On the same page, children have their own rights and
responsibilities at home and school.

UNIT 7.1 INDIGENOUS ENTITLEMENTS

Definition of an entitlement
An entitlement is the belief that one deserves certain privileges and special
treatment. Entitlement can also be defined as a state or condition of being entitled
a right to benefits specified especially by tradition or contract. In other words, it is
a belief that one is deserving of or entitled to certain privileges.
An entitlement is a provision made in accordance with a legal framework of a
society. Entitlements can also be informally to do with expected social conventions
and social norms. In Zimbabwean cultures, fathers and mothers are entitled
to support and feed their families as well as to be given such entitlements like
respect, care and love by their grown-up children.
Forms of indigenous entitlements
Scholars have tended to emphasize the benefits that adults reaped through
children. But adults also had to invest considerable materials and social capital
in the young so they could meet their full potentials and assist their families to
progress. The need to ensure societal continuity was deemed so important that
the task of training and sponsoring a child could not be trusted to the parents
alone; it was instead considered a societal responsibility.

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(a) Respect
The first entitlement that is supposed to be given to both mothers and fathers as
parents is total and unconditional respect regarding all aspects of social, economic
and political life. In their words, parents and elders should be respected and given
their positions accordingly. The young people must always show respect to elders
in communities. If parents are not given enough respect in the case of an African
context, it results in misfortunes like high filial treason known in Shona as kutanda
botso.
Kutanda botso is a process undertaken by a wrong doer or a disrespectful person to
appease the spirit of the deceased person’s surviving family. This is done through a
combination of rituals and payment of presents in cash or kind to the relatives of the
wronged family. In a kutanda botso scenario, the wrong doer commits a tort when
he or she offends parents. This is committed when one breaches the ubuntu/unhu
code, for example, by harassing parents either verbally or physically. This offence
may be worse if it leads to the death of a parent.
Kutanda botso can also be committed if a person neglects their parents by not
providing for their material needs when they are economically able to provide.
Regardless of his or her age, a child who is economically active is entitled to
materially support his or her parents at all times without any excuses.
Even if someone is not economically active or employed, supporting parents takes
many forms such as tilling land for them, fetching water, doing other household chores
as well as showing respect and providing love. This practice is captured in a popular
Shona phrase, chirere chigokurerawo, which means look after your child so that they
look after you at the time of need.
(b) Motherhood entitlements
(i) Mother’s cow (Mombe yeumai/Inkomo yohlanga)
In a highly-valued marriage process, mothers are given exclusive homage; apart
from the bride price. Zimbabwean cultures mandate the delivery of a special cow
to the bride’s mother known in Shona as, “mombe yeumai” or the motherhood cow.
The idea behind this hallowed piece of tradition is to honour the bride’s mother for
bringing her into this world.
Traditionally this is a gift of cattle and nowadays
it is most commonly paid in cash, although the
amounts will still be representative of fair market
price for cattle.
The cow is expected to produce an offspring as
proof that the union has been blessed. ‘Mombe
Fig. 7.1 A cow yamai’ is surrounded by the belief that the most

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powerful ancestors that protect us are the maternal ones. ‘Mudzimu wamai
ukadambura mbereko’ (if maternal spirits let go) spells disaster. To keep these
spirits happy and attentive there is need to follow the ‘mombe yeumai’ protocol.
To give ‘mombe yeumai’ is to acknowledge this spiritual symbolism. It seeks to
recognize the fertility status of a mother-in-law (ambuya) and her female line in
the marriage protocol.
Symbolically, in tradition (chivanhu), mombe yeumai signified paying homage to
the founder, new family source, and life fountain. It is a long-held Shona belief that
mombe yeumai protocols can either grow or destroy families. The maternal spirits
line was associated with origins, life and fertility. These were considered “vanamai or
varidzi vemunhu”. If a misfortune befell a family the first enquiry focused on the mombe
yeumai protocol, seeking to identify gaps.
(ii) Mother’s lobola gifts (Mafukidzadumbu)
The gifts for the mother of the bride in the old days included things like ‘mbereko’, for
carrying the bride in a pouch or sling when she was a baby, and ‘mafukidzadumbu’
for covering of the belly; this is alternately translated as “carrying the baby in the
womb” or “tucking the baby in with a blanket when she wakes in the night)”. The
amount paid for the mother is non-negotiable.
(iii) Mother’s field (Tseu yamai)
Tseu yamai is a traditional practice that gave a
woman the right to a small piece on which she
could farm whatever was important to her like
groundnuts. She had ownership and control
of the produce and benefits from them.
(iv) A cow given to mothers as a price for
their daughters’ virginity (Mombe
yechimanda) Fig. 7.2 A woman in her field
Mothers are also entitled to benefit from the virginity of their daughters. A son-in-
law is supposed to give the mothers of his wife a cow if he finds his wife virgin. This
is a protective norm where mothers are rewarded for teaching their daughters
good social values. The cow is slaughtered and the mothers in law will feast.
If a man impregnates a girl before official marriage while she still stays with her
parents, he is fined a cow known as mombe yematyorwa meaning a penalty for
damaging the image of the girl’s family identity and giving burden to her parents.
(c) Fatherhood entitlements
Fathers are a sacred reality in the life of African children because they are
considered second only to God. The absence of fathers represents the absence

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of God amongst people in Zimbabwe. This is because the role of a father in
Zimbabwe is to guide, provide and protect his children. Therefore, when God or
his representative is absent, people have no direction and are equated to sheep
without a shepherd.
The absence leads to identity confusion in the adolescence stage. It is therefore
the father’s role to mould a child especially a boy into a man and, for that reason,
the boy’s life depends upon proper guidance by the parents. As such fathers are
also important in the lobola practice as he is entitled other benefits like rusambo,
and fathers bull (danga).
(i) Pulling of the beard bridal-price (Matekenyandebvu)
Fathers are also entitled to such benefits like bridal-
price for their daughters. It involves payments
that are direct to the bride’s father. A guardian or
representative can accept charge for these if the
paternal father is deceased or not known, which in
the old days had a lot of very long sub-processes
and has been shortened.
The main payment in Shona culture is the
‘matekenyandebvu’ which acknowledges the father
Fig. 7.3 Father playing antics for “the pulling of the beard” as the daughter sat
with daughter on his knee, or putting up with the playful antics
of his daughter as a child. The amount paid for the
father is negotiable.
(ii) Fathers bull
In Shona culture, a father is given a bull
by his son-in-law as acknowledgement of
the father’s authority. This is coupled by an
assortment called danga. The number of the
bulls depends with the region, religion, tribe
and culture of the people concerned.

Fig. 7.4 A bull

Activity 7.1 Problem solving

In a group of ten pupils. Discuss the respect that should be given to parents or guardians
at home. Suggest ways of improving your relations with parents or guardians in
everyday life.

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Activity 7.2 Drama and enterprise skills
Write a play which shows out the process of lobola where a girl is being married
according to your tradition. After perfecting your drama, showcase it to your fellow
schoolmates and make them pay to see you performing your drama.
Activity 7.3 Demonstration
Demonstrate to your community, schoolmates, parents, relatives and friends that
you know your rights given by the Constitution of Zimbabwe. Do this by composing
songs, leading children rights activists, writing poems, writing speeches and
educating them about these rights.

UNIT 7.2 RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHILDREN

What are rights?
Rights are what every human being deserves, no matter who they are or where
they live, so that they can live in a world that is fair and just.
Rights of children
The Constitution of Zimbabwe defines children as; every child, that is to say every
boy and girl under the age of eighteen years.
The concept of children rights is well elaborated in the Constitution of Zimbabwe
Amendment (No. 20) of 2013 compared to other constitutions existed before.
Some of these rights include the following:
(i) to equal treatment before the law, including the right to be heard;
(ii) to be given a name and family name;
(iii) in the case of a child who is born in Zimbabwe or outside Zimbabwe and is a
Zimbabwean citizen by descent; to the prompt provision of a birth certificate;
(iv) to family or parental care, or to appropriate care when removed from the family
environment;
(v) to be protected from economic and sexual exploitation, from child labour, and
from maltreatment, neglect or any form of abuse;
(vi) to education, health care services, nutrition and shelter;
(vii) not to be recruited into a militia force or take part in armed conflict or hostilities;
(viii) not to be compelled to take part in any political activity; and
(ix) not to be detained except as a measure of last resort and to be detained for the
shortest appropriate period.
(x) to be kept separately from detained persons over the age of eighteen years
and to be treated in a manner, and kept in conditions, that take account of the
child’s age.
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What is a responsibility?
A responsibility is something that is your job to do or to think about. It is equal
to a duty or obligation carried by someone in any society. Some of the children’s
responsibilities include:
• to follow the rules at home, at school and in the community since they are
there for our safety and to protect our rights and the rights of others.
• to respect our parents.
• to stand up for our rights and the rights of others as much as we can.
• to be the best person that we can be.
• to take care of our own bodies as best we can.
• to respect the rights of others.
• to look after our own belongings and respect the belongings of others.
• to care about others who are not as strong in some ways as we are.
• help parents doing domestic work such as cooking, washing plates and
cleaning the house.
• help with home repair and maintenance.
• yard work and mowing the lawn.
• maintain respectful family relationships.
• take on greater responsibility of our own life and choices, gaining
independence while maintaining safety and communication with parents.
Difference between rights and responsibilities
• Rights refer to the privileges given to you by a governing body, and are
usually written into laws while responsibilities are the obligations or duties
that can either be assigned to, or assumed by you.
• Rights can be challenged or defended in a court of law while responsibilities
cannot.
• The rights accorded to individuals or groups typically depend on an
agreed set of obligations and behaviours, with the presumption of mutual
cooperation and respect.
• Examples of legally defined rights include the rights of minorities, children
and the right to claim compensation in the event that your rights are
violated. Responsibilities make you ethically or morally accountable within
the greater society.
• Children have the right to families that support and protect them. Children
have a responsibility to respect and learn about their parents, families,
values and cultures.

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 • One cannot expect that a new born has any duties but has a lot of rights.
How do we learn about our rights and responsibilities?
• Everyone in the world is an important and special person. As we grow up,
we learn about being a unique person who is part of the world.
• First, we learn the skills for working with and caring about all the other
people in our small world of our family, our school and our neighbourhood.
We learn skills like using good manners, taking our turn, sharing, being kind
to others, thinking about others’ feelings, looking after our belongings and
being truthful and honest.
• As we grow older, we add to our skills when we learn that we are all
different, but just as special. We learn skills like listening to others, working
with others, making decisions in small and large groups, learning to keep
promises, admitting our mistakes and learning how to be a friend.
• As we move out into the world, we learn more about the responsibilities
which go with our rights. We learn that some things that humans do
are not acceptable because we are not considering the rights of others
these include; telling lies, cheating, bullying, violence, destroying others
belongings or property, and stealing.
• We learn skills like managing our time and our learning, looking after our
bodies, dealing with bullies, recognising when someone is using lies to hurt
others, keeping our belongings safe, keeping our promises and standing
up for what we believe in.
• Human beings have been responsible for most of the changes that have
happened in the world. Many changes have made the world a very bad
place for some plants, animals and even for other people. We all have to
learn the skills of sharing the earth with other living things and to learn
how each one of us can take some responsibility for making the world a
cleaner, safer and better place.
Duties of children at home
Housecleaning is done to make the home look and
smell better and be safer and easier to live in. Without
housecleaning lime scale can build up on taps, mild grows
in wet areas, smudges on glass surfaces, dust forms on
surfaces, bacterial action make the garbage disposal and
toilet smell and cobwebs accumulate.
Tools used in housecleaning include; vacuums, brooms,
mops and sponges, together with cleaning products
Fig. 7.5 A boy doing
such as detergents, disinfectants and bleach. Some of the
housecleaning

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housecleaning activities include; disposing of rubbish, cleaning dirty surfaces,
dusting and vacuuming. It may also involve some outdoor chores, such as
removing leaves from rain gutters, washing windows and sweeping doormats.
Housecleaning is done by both girls and boys.
Cooking – as children you should learn how to cook different meals like pup, tea,
vegetables, rice and meat. This gives you skills to survive during the absence of
your guardians. Both boys and girls should be given equal opportunities and
chances to learn these basic cooking skills.
Herding domesticated animals – as children you can help your parents to herding
cattle, sheep and goats during spare time from school. These animals need a
special attention as they are a source of wealth in our culture. Hence you need to
learn their importance and ways of keeping them safe.
Fetching water for domestic work -
children are responsible for fetching
water for domestic use from boreholes,
rivers and wells.
Fetching water for drinking is not limited
to rural areas only as some residences
in urban areas depend on water from
boreholes or wells.
The jobs that parents give to their children
should not be prone to gender divisions.
Fig. 7.6 Boys and girls fetching water for Girls tend to do more housework than
watering gardens boys, such as indoor chores, laundry,
kitchen work and cleaning the house. In
contrast, boys are more likely to do outdoor chores such as gardening, mowing
lawns or removing rubbish in the yard. These roles should be balanced so that
gender equality can be achieved.

Activity 7.4 Discussion and debate in groups

Discuss some duties of children at home. Debate about the roles that are supposed
to be done by girls and those prone to boys. How correct is it to say that boys are
supposed to sweep and cook while girls do garden work and herding cattle?
Activity 7.5 Research Assignment
Conduct a critical study on how children’s rights are being violated in your
community. Report your findings to your school teachers and recommend the
action that you think should be taken to end the abuses.

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Interesting facts
1. Armed conflict has killed 2 million children, disabled 4 to 5 million, left 12
million homeless, and orphaned more than 1 million in the past decade.
2. About 150 million girls and 73 million boys under the age of 18 experienced
forced sexual intercourse and other forms of sexual violence and exploitation
during 2002.
3. The Soweto uprising was a series of demonstrations and protests led by black
school children in South Africa that began on the morning of 16 June 1976. In
remembrance of these events, 16 June is now a public holiday in South Africa,
named Youth Day.
Summary of the chapter
• Entitlement is a state or condition of being entitled a right to benefits
specified especially by a tradition or contract.
• Indigenous entitlements emphasize the benefits that adults reaped
through children. Adults also had to invest considerable material and social
capital in the young so they could meet their full potentials and assist their
families to progress.
• High filial treason (kutanda botso) is a process undertaken by a wrong doer
or a disrespectful person to appease the spirit of the deceased person’s
surviving family. This is done through a combination of rituals and payment
of presents in cash or kind to the relatives of the wronged family.
• Parents have got entitlements given to them by society. Women are entitled
to mother’s cow (mombe yeumai) and mother’s field (tseu yamai) while men
are beneficiaries of bride price and pulling of the beard (matekenyandebvu).
• Rights are what every human being deserves, no matter who they are or
where they live, so that they can live in a world that is fair and just.
• The Constitution of Zimbabwe defines children as every child, that is to say
every boy and girl under the age of eighteen years.
• The difference between rights and responsibilities is that rights refer to
the privileges accorded to a person by a governing body, and are usually
written into laws while responsibilities are the obligations or duties that
can either be assigned to, or assumed by a person.
Glossary of terms
Entitlement – the belief that one is inherently deserving of privileges or special
treatment.
Tradition – the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation,
or the fact of being passed on in this way.

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Social responsibility – is an ethical framework and suggests that an entity, be
it an organisation or individual, has a duty to act for the
benefit of society at large.
Social convention – is a set of accepted standards, social norms, or criteria, often
taking the form of a custom.
Social norms – are the rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a
group or society. People who do not follow these norms may be
shunned or suffer some kind of consequence.
Antiquity – the ancient past, especially the period of classical and other human
civilizations before the middle ages.
Detain – keep (someone) in official custody, typically for questioning about a
crime or in a politically sensitive situation.
Minorities – the smaller number representing less than half of the whole.
Chores – a routine task, especially a household one.

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Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. An entitlement is ________________
A. a special treatment.
B. a respect.
C. a right.
D. the belief that one deserves privileges specified by a tradition.
2. The first entitlement that is supposed to be given to both mothers and fathers
as parents is ______________
A. money B. cars C. respect D. certificates
3. Zimbabwean oral traditions give women a sacred place as ________ of any
lineage.
A. chief matriarch B. mother
C. heroine D. baby sitters
4. The child who assaults their mothers should face _______ as a punishment.
A. death B. misfortunes
C. high filial treason D. arrest
5. In a highly-valued marriage process mothers are given exclusive homage apart
from bride price called ________
A. money B. respect C. lobola D. mother’s cow
6. The role of a father in Zimbabwe is to ___________
A. bath children
B. beat his children
C. provide, guide and protect his children
D. work for his family
7. Fathers are also entitled to such traditional benefits like ____________
A. the pulling of beard B. lobola C. mother’s cow D. money
8. Rights can be defined as ___________
A. justice.
B. what human beings deserve.
C. equality.
D. what every human being deserves, no matter who they are, or where they
live.
9. The Constitution of Zimbabwe defines children as every child that is to say every
boy and girl under the age of ________ years.
A. 16 B. 17 C. 18 D. 19
10. A responsibility is equal to _______
A. money B. duty or obligation C. job D. task

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Structured Questions

1. (a) Define an entitlement. [1]

(b) Explain the following three concepts of indigenous entitlements:
(i) Respect [3]
(ii) Motherhood entitlements [3]
(iii) Fatherhood entitlements [3]
2. (a) What is a high filial treason in Zimbabwe’s knowledge system. [4]
(b) What is the significance of a mother’s cow as an entitlement for women. [4]
(c) Name any special entitlement for fathers in Zimbabwe. [2]
3. (a) What is a right? [1]
(b) Define a child in line with the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe. [1]
(c) What is a responsibility? [1]
(d) Briefly describe the responsibilities of children at home and school. [3]
(e) Differentiate a right from a responsibility. [2]
(f ) State one right and one responsibility of a child in Zimbabwe. [2]
Essay Questions
1. (a) Explain why indigenous entitlements like a cow (mombe yeumai) are given
to mothers during the lobola ceremonies. [10]
(b) Describe the concept of high filial treason (kutanda botso). [10]
2. Describe the rights given to children in Zimbabwe. [20]
3. (a) How do people learn about their rights and responsibilities? [10]
(b) Describe any five duties of children at home. [10]
True or False Questions (answer whether it is true or false)
1. Pulling of the beard is a bridal price given to mothers in Shona culture.
2. A mother’s field is usually cultivated maize by women.
3. There is a cow given to the mothers of a virgin girl during the lobola process.
4. High filial treason is a thing of the past and is longer practised today.
5. Children have a right to basic education and social security.
6. There is a difference between children’s rights and responsibilities.
7. In Zimbabwe a child is everyone below the age of eighteen.
8. Every 16th June is a Day of Youth holiday in South Africa.
9. Children’s rights are protected by the Constitution in Zimbabwe.
10. All the children in Zimbabwe have responsibilities at home, school and to the
country.

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 CHAPTER 8: PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF
GOODS AND SERVICES
Chapter objectives
At the end of this chapter, learners must be in a position to:
• identify the factors of production.
• describe the significance of the factors of production.
• identify types of industries in early Zimbabwean societies.
• describe types of contemporary industries in Zimbabwe.
• describe the characteristics of the informal sector.
• explain the importance of the informal sector.
• list different types of indigenous and contemporary food.
• describe storage and preservation strategies of indigenous and
contemporary foods.
• explain the importance of indigenous and contemporary foods.
Introduction
The chapter will discuss the factors of production and their importance in business.
It will also explain the types of pre-colonial industries which existed in Zimbabwe
and the state of modern industries dating back from colonial period. The chapter
will assess the contributions being made by the informal sector in augmenting the
Zimbabwean economy. It will tackle the storage methods used to preserve food
among other things.

UNIT 8.1 FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

What is production?
Production are the processes and methods used to transform tangible inputs
(raw materials, semi-finished goods, subassemblies) and intangible inputs (ideas,
information, knowledge) into goods or services. Resources are used in this process
to create an output that is suitable for use or has exchange value.
Factors of production are inputs that a business uses to produce a good or service.
In other words, these are materials and supplies that businesses use to create
goods and services in an effort to make a profit. Resources required for generation
of goods or services are generally classified into four major groups:
(i) Land (including all natural resources),
(ii) Labour (including all human resources),
(iii) Capital (including all man-made resources), and
(iv) Entrepreneurship (which brings all the previous resources together for
production.)

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 Fig. 8.1 A diagram showing the factors of production

(i) Land
The first factor of production is land. This includes any natural resource used
to produce goods and services. This includes not just land, but anything that
comes from the land. Some common land or natural resources are water, oil,
copper, natural gas, coal, and forests. Land resources are the raw materials in the
production process. Using land for industrial purposes allows nations to improve
the production processes for converting natural resources into consumer goods.
These resources can be renewable, such as forests, or non-renewable such as oil or
natural gas. Payment for the use of land is called rent.
(ii) Labour
The second factor of production is labour. Labour is the effort that people
contribute to the production of goods and services. Labour represents the human
capital available to transform raw materials into consumer goods. Labour includes
all able-bodied individuals capable of working in the economy and providing
various services to other individuals or businesses. This factor of production is a
flexible resource as workers can be allocated to different areas of the economy for
producing consumer goods or services. Payment for labor is called wages. It is the
largest source of income for most people.
(iii) Capital
The third factor of production is capital. It is the money, machinery, equipment and
buildings humans use to produce goods and services. Some common examples
of capital include hammers, forklifts, conveyer belts, computers, and delivery vans.
Capital differs based on the worker and the type of work being done. For example,
teachers may use textbooks, desks, computers and a whiteboard to produce
education services. Payment for investing capital is called interest.

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(iv) Entrepreneurship
The fourth factor of production is entrepreneurship. An entrepreneur is a person
who combines the other factors of production that is land, labour, and capital
to earn a profit. The most successful entrepreneurs are innovators who find new
ways to produce goods and services or who develop new goods and services to
bring to market. Entrepreneurs are a vital engine of economic growth helping to
build some of the largest firms in the world as well as some of the small businesses
around us. The payment to entrepreneurship is profit.
Importance of factors of production
• All four factors of production categories are important to the production of
goods used in the wants-and-needs-satisfying process that keeps human
beings alive from one day to the next and makes living just a little more
enjoyable.
• Land provides the basic raw materials that become the goods.
• Labour does the hands-on work. One cannot create a product out of
nothing and perform a service without labour, which is also a factor of
production.
• Capital is the tool that makes the job easier.
• While entrepreneurship organizes the entire process.
• Factors of production are the resources that allow us to create finished
products and perform services.
• A modern economy cannot exist without factors of production, which
makes them pretty important.

Activity 8.1 Debate

How correct is it to say that entrepreneurship is not an important factor of
production? Half of the class should agree with this statement while the other half
disagrees. Each of the group should give facts supporting their line of argument.

UNIT 8.2 THE CONCEPT OF INDUSTRY

Definition of an industry
An industry is a classification that refers to group of activities that are related based
on their primary business objectives. In modern economies, there are dozens of
industry classifications, which are typically grouped into larger categories called
sectors, with individual companies being classified into an industry based on their
largest sources of revenue. A single industry is often named after its principal
product; for example, the communication, transport, mining, or fishing industry.

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Types of industries
There are three types of industries which include; primary, secondary and tertiary
industry.
(a) Primary industries
It involves the extraction of raw materials like mining, fishing, farming activities
and forestry.
(b) Secondary industries
They are involved in the processing of goods from raw materials into semi-
finished or finished products. This type of industry depends on raw materials
from the primary industry. Examples of such industries include; refineries, tobacco
processing industries, steel production, chemical industries, and beverages
industry.
(c) Tertiary or services industries
This type of industry provides skilled and semi-skilled people who offer services and
knowledge to improve performance and productivity. These include; banking and
finance, transport, communication, information, technology and communication,
tourism, health services, insurance among others.
Historical development of industries
Pre-colonial industries in Zimbabwe
Pre-colonial means before the heyday of massive European colonisation which
occupied much of Africa after the 1870s. Zimbabwean pre-colonial societies
include early, middle and late iron age, the Great Zimbabwe, the Rozvi state, the
Mutapa state, the Ndebele state, Zulu kingdom among others. These states are
usually referred to as pre-industrial societies because of their social attributes and
forms of political and cultural organisation that were prevalent before the advent
of the Industrial Revolution which occurred from 1750 to 1850.
Pre-industrial is a time before there were machines and tools to help perform
tasks at large scale. However, it does not disqualify the fact that the pre-colonial
societies had their own peculiar industries which were doing very well through
different economic activities.
Pre-colonial industrial sectors
People in pre-colonial Zimbabwe engaged in hunting and gathering, agriculture,
fishing, mining, crafts or industry and simple manufacturing. Some of these
activities were practised in pre-colonial states like, Great Zimbabwe, the Rozvi
state, Mutapa state, Ndebele state, Khoisan, Zulu state and others.

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(a) Agriculture
Agriculture involved most people, so the discussion looks mainly at farming
activities. In these vast African landscapes, pastoralists could move freely in search
of grazing land without coming into conflict with the settled farming communities.
And the abundance of land meant that the farmers could use extensive agricultural
methods. This means that they did not use a lot of inputs to keep the land fertile.
Plenty of strong young people were needed to work the land and open new fields.
Without a big labour force, farmers were limited in their use of extensive agriculture.
So, in those days labour was very valuable, and institutions that regulated the use
of labour, such as the family, kinship systems and slavery played a crucial role in
Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial economic history.
Many of the pre-colonial societies had agricultural based economies. Whether
hunting and gathering or agricultural economies, in most cases pre-colonial
Zimbabwe carried out their agricultural work and production collectively or
communally in which ideally all able-bodied adults participated. Agriculture
was particularly important because of available fertile and excellent land for the
cultivation of sorghum, millet and other food crops. Farming was carried out by
both men and women.
(b) Mining
Gold mining continued to be an important source of wealth. During the pre-
colonial era, Great Zimbabwe became the largest supplier of gold in the world.
Gold mining did much to change the lives of ordinary people in pre-colonial
Zimbabwe. It provided them with many job opportunities and the surplus was
commonly controlled by the people in power, the political elites.
(c) Crafts
Depending on location, pre-colonial Zimbabwe engaged in crafts-level hand-
tool manufacturing. They produced agricultural tools, cloths, iron or copper
implements, pottery, jewellery, weapons for hunting or warfare, and other
products. Craft industry practised included the carving of canoes used for fishing
and manufacturing iron made weapons such as spears and bows.
(d) Trade
Most pre-colonial African economies were mainly subsistence-oriented with trade
routes and markets for the exchange of surplus goods for commodities that could
not be produced locally. These subsistence economies were not oriented to the
mass accumulation of wealth or attainment of profits.
It involved the exchange of products in local and distant markets. In local or
internal trade people met in periodic markets and exchanged foodstuffs, livestock,

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fish and pottery wares. Sometimes money in the form of beads, cattle, iron coins,
and other portable items was used for the exchange of goods. Markets existed for
trade of a wide array of goods from foodstuffs, clothing, and footwear to luxury
products and slaves. Women as well as men were active traders and merchants at
the marketplace.
From all this, it can be said that long before the pre-colonial societies in Zimbabwe
came to contact with Europeans, they had developed a viable economic system
based on farming, fishing, hunting, industry and trade. This demonstrates that
they had a thriving industry. Therefore, industrial sectors that we see today in
Zimbabwe is not a new phenomenon but it dates back to ancient times.
Contemporary industry
The contemporary industry in Zimbabwe can be divided into colonial and post-
colonial era. The colonial industry destroyed the pre-colonial industries that
existed before it. It started when Zimbabwe was effectively colonized by the British
Government in 1890. The colonial regime concentrated in economic interests
such as mining, land and farming. These industrial sectors such as agriculture and
mining were heavily valued by the colonial government.
The colonial government concentrated in mining gold and farming crops like
maize, tobacco and cotton which were exported in raw form to most European
countries. In the 1960s, Rhodesia Iron and Steel Company which is called Zimbabwe
Steel Company (ZISCO) today focussed on steel products manufacturing. Most of
the colonial industries were owned by white minorities.
When Zimbabwe gained independence on 18 April 1980, continued to develop
the local industries to be viable. Some of the industrial sectors that benefitted from
governments policies of indigenization include; agriculture, mining, transport,
fishing, and others. The most prominent industries in Zimbabwe include; mining,
agriculture, communication, transport, fishing, services sector, manufacturing,
textiles and clothing, banking, among others.
(a) Mining
Zimbabwe has huge wealth in terms of
rich deposits of more than forty types
of minerals. At present, however, only
half of these deposits are being actively
mined. The nation’s unusually diverse
geology gives it great potential to earn
substantial revenues from exporting
minerals such as gold, diamond,
chrome, tin, asbestos, nickel and others.
The mining sector does contribute the Fig. 8.2 Coal mining at Hwange

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maximum amount of foreign earnings, as compared to the other sectors of the
economy.
Mining provides jobs for only around five percent of the workforce, but the sector
brings in a third of the country’s export earnings. Gold, platinum, diamond and
other metal alloys are mined, as well as coal which is used to produce electricity.
Diamonds are becoming increasingly important to Zimbabwe’s economy.
(b) Agriculture
The agricultural industry is a key sector for Zimbabwe’s economy. The main exports
are tobacco, cotton and sugar. Tobacco is the most valuable cash crop; exports
of unprocessed tobacco earned the country over five hundred million dollars in
revenue per year.
Agriculture alone employs about sixty-six percent of the total labour force.
Tobacco and gold, followed by tourism receipts, dominate export earnings.
Although manufacturing’s relative importance has declined over the years, it is
still a significant sector, contributing about eighteen percent of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP).
Case study: Industry in Zimbabwe
In 1998, Zimbabwe was the world’s thirteenth-largest producer of gold, which is the
country’s biggest mineral export. Mining contributed 13 percent of GDP in 1997 and
generated US$900 million of export revenue in 1995 (amounting to 45 percent of
total value of exports), up from US$623 million in the previous year. About 90 percent
of mining production is exported. In 1997, gold constituted 14 percent of the value
of exports, followed by ferro-alloys at 7 percent, then nickel, and asbestos. Coal is
mined for domestic power generation as well as for export, iron ore to supply the steel
industry, and phosphate rock for fertilizer production.
Mineral deposits are dispersed throughout the country, but it is the Great Dyke, which
runs for hundreds of kilometres from northeast to southwest, that contains the most
extensive concentration of mineral deposits.
Zimbabwe has one of the largest, most diversified, and integrated manufacturing
sectors in Africa, partly due to import substitution policies implemented after the 1965
Declaration of Independence and in the post independent Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe
Steel Corporation (Zisco) is the only full-fledged Africa steel producer outside South
Africa, producing from its Kwekwe plant alone more than 700,000 metric tons annually.
Other major industries include Zimbabwe Alloys, which produces ferro-chrome for
export; a number of heavy engineering companies working for the mining industry
and railways; Chiadzwa Diamonds producing diamonds located in Marange, Mutare,
and several plastic companies.
Tobacco is the most valuable crop; exports of unprocessed tobacco earned the country

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over 240 million dollars in revenue in 2009. Cotton is another cash crop grown by
farmers which also earns the country foreign currency.

Activity 8.2 Research Assignment

Carryout a research of the types of industries existing in your local area. Define the
nature of the industries and explain how they are helping people to earn a living.
Give recommendations that the locals should take to boost their own industries.

UNIT 8.3 INFORMAL SECTOR

It refers to the people who are self-employed.
Characteristics
Easy entry, meaning anyone who wishes to join the sector can find some sort of
work which will result in cash earnings.
• A lack of stable employer-employee relationships.
• A small scale of operations.
• Skills gained outside of a formal education.
• Self-employment.
• Do not have access to secure work,
benefits, welfare protection, or
representation.
• The most prevalent types of work
in the informal economy are home-
based workers and street vendors.
• Home-based workers are more
numerous while street vendors are
more visible. Fig. 8.3 The informal sector
• Informal sector offers more
independence as workers have the chance to select their own working
hours.
• Gives workers the opportunity to work outside and near friends.
• Does not have any written rules or agreements as it exists merely on verbal
understanding.
• It does not have fixed wages or fixed hours of work and mostly relies on
daily earnings.
• In most cases, the work atmosphere is congested and unhygienic.
• Include people working as small farmers, street vendors, small traders,

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 home-based workers, rag-pickers, labourers, artisans and micro-
entrepreneurs such examples include: Glen View 8 Furniture Complex,
Magaba Complex in Mbare, Mupedzanhamo cloth sellers, Chikwanha
Complex, Gulf Complex among others.
Advantages and disadvantages of the informal sector
Some of the advantages of operating in the informal sector include:
• Higher turnover. Some employers pay well because company owners
do not have many tax obligations. Employee effort is directed towards
achieving profit rather than satisfying irrelevant routines.
• There can be a close and direct relationship with the employer, therefore
making it easy to get permission when in need of time off.
• Operators are saved from paying tax in form of Pay As You Earn (PAYE).
• There is no red tape when it comes to dealing with personnel issues which
are expressly handled either by the employer him or herself, or a senior
manager.
• Sometimes employment is done on the spot with little emphasis on
attending lengthy job interviews and countless aptitude tests.
• Sometimes one is employed because of personal relationship with the
employer rather than on merit.
The disadvantages include:
• the government cannot measure the actual state of the economy to help
make policy makers.
• the government will not be collecting the taxes that it should.
• consumers are not protected from people selling fake or unsafe goods.
• workers injured on the job do not have recourse to required insurance.
• workers do not accumulate government pension benefits.
• informal businesses have to stay small to avoid attracting attention.
• little or no job security and odd working hours.
• a brief illness or injury can mean no financial means to survive.
• lack of funding from the government.
• limited access to information on market opportunities or access to markets.
• lack of access to credit facilities.
• non-availability of adequate training in business management.
• lack of appropriate infrastructure (for example storage and vending
facilities) and technology as well as absence of a conducive operating
environment.

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Case study: Informal sector in Zimbabwe
Bankers have also indicated that they estimate that billions of dollars change hands in
the informal sector without ever circulating in the banking system. In various forums,
the informal sector has been praised for absorbing the most of the unemployed people
in the economy.
Mechanics who had worked in assembly
plants and service depots now ply their trade
from home, places like Highfields’ Gazaland,
Mbare Magaba or even under the trees.
Carpenters who worked for companies like
Tedco now work in places like the Glen View
furniture market where sofas can be made in
an open field while you wait. Steel workers,
leather upholsters, boilermakers and various
Fig. 8.4 Glen View 8 Furniture Complex other journeymen are other examples of the
growth of self-employment.
In the 2014 National Budget statement, the Minister of Finance identified that the
economy has undergone significant structural transformation in the past decade,
with the informal sector now the dominant force. This realisation and identification of
the significance of the sector calls forth for the need to develop mechanisms to make
sure that the contribution of the sector is captured and is utilised for the development
of the country.
There is a general agreement that the informal sector contributed a significant
proportion to Gross Domestic Product (though most of that contribution was not
quantified). Worldwide, the informal sector activities generated US$10 trillion in 2013.
In Zimbabwe, the informal sector’s turnover was US$7.4 billion and employed 5.7
million (owners and employees). The study found out that although as many as 2.9
million were engaged in micro, small and medium enterprises employment, only 29
percent provided employment while 71 percent were wholly operated by their owners.
Activity 8.3 Educational tour and interviews
Organize with your school teachers to make an educational tour to a nearest
informal sector. Identify the characteristics of that informal sector and interview
its participants to understand the challenges they face in doing their business.
Activity 8.4 Critical thinking
In Zimbabwe, the informal sector has become the largest employer in the country.
Most of the people are now living through the informal sector though it has not
been formalised. In your own opinion, what measures should be taken by the
government authorities to formalise the informal sector operating in your local
area.
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Activity 8.5 Research Assignment
Carry out a research on the types of informal traders operating in your area.
Identify all the number of people earning a living from the operations and give
them recommendations on how to operate as legally registered entities.

UNIT 8.4 STORAGE OF INDIGENOUS AND CONTEMPORARY FOOD

Indigenous foods are from the natural environment which became included into
the cultural food use patterns of a society. Indigenous foods can be categorized as
plant foods, animal foods, earth elements such as salts, and water. Food preservation
involves preventing food from fungi, bacteria and other micro-organisms to slow
oxidation of fats that causes food to go bad easily. It is important to preserve food
because it extends the period during which it is safe to eat.
Types of indigenous foods and their benefits
(i) Dried green leafy vegetables (Mufushwa/umufushwa)
It is one of the traditional Zimbabwean dishes. These are vegetables dried for
future use. Methods of preparing mufushwa or umufushwa differs. Mufushwa
or umufushwa is usually prepared by boiling vegetables and adding salt before
taken to an open sun to dry all the moisture content.
It is very nutritious, providing one with
high levels of iron and folic acid which are
very important nutrients for the body.
One of the things that iron and folic acid
do is to help with the production of red
blood cells which transport oxygen to
the organs in a body.
(ii) Madora/amacimbi (mopane
Fig. 8.5 Various dried traditional caterpillar worms)
vegetables (mufushwa and nyevhe)
This is one of the many Zimbabwean
traditional delicacies. Madora or
amacimbi are boiled, salted and dried
in the sun conditions. Drying allows
them to be kept for a longer period
without deteriorating. They are popular
in regions of the country with Mopane
trees.
Madora are common in Matebeleland
Fig. 8.6 Mopane caterpillar worms (madora South region in areas such as Gwanda.
or amacimbi) Madora or amacimbi are highly rich in

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protein, that is why they are recommended by doctors and nutritionists.
(iii) Zviyo or rukweza (small seeded millet)
There were main crops that our ancestors depended
on especially for starch. Zviyo or rukweza, small
seeded millet, was the principal food crop. It grew
well under both dry and wet conditions. It was stone
ground and used extensively in making porridge,
sadza, maheu and beer. Mhunga, grey millet, was
used for similar purposes.
(iv) Cowpeas (Nyemba/indumba)
Fig. 8.7 Small seeded millet
Nyemba, named cowpeas in English is
another type of traditional food in Zimbabwe.
It provides the main source of protein. It is the
oldest legume to be grown in this country by
the first Bantu farmers two thousand years
ago. It was eaten boiled as mutakura or as a
pudding, rupiza.
(v) Peanuts (Nzungu/amazambane) Fig. 8.8 Cowpeas
It was extensively grown and used to make
peanut butter (dovi/idobi). This would
be added to porridge or make a sauce,
(gwatakwata), for sadza or would be mixed
with pumpkin mash to make pudding (nhopi).
Oil balls could also be made from peanut
butter. The oil would be used for cooking or Fig. 8.9 Peanuts
to rub on bodies.
Types of contemporary food
Contemporary food refers to modernized cooking with mixed cuisine that
assimilates flavours from traditional cooking techniques blended with some
foreign components. In fact, many of them contain artificial ingredients.
(i) Baked beans
Canned baked beans are used as a convenience food.
They may be eaten hot or cold straight from the can as
they are fully cooked. Beans provides a high-fibre, low-
fat source of folate, iron and quality protein.
Baked beans are already fully cooked, offer convenience
because they do not require hours of soaking prior to Fig. 8.10 Baked beans

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use. Canned beans are usually higher in
sodium and slightly lower in nutrients.
(ii) Pizza
Pizza is a yeasted flatbread generally
topped with tomato sauce and cheese and
baked in an oven. It is commonly topped
with a selection of meats, vegetables and Fig. 8.11 Pizza
condiments.
Differences between traditional and modern food
Traditional methods include; slow cooking, drying and fermenting while modern
methods include; fast processing, high heat, industrial chemistry, addition of
flavour extracts and colouring agents, as well as preservatives.
Importance of food
• It gives the energy and nutrients to grow and develop, be healthy and
active, to move, work, play, think and learn. The body needs a variety of the
following five nutrients; protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins and minerals
from the food we eat to stay healthy and productive.
• Protein is needed to build, maintain and repair muscle, blood, skin and
bones and other tissues and organs in the body. Foods rich in protein
include meat, eggs, dairy and fish.
• Carbohydrate provides the body with its main source of energy.
Carbohydrates can be classified into two kinds; starches and sugars. Food
rich in starches include; rice, maize, wheat and potatoes and food rich in
sugars include fruit, honey, sweets and chocolate bars. Fat is the body’s
secondary source of energy. Fat actually provides more energy than any
other nutrient, but is more difficult to burn. Food rich in fats are oils, butter,
milk, cheese and some meat.
• Vitamins and minerals are needed in very small amounts and are sometimes
called micronutrients, but are essential for good health. They control many
functions and processes in the body, and in the case of minerals also help
build body tissue such as bones and blood.
• Food is needed by the human body for energy, to repair and build cells and
to prevent sickness and heal from it.
Food preservation defined
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow down
food spoilage, loss of quality, edibility or nutritional value and thus allow for longer
food storage. Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi
and other micro-organisms.
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Methods of food preservation
A number of methods of prevention may be used that can totally prevent, delay,
or otherwise reduce food spoilage. Preservatives can expand the shelf life of food
and can lengthen the time long enough for it to be harvested, processed, sold,
and kept in the consumer’s home for a reasonable length of time.
(i) Drying
It is one of the most ancient food preservation techniques, which reduces water
activity sufficiently to prevent bacterial growth. It is the process of dehydrating
foods until there is no enough moisture to support microbial activity.
It can be used with most foods, including fruits,
vegetables, meats, seafood, grains, legumes,
and nuts. In Zimbabwe, a wide range of food
is consumed dry notably fruit, vegetables,
tubers, mushrooms, meat, fish and insects.
Some wild fruits like baobab, nyii and masau
dry themselves naturally giving them a long
Fig. 8.12 A man drying meat shelf life.
(ii) Refrigeration
Preserves food by slowing down the growth
and reproduction of microorganisms and the
action of enzymes which cause food to rot.
(iii) Salting or curing
Salting preserves foods by creating a hostile
environment for certain microorganisms.
Fig. 8.13 Refrigerator Within foods, salt brine dehydrates bacterial
cells, alters osmotic pressure and inhibits
bacterial growth and subsequent spoilage.
Draws moisture from the meat through a
process of osmosis. Meat is also cured with salt.
(iv) Smoking
It is used to lengthen the shelf life of perishable
food items. This effect is achieved by exposing
the food to smoke from burning plant materials
such as wood. Most commonly subjected to
Fig. 8.14 S alty dried small fishes this method of food preservation are meats
(matemba) and fish that have undergone curing.

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 Fruits and vegetables like paprika, cheeses,
spices, and ingredients for making drinks
such as malt and tea leaves are also smoked,
but mainly for cooking or flavouring them.
It is one of the oldest food preservation
methods, which probably arose after the
development of cooking with fire.
(v) Canning
Fig. 8.15 Smoking meat
Canning is the process of heating the
product at a specified temperature for a
specific length of time (pasteurizing), and
then vacuum sealing the pasteurized food
in special jars designed for this purpose.
Involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile
cans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill
or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form
of sterilization.
Fig. 8.16 Canned food
Foods have varying degrees of natural
protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a pressure
cooker. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage
once the can or bottle has been opened. It can be used with most foods, including
fruits, vegetables, meats, seafood, and some prepared foods.
(vi) Fermenting
It is the process of encouraging the
growth of good bugs to inhibit the bad
bugs that can spoil food.
It can be used with many types of foods,
including fruits, vegetables, meats,
seafood, grains, legumes, dairy, and eggs
to produce a wide range of products such
as wine (from grapes), cured sausage
(meat) and yogurt (milk). Many fermented
Fig. 8.17 Fermented food
products can be produced without any
special equipment.

Activity 8.6 Information and Communication Technology skills

Discuss as a class how technology can be tapped to improve food preservation in
modern day technology. Assess the role of ICT in food preservation.

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Activity 8.7 Critical thinking
To what extent is canning preservation method safe to human health?
Activity 8.8 Demonstration
Look for a head of cabbage and use one of the traditional methods to preserve it
for your family future use.

Interesting facts
1. According to International Labour Organisation (ILO), informal employment
is the standard condition among most youth in Sub-Saharan Africa where at
least eight in ten young workers fall into the category of informal employment.
2. Early humans probably discovered by accident that certain foods exposed to
smoke seem to last longer than those that are not. Meats, fish and cheese were
among such foods.
3. Citric acid (found in lemon or oranges) can help preserve foods, but if too
much is used it could spoil the flavour. It tends to be sour, as you can probably
imagine.
4. The inventor of canned food was French confectioner Nicolas Appert, who
began preserving food in sealed glass jars in 1795. Early food tins had to be
opened with a hammer and chisel.

Summary of the chapter

• Factors of production are inputs that a business uses to produce a good or

service. These inputs include; land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.
• An industry is a classification that refers to group of activities that are
related based on their primary business objectives. There are three types
of industries which include; primary, secondary and tertiary industry.
• Pre-colonial means before the heyday of massive European colonisation
which occupied much of Africa after the 1870s. Zimbabwean pre-colonial
societies include; early, middle and late iron age, the Great Zimbabwe, the
Rozvi state, the Mutapa state, the Ndebele state, Zulu kingdom among
others.
• Informal sector refers to the people who are self-employed. The most
prevalent types of work in the informal economy are home-based workers
and street vendors.
• Indigenous foods are from the natural environment which became
included into the cultural food use patterns of a society.
• Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or

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 slow down food spoilage, loss of quality, edibility or nutritional value and
thus allow for longer food storage. Preservation involves preventing the
growth of bacteria, fungi and other micro-organisms.

Glossary of terms

Inputs – what is put in, taken in, or operated on by any process or system.
Outputs – the amount of something produced by a person, machine, or industry.
Land – the part of the earth’s surface that is not covered by water.
Labour – work, especially physical work.
Capital – wealth in the form of money or other assets owned by a person or
organisation or available for a purpose such as starting a company or
investing.
Entrepreneurship – the activity of setting up a business, taking on financial risks
in the hope of profit.
Factors of production – is an economic term that describes the inputs that are
used in the production of goods or services in order to
make an economic profit.
Industry – economic activity concerned with the processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of goods in factories.
Raw materials – substances used in the primary production or manufacturing of
goods.
Pre-industry – 
refers to social attributes and forms of political and cultural
organisation that were prevalent before the advent of the industrial
revolution, which occurred from 1750 to 1850.
Manufacturing – make something on a large scale using machinery.
Kinship system – the system of social relationships connecting people in a culture
who are or are held to be related and defining and regulating
their reciprocal obligations.
Self-employment – the state of working for oneself as a freelance or the owner of
a business rather than for an employer.

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Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is a factor of production?
A. goods and services.
B. inputs.
C. raw materials
D. inputs that a business use to produce a good or service.
2. Identify any four factors of production ___________
A. land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.
B. natural resources, inputs, outputs and services.
C. labour, human capital, skills and inputs.
D. land, labour, skills and natural resources.
3. Payment for the use of land is called ______________
A. interest B. wage C. rent D. profit
4. Payment for labour is called __________
A. wage B. rent C. profit D. interest
5. Payment for investing capital is called ___________
A. salary B. profit C. interest D. rent
6. Payment for entrepreneurship is called _______
A. rent B. wage C. interest D. profit
7. Factors of production are the resources that allow us to ________
A. make money B. create finished products and perform services
C. earn a living D. do business
8. An industry is a classification that refers to group of activities that are related
based on their ____________
A. profit making strategies B. primary business objectives
C. motivation D. capital
9. Pre-colonial means before the heyday of massive European colonisation which
occupied much of Africa after which year?
A. 1870 B. 1880 C. 1885 D. 1890
10. Identify any three pre-colonial states in Zimbabwe _______
A. Rhodesia, Nyasaland and Mutapa state.
B. Zimbabwe, Ndebele state and Shona state.
C. Zimbabwe, Khoi Khoi and the San.
D. Ndebele state, Rozvi state and Mutapa state.
11. People in pre-colonial Zimbabwe were engaged in which of the following
industrial activities?
A. agriculture, fishing, mining, crafts and simple manufacturing.
B. overgrazing, mining, and hunting.
C. polygamy and farming .
D. pastoralism, crafts and hunting.

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12. Pre-colonial Zimbabwe engaged in crafts-level hand tool manufacturing where
they produced products like __________
A. natural resources.
B. agricultural tools, cloths, iron, pottery, jewellery and weapons for hunting.
C. gold and diamond.
D. minerals.
13. Primary industries are based on _____________
A. extraction of raw materials B. processing goods
C. goods and services D. improving performance and productivity
14. Tertiary industry is involved in _________________
A. processing of goods and services.
B. extraction of raw materials.
C. provision of semi-skilled and skilled people to improve productivity.
D. finished products.
15. What does GDP stands for?
A. Gross Domestic Product.
B. Gross Domestic Production.
C. Government Development Policies.
D. overall spending per person.
16. What does PAYE stands for?
A. Public Association of Youths Employment
B. monthly deductions
C. tax income
D. Pay As You Earn
17. Informal sector refers to people who are _________
A. not educated B. self-employed C. poor D. thieves
18. Which one of the following is not a type of indigenous food?
A. mufushwa (dried green leafy vegetables) B. groundnuts
C. Madora (caterpillar worms) D. baked beans
19. Madora (mopane caterpillar worms) are common in which area in Zimbabwe?
A. Mashonaland West B. Masvingo C. Manicaland D. Gwanda
20. Contemporary food refers to _________________
A. modernized cooking mixed with indigenous and foreign components.
B. foreign ways of cooking.
C. indigenous food for Zimbabweans.
D. food cooked on electric stoves.
21. Define food preservation ______
A. the process of spoiling food.
B. the process of preventing food from decaying.
C. food conservation.
D. growth of bacteria.

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22. Which one of the following is not a method of indigenous food preservation?
A. drying B. smoking C. salting D. refrigeration
23. Which one of the following is the advantage of preserving food?
A. no special equipment needed.
B. it does not require special skills to practice.
C. it gives a longer period during which food is preserved.
D. food decays fast.
24. Food rich in protein include ______
A. meat and eggs B. rice and maize
C. honey and sweets D. butter and milk
25. Food rich in starches include ________
A. meat and eggs B. rice and maize
C. butter, milk and cheese D. dairy and fish

Structured Questions
1. (a) Define factors of production. [2]
(b) Name any two factors of production and briefly explain each of them. [4]
(c) Mention the importance of the factors of production. [4]
2. (a) What is an industry? [1]
(b) State any three types of industries [3]
(c) Mention any three industrial sectors of the pre-colonial Zimbabwe. [3]
(d) Identify any three secondary industries operating in Zimbabwe. [3]
3. (a) What is an informal sector? [2]
(b) Identify any four characteristics of the informal sector. [4]
(c) Explain any two advantages and two disadvantages of the informal sector.
[4]
4. (a) List any six types of indigenous food. [3]
(b) Define food preservation. [2]
(c) Briefly explain why food is preserved. [3]
(d) State four ways of preserving food. [2]
Essay Questions
1. (a) Describe the four factors of production. [10]
(b) What is the significance of the factors of production? [10]
2. Explain what is meant by the following terms and give examples:
(i) Primary industry [7]
(ii) Secondary industry [7]
(iii) Tertiary industry [6]
3. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the informal sector. [20]

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4. To what extent is the formal sector contributing to improved standards of living
in Zimbabwe? [20]
5. Explain any five methods of preserving food and give examples of the food
preserved by each method. [20]

Matching Exercise

Factors of production Characteristics

1. entrepreneurship a. the environmental resources.

2. free enterprise b. the risk-taking resource.

3. capital c. mental and physical efforts of people applied to the

production of goods and services.

4. labour d. individuals own businesses to make a profit.

5. land e. money, buildings, machinery and equipment used to

produce goods and services. [10]

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 CHAPTER 9: GLOBAL ISSUES
Chapter objectives
At the end of this chapter, learners will be able to:
• identify the different forms of natural resources.
• explain how the natural resources can be preserved.
• list types of pollution.
• define different levels of pollution.
• suggest ways of reducing pollution.
• identify different world infectious and chronic diseases.
• explain the effects of the diseases in communities.
• describe the causes of drought and floods.
• analyse the effects of drought and floods.
• describe forms of human trafficking.
• explain the impact of trafficking on society.

Introduction
As you have seen in the past chapters, heritage studies touch on different critical
issues that affect our lives on daily basis. This chapter will focus on different forms of
natural resources, and methods of conserving natural resources through sustainable
use. The chapter will also look at the causes of droughts which affect human beings,
animals, plants and our biodiversity. There is a lot that is going to be tackled in
this chapter which include; issues to do with environmental pollution, outbreak of
diseases, forms of human trafficking and so on.

UNIT 9.1 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

A natural resource is anything that people can use which comes from the natural
environment. Examples of natural resources are air, water, forests, soils, animals,
fossil fuels and minerals. Ever since the earth was inhabited, humans and other life
forms have depended on things that exist freely in nature to survive. No human
created them.
Preserving natural resources
Generally, conservation is defined as wise use of natural resources. A widely
favoured definition is that conservation is the use of natural resources for the
greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time. Conservation thus
implies both the development and the protection of resources.
Some of these natural resources like sunlight and wind are renewable resources.
This means that they can be used again and again without being exhausted. But
some like forests, minerals, oil and others are non-renewable meaning they can be

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exhausted. This implies that they need to be conserved.
(a) Preservation of forests and wild animals
We need to stop destroying forests and cutting trees. Forests are the home and
habitats to many different animals, birds and insects. Many animals like the
leopard, lions, elephants, pangolins, hares, rhinoceros, cheetahs and many others
may be endangered if forests are destroyed and become close to extinction due
to the destruction of their natural habitat.
Trees give humans wood that helps in
making so many items like furniture,
paper just to mention but a few. Trees
help in purifying the air and also hold
the soil with their roots and prevent soil
erosion. We must protect our forests.
This can be done in the following ways:
•w
 e must control the cutting of trees
Fig. 9.1 Chirinda forest in the Chipinge through selective cutting. Mature
Highlands of Manicaland, Zimbabwe trees are selected for cutting. This
process is to be followed in rotation.
• we must prevent forest fires.
• teach others about the importance of the environment and how they can
help save forests.
• restore damaged ecosystems by planting trees on land where forests have
been cut down.
• educate people to live in a way that does not hurt the environment.
• establish parks to protect forests and wildlife.
• support companies that operate in ways that minimize damage to the
environment.
• reforestation and afforestation should be practiced frequently. Intensive
forestry and plantation of fast growing industrial woods on suitable
deforested sites.
(b) Preservation of land
Land is a very important natural resource. Man, and animals depend on plants
for their food and plants get nourishment from the soil. So, we can say that all
living things depend on soil for their food. The process of wind, rain or rivers
carrying away the top fertile layer of soil is called soil erosion. Cutting off trees or
deforestation, strong winds in places of less vegetation (deserts), running of water
bodies over the soil and overgrazing are all causes of soil erosion. We can preserve

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land by the following methods:
• by educating, informing and sensitizing all landholders about various
aspects of this precious resource and their sustainable use.
• contour ploughing is another measure to conserve our land. By this
method, the fields are ploughed, harrowed and sown along the natural
contour of the hills.
• under the afforestation and reforestation programmes, planting of trees,
bushes and grass help to check the soil erosion.
• strict actions are taken to check reckless felling of trees and overgrazing.
(c) Preservation of minerals
People can conserve mineral resources by utilizing renewable resources. There is
only a limited amount of coal, chrome, nickel, diamond, gold and asbestos found
in Zimbabwe. These minerals can be conserved in different ways summarized as
follows:
• an important way to conserve some minerals is by substitution, when the
plentiful resources are substituted for scarce ones.
• use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.
• recycling of metals.
• use of alternative renewable substitutes like solar energy and wind energy
instead of coal and oil so that they can last longer.
• technology should be improved to use the low-grade ores profitably.
• mineral resources may also be conserved through recycling. A good
example is recycling of scrap metal.
(d) Preservation of rivers and dams
Rivers and dams shelter organisms
that live in water such as fish, and
others. These organisms are referred
to as aquatic life. Human activities
are causing species to disappear at
an alarming rate. Aquatic species are
at a higher risk of extinction. Runoff
from agricultural and urban areas, and
the invasion have been identified as Fig. 9.2 Runde river in Zimbabwe
the greatest challenges to freshwater
environments.
Overexploitation of aquatic organisms for various purposes is the greatest threat
to marine environments, thus the need for sustainable exploitation is a key priority

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in preserving marine biodiversity. Other threats to aquatic biodiversity include;
urban development and resource-based industries, such as mining and forestry
that destroy or reduce natural habitats. In addition, air and water pollution,
sedimentation and erosion, and climate change also pose threats to aquatic
biodiversity, rivers and dams.
Aquatic conservation strategies support sustainable development by protecting
biological resources in ways that will preserve habitats and ecosystems. Aquatic
areas that have been damaged or suffered habitat loss or degradation can be
restored. Rivers and dams shelter the aquatic life and the following ways can be
used to conserve them:
• planting trees in the catchment area of water bodies to prevent soil erosion
and subsequently reduce the problem of siltation which in turn enables
the survival of aquatic organisms.
• avoid the establishment of industries, chemical plants and thermal power
plants near the water sources as their discharge affect the ecology of water
bodies resulting in loss of biodiversity.
• regulatory measures must be taken on waste water discharge in the water
bodies to conserve biological diversity, streams and dams.
• increasing public awareness is one of the most important ways to conserve
aquatic biodiversity. This can be accomplished through educational
programs, incentive programs, and volunteer monitoring programs.
Activity 9.1 Project-based learning
Identify all the resources located in your local area that need to be conserved. Find
ways of conserving them.
Activity 9.2 Role play
Educate your community about the importance of preserving natural resources
like minerals, forests, and dams. Form a voluntary monitoring group that help
conserve natural resources.

UNIT 9.2 POLLUTION

Pollution is defined as the bringing of unsafe or toxic substances into the
environment, such as the soil, air and water. In other words, pollution can be
defined as the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that
cause adverse change.
(i) Water pollution
Water pollution involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical,
particulate, or bacterial matter that degrades the water’s quality and purity. Water

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pollution can occur in oceans, dams, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs.
Causes of water pollution
There are many types of water pollution
causes because water comes from
many sources. Here are a few of them:
(a) Nutrients pollution – some
wastewater, fertilizers and sewage
contain high levels of nutrients. If
they end up in water bodies, they
encourage algae and weed growth
Fig. 9.3 Water pollution
in the water. This will make the
water undrinkable, and even clog filters. Too much algae will also use up all
the oxygen in the water, and other water organisms in the water will die out of
oxygen starvation.
(b) Chemical water pollution – when humans apply pesticides and chemicals
to soils, they are washed deep into the ground by rainwater. These include
chemicals that are used to control weeds, insects and pests. Metals and solvents
from industries can pollute water bodies. These are poisonous to many forms
of aquatic life and may slow their development, make them infertile and kill
them. This also gets to underground water, causing pollution underground.
This means when we dig wells
and boreholes to get water from
underground, it needs to be checked
for ground water pollution.
(c) Oil spillage – oil spills usually have
only a localized effect on wildlife
but can spread for miles from the
sea transport. The oil can cause the
death to many fish and get stuck Fig. 9.4 Pesticides and chemicals
to the feathers of seabirds causing
them to lose their ability to fly.
(d) Sewage and waste water – other sewage systems run in underground tubes.
Over time, they rust and begin to leak. If that happens, they contaminate the
soils, and the liquids in them end up in many nearby water bodies. This is very
dangerous because they contaminate the environment and water bodies and
bring many deadly diseases to us.
Effects of water pollution
Water pollution is very harmful to humans, animals and water life. The effects

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can be catastrophic, depending on the kind of chemicals, concentrations of the
pollutants and where they are polluted. Below, is a summary of the effects of water
pollution.
(a) Death of aquatic (water) animals
The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills organisms that depend
on these water bodies like fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many
others.
(b) Diseases
Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well. People can get diseases
such as hepatitis by eating seafood that has been poisoned. In many countries
including Zimbabwe, there is always an outbreak of cholera and diseases as a
result of poor drinking water treatment from contaminated sources.
(c) Destruction of ecosystems
Ecosystems (the interaction of living
things in a place, depending on each
other for life) can be severely changed
or destroyed by water pollution. Many
areas are now being affected by careless
human pollution, and this pollution is
coming back to hurt humans in many
ways.
Prevention of water pollution
Fig. 9.5 Effects of water pollution
Dealing with water pollution is
something that everyone (including governments) needs to get involved with.
Here are a few things you can do to help. Learning about the issue (like you are
doing) is the greatest and most important step to take. Here are a few more:
• use water wisely. Do not keep the tap running when not in use. Also, you
can reduce the amount of water you use in washing and bathing. If we
all do this, we can significantly prevent water shortages and reduce the
amount of dirty water that needs treatment.
• do not throw chemicals, oils, paints and medicines down the sink drain, or
the toilet. In many areas, your local environment office can help with the
disposal of medicines and chemicals. Check with your local authorities if
there is a chemical disposal plan for local residents.
• buy more environmentally safe cleaning liquids for use at home and other
public places. They are less dangerous to the environment.
• if you use chemicals and pesticides for your gardens and farms, be mindful

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 not to overuse pesticides and fertilizers. This will reduce runoffs of the
chemical into nearby water sources. Start looking at options of composting
and using organic manure instead.
• if you live close to a water body, try to plant lots of trees and flowers around
your home, so that when it rains, chemicals from your home do not easily
drain into the water.
Many governments have very strict laws that help minimize water pollution. These
laws are usually directed at industries, hospitals, schools and market areas on how
to dispose, treat and manage sewage.
Case study: Water pollution and its effects
In 2010, there was a huge oil spill in United States of America (USA) by BP. Of the 400
miles of Louisiana coast, approximately 125 miles have been polluted by the oil spill.
Over 1,000 animals (birds, turtles, mammals) have been reported dead, including
many already on the endangered species list. Of the animals affected by the spill that
are still alive only about 6% have been reported cleaned, but many biologists and
other scientists predict they will die too. In November 2012, BP agreed on a settlement
with the USA government worth $4.5 billion, including a $1.26 billion criminal fine.
(ii) Land pollution
Land pollution is the deterioration (destruction) of the earth’s land surfaces,
often directly or indirectly as a result of man’s activities and their misuse of land
resources. It occurs when waste is not disposed properly, or can occur when
humans throw chemicals onto the soil in the form of pesticides, insecticides and
fertilizers during agricultural practices. Exploitation of minerals (mining activities)
has also contributed to the destruction of the earth’s surface.
Human actions have also caused many large areas of land to lose or reduce their
capacity to support life forms and ecosystems. This is known as land degradation.
Note that land degradation can result from many factors, and land pollution is
only one of them.
Types of land pollution
There are different types of land pollution which include the following:
(a) Solid waste
These include all the various kinds of rubbish we make at home, school, hospitals,
market and workplaces. Things like paper, plastic containers, bottles, cans, food
and even used cars and broken electronic goods, broken furniture and hospital
waste are all examples of solid waste. Some of these are biodegradable (meaning
they easily rot or decay into organic matter). Examples include food droppings,
paper products as well as vegetation (like grass and twigs). Others are not

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biodegradable, and they include plastics, metals and aluminium cans, broken
computer and car parts. Because these do not easily decay, they pile up in landfills (a
place where all the city’s rubbish is dumped), where they stay for thousands of years.
These bring great harm to the land and people around it.

Fig. 9.6 Land pollution

(b) Pesticides and fertilizers

Many farming activities engage in the application of fertilizers, pesticides and
insecticides for higher crop yield. This is good because we get more food, but can
you think of what happens to the chemicals that end up on the crops and soils?
Sometimes, insects and small animals are killed and bigger animals that eat tiny
animals (as in food chains) are also harmed. Finally, the chemicals may be washed
down as it rains and over time, they end up in the water table below.
(c) Deforestation
Humans depend on trees for many things including life. Trees absorb carbon
dioxide from the air and enrich the air with oxygen, which is needed for life. Trees
provide wood for humans and a habitat to many land animals, insects and birds.
Trees also, help replenish soils and help retain nutrients being washed away.
Unfortunately, people cut down millions of acres of trees for wood, construction,
farming and mining purposes, and never plant new trees back. This is a type of
land pollution.
Sources of land pollution
Below are some sources of solid and
semi-solid pollutants:
Agricultural sources – these include
waste matter produced by crop, animal
manure and farm residues. Agricultural
pollutants of the land also include
the chemical left overs of pesticides,
fertilisers and insecticides used for Fig. 9.7 A
 gricultural products waste in
Mbare Musika
agricultural activities.
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Ashes – the residual matter that remains after solid fuels are burned. When waste is
burned in incinerators, two types of ashes are produced. Bottom ash is the debris
from burnt metal and glass waste. Bottom ash is not bio-degradable. The second type
of ash is called fly ash. This is the ash that is trapped by filters in the chimney of the
incinerators. It is known to be very toxic (poisonous). Every four trucks of waste burnt
produce about one truck of ashes that end up in the landfill too. Ashes easily leak into
the soil and water tables causing land and water pollution.
Mining sources – this includes piles of coal refuse and heaps of slag and underground
debris. Mining and forestry activities that clear the land surfaces (clearcutting) often
leave the land unrestored.
The surface is exposed to erosion
which destroys the quality of the
land. Additionally, iron and other
chemicals such as copper, mercury
and lead from mining practices
leach into the soil, polluting it and
leaving it exposed to water bodies
as well.
Industrial sources – these include
paints, chemicals, metals and
Fig. 9.8 Asbestos mining waste in Zimbabwe
aluminium, plastics and so on that
are produced in the process of
manufacturing goods.
Sewage treatment – wastes that are left over after sewage has been treated,
biomass sludge, and settled solids. Some of these are sent directly to landfills while
other treatment plants burn them to generate electricity. Both end up polluting
the environment.
Garbage or waste – these include household or municipal waste such as glass,
metal, cloth, plastic, wood, paper, and so on.
Some of these can decay and others
cannot. They are usually collected and
sent to landfills where the pollution
action begins.
Construction sources – these include
waste like debris, wood, metals and
plastics that are produced from
construction activities.

Fig. 9.9 Garbage Deforestation – this is when trees are cut

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down for economic purposes, mining, farming and construction. In forest areas,
trees absorb and reflect about 20% of the intense heat from the sun, protecting
and preserving its surface soils. Cutting down trees mean that the land is exposed
to direct sunlight and rain, resulting in soil erosions, desertification and land
degradation.
Effects of land pollution
There can be dangerous consequences of land pollution in relation to humans,
animals, water and soils. The effects are even worse if the garbage is not separated
into organic, reusable and recyclable waste. Contaminated lands and environments
can:
• cause problems in the human respiratory system.
• cause problems on the skin.
• cause various kinds of cancers.
The toxic materials that pollute the soil can get into the human body directly by:
• coming into contact with the skin.
• being washed into water sources like reservoirs and rivers.
• eating fruits and vegetables that have been grown in polluted soil.
• breathing in polluted dust or particles.
Dump sites and landfills also come with serious problems like:
• very bad smell and odour in the town.
• landfills breed rodents like rats, mice and insects, who in turn transmit
diseases.
• landfills in towns do not attract tourists to the town. The town will lose
revenue.
• many landfills are always burning and they cause further air pollution.
How to prevent land pollution
Like many other challenges, the best way to solve problems is to understand it.
This means learning about it (like what you are doing now) is the greatest step
forward. Here are a few other tips on how you can help reduce land pollution:
• people should be educated and made aware of the harmful effects of
littering. Discuss with friends and family.
• reuse any items that you can. Items like clothing, bottles, wrapping paper
and shopping bags can be used over and over again, rather than buying
new things.

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 • the greatest prevention to land pollution is in the three ‘R’s’ Reduce waste,
Reuse things and Recycle things. This is true even for governments. They
can also use the three ‘R’ rule to minimize the amount of waste that end up
in landfills.
• personal litter should be disposed properly. We can separate household
waste at home for recycling. More than half of our household waste could
be recycled or re-used but once it is mixed up, it becomes more difficult to
separate different components for recycling. This is also true for the waste
we make at school or hospitals.
• store all liquid chemicals and waste in spill-proof containers.
• eat organic foods that are grown without pesticides. Look out for fertilizer
or pesticide free products when you go to the market.
• governments can also ensure that there are incentives for people to recycle
and re-use things.
(iii) Air pollution
Air pollution occurs when gases, dust particles, odour and fumes (or smoke) are
introduced into the atmosphere in a way that makes it harmful to humans, animals
and plant. This is because the air becomes dirty.
The earth is surrounded by a blanket of air (made up of various gases) called the
atmosphere. The atmosphere helps protect the earth and allow life to exist. Without
it, we would be burned by the intense heat of the sun during the day or frozen by
the very low temperatures at night. Any additional gas, particles or odours that are
introduced into the air (either by nature or human activity) to distort this natural
balance and cause harm to living things can be called air pollution.
Things that pollute the air are called pollutants. Examples of pollutants include
nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, hydrocarbons, sulphur oxides (usually from
factories), sand or dust particles, and organic compounds that can evaporate and
enter the atmosphere.
There are two types of pollutants
Primary pollutants – are those gases or particles that are pumped into the air to
make it unclean. They include carbon monoxide from automobile (cars) exhausts
and sulphur dioxide from the combustion of coal.
Secondary pollutants – when pollutants in the air mix up in a chemical reaction,
they form an even more dangerous chemical. Photochemical smog is an example
of this, and is a secondary pollutant.
Ambient air pollution
This is simply outdoor air pollution, usually caused by emissions from transportation,

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power generations, agriculture and open burning. The chemicals in ambient air
pollution are different from that of indoor air pollution. When pollution occurs in
the air, it can easily travel and spread, and because we breathe in air, we cannot
easily avoid it.
Causes of air pollution
Air pollution can result from both human and natural actions. Natural events
that pollute the air include; forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen
dispersal, evaporation of organic compounds and natural radioactivity. Pollution
from natural occurrences is not very often. Human activities also result in air
pollution. Some of the activities include:
1. Emissions from industries and manufacturing activities
Consider a typical manufacturing plant, you will notice that there are long tubes
(called chimneys) erected high into the air, with lots of smoke and fumes coming
out of it. Waste incinerators, manufacturing industries and power plants emit high
levels of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air. This
happens almost everywhere people live. Petroleum refineries also release lots of
hydrocarbons into the air.
2. Burning fossil fuels

Fig. 9.10 A
 ir pollution by a plant in Harare Fig. 9.11 Air pollution caused by cars
industrial site
After the industrial age, transportation has become a key part of our lives. Cars
and heavy-duty trucks, trains, shipping vessels and airplanes all burn lots of
fossil fuels to work. Emissions from automobile engines contain both primary
and secondary pollutants. This is a major cause of pollution and one that is very
difficult to manage. This is because humans rely heavily on vehicles and engines
for transporting people, good and services.
Fumes from car exhausts contain dangerous gases such as carbon monoxide,
oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons and particulates. On their own, they cause great
harm to people who breathe them. Additionally, they react with environmental

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gases to create further toxic gases.
3. Household and farming chemicals
Crop dusting, fumigating homes, household cleaning products or painting supplies,
over the counter insect or pest killers, fertilizer dust emit harmful chemicals into
the air and cause pollution. In many cases, when we use these chemicals at home
or offices with no or little ventilation, we may fall ill if we breathe them.
Effects of air pollution
Below are a few key effects of air pollution.
(a) Acidification – chemical reactions involving air pollutants can create acidic
compounds which can cause harm to vegetation and buildings. Sometimes,
when an air pollutant, such as sulfuric acid combines with the water droplets
that make up clouds, the water droplets become acidic, forming acid rain.
When acid rain falls over an area, it can kill trees and harm animals, fish, and
other wildlife.
Acid rain destroys the leaves of plants. When acid rain infiltrates into soils, it
changes the chemistry of the soil making it unfit for many living things that
depend on the soil as a habitat or for nutrition. Acid rain also changes the
chemistry of the lakes and streams that the rainwater flows into, harming fish
and other aquatic life.
(b) Eutrophication – rain can carry and deposit the nitrogen in some pollutants
on rivers and soils. This will adversely affect the nutrients in the soil and water
bodies.

Fig. 9.12 Eutrophication taking place

This can result in algae growth in lakes and water bodies, and make conditions for
other living organism harmful.

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(c) Ground-level ozone – chemical reactions involving air pollutants create a
poisonous gas ozone. Gas ozone can affect people’s health and can damage
vegetation types and some animal life too.
(d) Particulate matter – air pollutants can be in the form of particulate matter
which can be very harmful to our health. The level of effect usually depends on the
length of time of exposure, as well as the kind and concentration of chemicals and
particles exposed to. Short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and
throat, and upper respiratory infections. Others include headaches, nausea, and
allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions
of individuals with asthma.
Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer,
heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual
exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate
or complicate medical conditions in the elderly.
Air pollution prevention, monitoring and solution
Solution efforts on pollution is always a big problem. This is why prevention
interventions are always a better way of controlling air pollution. These prevention
methods can either come from government (laws) or by individual actions.
(a) Government (or community) level prevention
• Governments throughout the world have already taken action against air
pollution by introducing green energy. Some governments are investing
in wind energy and solar energy, as well as other renewable energy, to
minimize burning of fossil fuels, which cause heavy air pollution.
• Governments are also forcing companies to be more responsible with their
manufacturing activities, so that even though they still cause pollution,
they are a lot controlled.
• Car manufacturing companies are also building more energy efficient cars,
which pollute less than before.
(b) Individual level prevention
• Other tips on reducing air pollution include saving energy, practicing
energy efficiency tips, planting more trees, opting for green and renewable
energy sources, carbon emission reduction.
• Recycle and re-use things. This will minimize the dependence of producing
new things. Remember manufacturing industries create a lot of pollution,
so if we can re-use things like shopping plastic bags, clothing, paper and
bottles, it can help.
• In the area of air pollution solutions for cars, some simple strategies include

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 carpooling, proper vehicle care and making use of public transport as
much as possible.
• Participating in social awareness programs and help to share knowledge
about air pollution and its destructive effects on life and the environment.

Activity 9.3 Discussion in groups

Suggest five ways that government of Zimbabwe can use to reduce the causes of
air, land and water pollution in your local area.
Activity 9.4 Research Assignment
Find out the laws of Zimbabwe that regulate air pollution. How best can
Environmental Management Agency (EMA) enforce these laws effectively?
Activity 9.5 Environmental campaigns
As form one students, organise a campaign against air, water and land pollution
in your area. Find a free day where you can mobilize your schoolmates in
accompaniment of your school authorities to initiate a clean global environment
campaign. Find placards, print t-shirts with your school logs and written at the
back the motto of the campaign.

UNIT 9.3 PANDEMICS AND CHRONIC ILLNESSES

A chronic condition is a human health condition or disease that is persistent or
otherwise long-lasting in its effects or a disease that comes with time. The term
chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more than three
months. Common chronic diseases include arthritis, asthma, cancer, diabetes and
viral diseases such as HIV/AIDS.
Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses,
parasites or fungi which can be spread, directly or indirectly, from one person
to another. An infectious agent produces chronic illness or long-term disability
through progressive tissue pathology or organ decompensation attributable to
direct effects of persistent infection.
Infectious diseases are disorders caused by organisms such as bacteria, viruses,
fungi or parasites. Many organisms live in and on our bodies. They are normally
harmless or even helpful, but under certain conditions, some organisms may
cause diseases. Some infectious diseases can be passed from person to person.
Some are transmitted by bites from insects or animals and others are acquired
by ingesting contaminated food or water or being exposed to organisms in the
environment. Many infectious diseases, such as measles and chickenpox, can
be prevented by vaccines. Frequent and thorough hand-washing also helps in
protecting most infectious diseases.
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Types of chronic diseases
(a) Diabetes
Diabetes is a serious complex condition which can affect the entire body. Diabetes
requires daily self-care and if complications develop, diabetes can have a significant
impact on quality of life and can reduce life expectancy.
When someone has diabetes, their body cannot maintain healthy levels of glucose
in the blood. Glucose is a form of sugar which is the main source of energy for our
bodies. Unhealthy levels of glucose in the blood can lead to long term and short-
term health complications.
For our bodies to work properly we need to convert glucose (sugar) from food into
energy. A hormone called insulin is essential for the conversion of glucose into
energy. In people with diabetes, insulin is no longer produced or not produced
in sufficient amounts by the body. When people with diabetes eat glucose, which
is in foods such as breads, cereals, fruits and starchy vegetables, legumes, milk,
yoghurt and sweets, it cannot be converted into energy.
Instead of being turned into energy the glucose stays in the blood resulting in high
blood glucose levels. Blood glucose levels can be monitored and managed through
self-care and treatment.
Common symptoms of diabetes include:
• being more thirsty than usual
• passing more urine
• feeling tired and lethargic
• always feeling hungry
• having cuts that heal slowly
• itching, skin infections
• blurred vision
• unexplained weight loss
• gradually putting on weight
• headaches
• feeling dizzy
• leg cramps
(b) Hypertension (HBP)
Hypertension is high pressure. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against
the walls of arteries as it flows through them. Arteries are the blood vessels that
carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the body’s tissues.

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As blood flows through arteries it pushes against the inside of the artery walls. The
more pressure the blood exerts on the artery walls, the higher the blood pressure
will be. When the muscular walls of arteries are relaxed, or dilated, the pressure of
the blood flowing through them is lower than when the walls narrow.
Serious complications can be avoided by getting regular blood pressure checks
and treating hypertension as soon as it is diagnosed. If left untreated, hypertension
can lead to the following medical conditions, heart attack, stroke, enlarged heart
and kidney damage.
There is no cure for primary hypertension, but blood pressure can almost always
be lowered with the correct treatment. The goal of treatment is lowering blood
pressure to levels that will prevent heart disease and other complications of
hypertension. Treatment to lower blood pressure may include:
• reducing salt intake
• reducing fat intake
• getting regular exercise
• quitting smoking
• reducing alcohol consumption
• managing stress
(c) HIV and AIDS
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus that attacks the immune system,
the body’s natural defence system. Without a strong immune system, the body
has trouble fighting off disease. Both the virus and the infection it causes are
called HIV.
White blood cells are an important part of the immune system. HIV infects and
destroys certain white blood cells called CD4+ cells. If too many CD4+ cells are
destroyed, the body can no longer defend itself against infection.
The last stage of HIV infection is AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).
People with AIDS have a low number of CD4+ cells and get infections or cancers
that rarely occur in healthy people. But having HIV does not mean one have AIDS.
Even without treatment, it takes a long time for HIV to progress to AIDS usually ten
to twelve years.
When HIV is diagnosed before it becomes AIDS, medicines can slow or stop the
damage to the immune system. If AIDS does develop, medicines can often help the
immune system return to a healthier state. With treatment, many people with HIV
are able to live long and active lives.

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What causes HIV?
HIV infection is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus. One can get HIV by
getting in contact with infected blood, semen, or vaginal fluids.
• Most people get the virus by having unprotected sex with someone who
has HIV.
• Another common way of getting it is by sharing drug needles with someone
who is infected with HIV.
• The virus can also be passed from a mother to her baby during pregnancy,
birth, or breastfeeding.
HIV does not survive well outside the body. So, it cannot be spread by casual
contact like kissing or sharing drinking glasses with an infected person.
What are the symptoms of HIV?
Common early symptoms of HIV include:
• fever
• sore throat
• headache
• muscle aches and joint pain
• swollen glands (swollen lymph nodes)
• skin rash
Symptoms may appear from a few days to several weeks after a person is first
infected. The early symptoms usually go away within two to three weeks. After
the early symptoms go away, an infected person may not have symptoms again
for many years. After a certain point, symptoms reappear and then remain. These
symptoms usually include:
• swollen lymph nodes
• extreme tiredness
• weight loss
• fever
• night sweats
How is it treated?
The standard treatment for HIV is a combination of medicines called antiretroviral
therapy, or ART. Antiretroviral medicines slow the rate at which the virus multiplies.
Taking these medicines can reduce the amount of virus in one’s body and help
them to stay healthy.
Medical experts recommend that people begin treatment for HIV as soon as they
know that they are infected. To monitor the HIV infection and its effects on the
immune system, a doctor will regularly do two tests:

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 • viral load, which shows the amount of virus in the blood.
• CD4+ cell count, which shows how well the immune system is working.
After a patient starts treatment, it is important to take their medications, exactly as
directed by doctor.
Preventive measures of HIV
• Abstaining from sex
• Avoiding multiple sexual partners and being faithful to one partner.
• Use preventive pills to prevent mother to child transmission
• HIV testing first and use protection when indulging in sexual contact.
• Knowing one’s HIV status so as to behave responsibly.
Type of infectious diseases
(a) Ebola
Ebola is not an airborne virus. Unlike some other viruses, the Ebola virus can only
be spread by body fluids. Ebola spreads through human-to-human transmission
via direct contact. Direct contact means that blood, secretions, organs or other
body fluids containing the virus must come into contact with broken skin of a
healthy individual in order for the virus to be transmitted. The fluids may come
directly from the infected patient or from surfaces touched by the sick individual,
such as bedding or clothing.
The virus is most easily transmitted through blood and vomit. Breast milk, urine
and semen have also been found to transmit the Ebola virus, and it is believed that
it may even be transmitted through tears and saliva.
Ebola is not spread through the air. This means that a person cannot contract the
virus from breathing the same air as an infected individual. However, if an infected
individual directly sneezes on a person and the mucus from that sneeze comes
into contact with an open cut or the eyes, nose or mouth of someone else, there
is a chance of infection.
The patient will usually experience the following symptoms:
• a high fever
• muscle pain
• severe headache
• weakness
• diarrhoea
• vomiting
• abdominal pain
• some patients also bleed from the nose and mouth.

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Ebola treatment
There is no cure for Ebola, nor
are there any vaccines that can
prevent the disease. Those who
recover from the disease do so
through the strength of their
own immune system. Doctors
have found that one of the most
Fig. 9.13 A victim of Ebola
important treatments for patients
afflicted with the virus is simply keeping them well hydrated and helping them
breathe, to give their immune system a better chance to fight off the disease.

Activity 9.6 Discussion

Critically discuss the differences between HIV and AIDS as a class. At what stage
can HIV progress to AIDS and under what circumstances?
Activity 9.7 Debate
Debate on the contention that, Zimbabwe should introduce boys’ and girls’ virginity
tests as a measure to fight against the spread of HIV and AIDS in the country.
Activity 9.8 Problem solving
In your own opinion, what measures should be taken by West African countries
vulnerable to Ebola virus epidemic to prevent the spread of this virus?

Interesting facts
1. Polluted drinking waters are a problem for about half of the world’s population.
Each year there are about 250 million cases of water-based diseases, resulting
in roughly 5 to 10 million deaths.
2. How the world uses freshwater:
• about 70 percent for irrigation
• about 22 percent for industry
• about 8 percent for domestic use.
3. Ebola was first discovered in 1976 in former Zaire, or what is now the Democratic
Republic of the Congo near the Ebola River.
4. Health workers treating Ebola virus patients should wear protective clothing
masks, gloves, gowns, and goggles; use infection-control measures such as
complete equipment sterilization and routine use of disinfectant; and isolated
infected patients to minimize contact with unprotected patients to protect
themselves from contracting Ebola virus.
5. An estimated 18.2 million people across the world were receiving HIV treatment
in mid-2016.

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Glossary of terms
Automobile – a passenger vehicle designed for operation on ordinary roads
and typically having four wheels and a gasoline or diesel internal-
combustion engine.
Atmosphere – the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth; the air.
Habitat – the natural environment of an organism; place that is natural for the life
and growth of an organism.
Ecosystem – a system, or a group of interconnected elements, formed by the
interaction of a community of organisms with their environment.
Aquatic life – living or growing in water.
Overexploitation – use or utilization, especially for profit.
Pharmaceuticals – a compound manufactured for use as a medicinal drug.
Landfill – a system of trash and garbage disposal in which the waste is buried
between layers of earth to build up low-lying land.
Land degradation – is any change in the condition of the land which reduces
its productive potential. It is the deterioration in the quality
of land, its topsoil, vegetation, and water resources, caused
usually by excessive or inappropriate exploitation.
Desertification – the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as
a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.
Radioactivity – the phenomenon, exhibited by and being a property of certain
elements, of spontaneously emitting radiation resulting from
changes in the nuclei of atoms of the element.
Acidification – to make or become acid; convert into an acid.
Chronic condition – is a human health condition or disease that is persistent or
otherwise long-lasting in its effects or a disease that comes
with time.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. A natural resource is anything that people can use which comes from_______
A. human resources B. agriculture C. water D. natural environment
2. No human created natural resources_______
A. yes B. no C. none of the above D. false statement
3. In general terms, the conservation of resources can be defined as ________
A. destroying natural resources replacing them with these things created by
humans.

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 B. utilizing natural resources to the fullest.
C. not using any natural resource.
D. wise use of natural resources.
4. Which of the following is not a natural resource?
A. fossil fuels B. minerals C. cars D. forests
5. What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources?
A. non-renewable resources cannot be exhausted like renewable resources.
B. renewable resources can be exhausted unlike non-renewable resources.
C. renewable resources can be used over and over again.
D. renewable resources cannot be exhausted unlike non-renewable resources.
6. What should be done to preserve forests in Zimbabwe?
A. start veld fires during winter season.
B. practice paddocking of livestock.
C. practice crop rotation.
D. restore damaged ecosystems by planting trees on land where forests have
been cut down.
7. Land is a very important natural resource. In which of the ways can it be
conserved?
A. overgrazing B. digging holes
C. cutting down trees D. educating, informing and sustainable use
8. All the organisms that live in water are referred to as_______________
A. aquatic life or biodiversity B. fish
C. crocodiles D. species
9. Other threats to aquatic biodiversity include; _________
A. pollution
B. forestry
C. fishing
D. water pollution from heavy industries, mining and siltation of dams and rivers
10. Pollution is __________
A. water contaminated.
B. destroying the environment.
C. the bringing of toxic substances into the environment such as soil, air and
water.
D. natural environment.
11. Which one of the following is not a type of pollution?
A. air B. land C. water D. environment
12. A chronic disease is _______
A. a health problem B. a psychological condition
C. a common disease D. a human health condition that is persistent
13. The term chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more
than ______
A. 1 month B. 2 months C. 3 months D. 4 months

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14. Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms such as ________ which can
be spread directly or indirectly from one person to another.
A. HIV/AIDS B. asthma
C. cancer D. bacteria, fungi, viruses, or parasites
15. Diabetes is a serious health condition which can affect ___________?
A. entire body B. men C. women D. half body

Structured Questions
1. (a) Define a natural resource. [2]
(b) What is meant by preservation of natural resources? [2]
(c) State two ways of preserving forests and wildlife. [2]
(d) Give two reasons why land is an important resource. [2]
(e) Explain how minerals can be conserved in Zimbabwe. [2]
2. (a) What is aquatic life? [2]
(b) Identify three ways of conserving aquatic life in Zimbabwe. [3]
(c) Define the term pollution. [2]
(d) Identify any three types of pollution. [3]
3. (a) What is a chronic disease? [2]
(b) Give two examples of chronic diseases that affect human beings? [2]
(c) State any two microorganisms that cause infectious diseases. [2]
(d) Explain in brief, what is hypertension. [2]
(e) What does the abbreviation of HIV and AIDS stand for? [2]

Essay Questions
1. Explain the ways of conserving each of the following natural resources:
(i) Forests and wildlife [5]
(ii) Land [5]
(iii) Minerals [5]
(iv) Rivers and dams [5]
2. Explain the causes of any three types of pollution. [20]
3. Describe the effects of land and water pollution. [20]
4. Explain any two chronic diseases you know and their common symptoms. [20]

True or False Questions (answer either true or false)

1. Protected sex is a 100% method of preventing HIV.
2. Ebola was first discovered in human beings in 1976.
3. The last stage of HIV infection is AIDS.
4. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of arteries as it
flows through them.

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5. When someone has diabetes, their body cannot maintain healthy levels of glucose
in the blood.
6. Air pollution occurs when gases, dust particles, fumes (or smoke) or odour are
introduced into the atmosphere in a way that makes it harmful to humans,
animals and plant.
7. There is no difference between HIV and AIDS.
8. Young boys and girls are not vulnerable to HIV.
9. Ebola is common in Southern Africa.
10. Diabetes affects all regardless, of colour, age and education qualifications.

UNIT 9.4 HAZARDS RISK AND DISASTERS

What is a drought?
Drought is the absence of water for a long period of time, at a place where it is
considered ‘not normal’ compared to its usual conditions. Other sources define
drought as a relatively long time where there is not enough water than there
usually is, as a result of dry weather, to support human, animal and plant life.
The distribution of all the water on the
earth’s surface is not even. Some places
have lots of fresh water (rivers, lakes
and lagoons) and are continuously
replenished by rainfall, runoffs and water
from underground. Other places too are
known to have very little water.
Therefore, if a region that has lots of
Fig. 9.14 An area under drought rainfall, goes for a couple of weeks
without rains, and people, animals and
plants begin to experience a bit of dryness, it can be called a drought. At the same
time, that condition may be very normal for places with no water, and can go for
months without any rains with little problems.
Types of drought
There are some indicators used to determine if a condition can be called a drought.
These indicators help local authorities, states or governments to plan and release
appropriate relief resources to the affected areas. Here are some common scenarios
of droughts:
(a) Meteorological drought – this kind is usually determined by the general lack
of moisture in the weather such as lack of precipitation, and the play of other
weather conditions such as dry winds, high temperatures and so on.
(b) Agricultural drought – this is when atmospheric moisture is reduced to the
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 extent that soil moisture is affected. Here, crops and animals are affected and
evapotranspiration is also affected.
(c) Hydrological drought – this is when there is a deficiency of surface water and
ground water supply in a region, often as a result of less precipitation, excessive
reliance on surface water for farming, energy and other needs.
What causes drought?
(a) Lack of rainfall (or precipitation) – droughts can occur when there is the lack
of ‘expected’ precipitation (rain and snow). Note that we say ‘expected’ because
the lack of rain alone does not mean a drought. Some regions can go for months
without any rain, and that would be ‘normal’ for them. Farmers plant in anticipation
of rains and when the rains do not come, and irrigation infrastructure is absent,
agricultural drought occurs.
(b) Surface water flow – some regions
are also well distributed with surface
water (streams and rivers) that have
their sources from far away mountains
and watersheds. These surface waters
may dry out if the flow from their
sources upstream is affected. Hydro-
electric dams and irrigation systems
are some of the economic activities
that can reduce the amount of water
flowing to other areas downstream.
Fig. 9.15 Lack of rainfall
(c) Human factors – forests (trees)
play a key role in the water cycle, as they help reduce evaporation, store water
and also contribute to atmospheric moisture in the form of transpiration. This
means, cutting down trees (deforestation) in the name of economics, will expose
surface water to more evaporation. It will also reduce the ability of the ground
to hold water and make it easier for desertification to occur. It can set off drying
conditions, especially for smaller water bodies. Cutting down trees is known to
reduce a forest’s watershed potential.
(d) Global warming – it is on record that human actions have contributed to more
greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere. As a result, there are warmer temperatures,
often resulting in more dryness and bush fires. These conditions also tend to speed
up drought conditions.
Effects of droughts
Water is involved in every part of human life and also for plants and animals. There
are so many ways that water affects us both directly and indirectly. Let us consider
this scenario:
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Assuming that the rains do not come in a particular year. What happens? Crops yield
will be very low and farms will have to close production. Local farm produce sellers
will have nothing to sell. That will be a direct impact on farmers and sellers. But that
is not all. Because farmers closed production, they will not buy farming materials
such as seeds, fertilizers, tractors, and so on. That means many more businesses that
produce these materials and equipment will also be affected. They will also lose
sales and have to lay people off. When people are laid off, they cannot buy things
and cannot take care of their families. That is an indirect effect, and it can be even
more devastating, complex and long term. That is just one way of looking at it.
All the problems can be grouped into three main areas that is economic,
environmental and social impact.
1. Economic impacts of drought
Economic impacts often involve losing money either by individuals or families,
businesses and governments. Here are some examples of economic impact
resulting from droughts:
• farmers will have to spend more money to irrigate the crops and provide
water for livestock on animal farms and ranches. They have to spend money
to drill new wells or buy water in tankers from faraway places.
• low crop yield means farmers lose a lot of money, farm workers have to
take pay cuts and some may even have to be laid off.
• businesses and industries that manufacture farm equipment and resources
lose money because farmers do not have the money to buy from them.
• less or no rains mean dryer conditions and more bush fires. Farms are
destroyed, properties are razed down, forests and trees are burned and
people lose money this way. Governments also need to spend more
resources to fight fires and send emergency supplies to the most needed
places.
• businesses spend more on electric generators or close production if hydro-
energy companies operate below capacity. Energy industries also lose
money because they cannot meet the energy demand of the region. The
government again gets less tax money because people spend less.
• businesses connected to water recreation, such as beaches and lake side
activities may close down because of low water levels or dried out water
bodies. The livelihoods of people connected to such businesses are all
affected.
2. Environmental impacts of drought
Plants, animals, climate, soils, rocks and many others are all affected by drought
conditions. Some biotic and abiotic factors recover when the droughts are over.

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Others never recover again. Here are a few examples:
• soil moisture is key for the breakdown of organic matter. Droughts lower
the quality of soils, because there is less organic activity, more wind erosion,
and soil insects or organisms perish.
• water bodies (lakes, creeks, ponds, and lagoon) dry out, and water animals
die. This is called habitat destruction. When aquatic animals and other wild
life die, the entire food chains and ecosystems are also affected.
• desertification is when fertile lands become bare and infertile, often as a
result of overgrazing, deforestation and other economic activity. Droughts
make this process even worse and eliminate any chances of the land
recovering.
• animals migrate long distances in search of water. They end up in new
habitats, making them vulnerable and endangered, whiles others face new
threats.
3. Social impacts of drought
• Health has a direct link to the water supply of any settlement. Clean water
for drinking and water for cleaning and sanitation help society prevent and
manage diseases.
• Outbreak of diseases – since water scarcity is high during drought
conditions, water quality significantly depreciates. This means the
availability of clean water for drinking and water for sanitation and cleaning
may not be sufficient. Droughts also increase the concentration levels of
nutrients, chemicals, and solid particles or impurities in surface waters. As a
result, managing and preventing waterborne diseases such as typhoid and
cholera becomes increasingly difficult.
• Hunger, malnutrition, anaemia and mortality impacts of droughts are
indirect in nature. Droughts cause low food production (crops and
livestock), and people have less to eat. Food nutrition is a problem that
leads to vulnerability, diseases or illness and deaths.
• Fresh water levels and water discharge during droughts are low, resulting
in less dilution in ecosystem waters. This means that the concentration of
chemicals, nutrients and solid particles increases, and dissolved oxygen
decreases.
• People migrate to other places in search of better living conditions. This
makes a region in drought more vulnerable, as many of its young and
working population are forced to leave.
• Farm families suffer more when family members migrate. Droughts in more
rural areas of the world cause strain on family lives. There is more pressure

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 on women to work outside farms to help provide for the family.
• Anxiety, stress and the generally low and drained feeling of not knowing
when things will improve can have a negative effect on people. People are
unhappy and depressed because all the things that they used to do is no
longer available and they have to deal with a difficulty that has no end in
sight. Community networks are broken and social interaction decreases.
This results in low esteem and feeling of social isolation.
• People feel unsafe and threatened by loss of forest and wild fires, as well as
loss of human life.
Ways of minimising the impacts of drought
There are many things an individual, community or government can do to
minimize the impacts of drought if they occur. Here are a few:
(i) Education – it is important that each of us learn about how droughts occur and
how they affect us. This empowers us to think of solutions and other things we
can do if we find ourselves in a drought situation. The government also needs
to educate the public periodically about their environment, climate, weather
and some natural disasters that can happen. The government also needs to
understand the terrain of the region and the likelihood of a drought, so that
there are no surprises if they happen.
(ii) Preventing water pollution – taking measures to stop all forms of water
pollution is important, because on the onset of droughts, humans resort
to surface water such as streams and lakes and the like. If they are in great
condition, humans can depend on them for drinking and irrigation until
things improve. If they are all polluted or contaminated and unsafe for any
kind of use, it makes the problem even more distressing.
(iii) Water conservation and storage – water is precious and a scarce commodity
everywhere in the world and humans need to use water wisely as such. Even
if there is water available, it is important because the practice makes us cope
better when there is a shortage. Also, preserving water leaves enough to be
stored in dams, reservoirs and even turned into ponds.
(iv) The most important step in lessening the effects of drought is desalination of
seawater.
(v) Water recycling and rainwater harvesting are all things that are currently under
development to build on existing water supplies and further reduce the impacts
of drought in dry climates.
Case study: El Nino effects in Southern Africa 2016
Across large parts of Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, South Africa, Mozambique,
Botswana, and Madagascar, there was a sharp decrease in rainfall patterns in the

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2015-2016 summer season. The region’s intense drought expanded and strengthened
since the earliest stages of the 2015-2016 agricultural season, driven by one of the
strongest El Nino events of the last 50 years.
El Nino is the name given to a weather pattern associated with a sustained period of
warming in the central and eastern tropical Pacific which can spark deadly and costly
climate extremes in parts of the world. The phenomenon had a devastating impact on
harvests and food security in Southern Africa. Much of the region experienced delays in
planting and very poor conditions for early crop development and pasture re-growth.
Flooding
It is a natural event or occurrence where a piece of land that is usually dry land,
suddenly gets submerged under water. Some floods can occur suddenly and
recede quickly. Others take days or even months to build and discharge.
What causes flooding?
Here are a few events that can cause flooding:
(a) Rains – each time there are more rains than the drainage system can take,
there can be floods. Sometimes, there is heavy rain for a very short period that
result in floods. In other times, there may be light rain for many days and weeks
and can also result in floods.
(b) River overflows – rivers can overflow their banks to cause flooding. This
happens when there is more water upstream than usual, and as it flows
downstream to the adjacent low-lying areas (also called a floodplain), there is
a burst and water gets into the land.
(c) Strong winds in coastal areas – sea water can be carried by massive winds
and hurricanes onto dry coastal lands and cause flooding. Sometimes this is
made worse if the winds carry rains themselves. Sometimes water from the sea
resulting from a tsunami can flow inland to cause damage.
(d) Dam breaking – dams are man-made blocks mounted to hold water flowing
down from a highland. The power in the water is used to turn propellers to
generate electricity. Sometimes, too much water held up in the dam can cause
it to break and overflow the area. Excess water can also be intentionally released
from the dam to prevent it from breaking and that can also cause floods.
Case study: Buffalo Creek Valley, West Virginia February 26, 1972
The failure of a coal-waste impoundment at the valley’s head took 125 lives, and
caused more than $400 million in damages, including destruction of over 500 homes.
(e) Ice and snow-melts - in many cold regions, heavy snow over the winter usually
stays frozen for some time. There are also mountains that have ice on top of

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 them. Sometimes the ice suddenly melts when the temperature rises, resulting
in massive movement of water into places that are usually dry. This is usually
called a snowmelt flood.
Types of floods
There are three major flood types which are: flash floods, rapid on-set floods and
slow on-set floods.
(i) Flash floods – it occurs within a very short time (2-6 hours, and sometimes
within minutes) and is usually as a result of heavy rain, dam break or snow
melt. Sometimes, intense rainfall from slow moving thunderstorms can cause
it. Flash floods are the most destructive and can be fatal, as people are usually
taken by surprise. There is usually no warning, no preparation and the impact
can be very swift and devastating.
(ii) Rapid on-set floods – similar to flash floods, this type takes slightly longer to
develop and the flood can last for a day or two only. It is also very destructive,
but does not usually surprise people like flash floods. With rapid on-set floods,
people can quickly put a few things right and escape before it gets very bad.
(iii) Slow on-set floods – this kind is usually as a result of water bodies over flooding
their banks. They tend to develop slowly and can last for days and weeks. They
usually spread over many kilometres and occur more in flood plains (fields prone
to floods in low-lying areas).
Areas prone to flooding
From the causes of floods and the types that we just read about, you can tell that
floods are more likely to occur in some areas than others.
Generally, the natural behaviour of
flowing water is that it moves from
higher ground to lower ground. This
means if there is a higher ground
adjacent a lower ground, the lower
ground is a lot more likely to experience
floods. Additionally, anywhere that
rains fall, floods can develop. This is so
because anytime there are more rains
bringing more water than it can be
Fig. 9.16 Areas prone to flooding drained or absorbed by the soil, there
is a flood potential.
Other places also have very bad and chocked drainage systems. The danger is
that, with the rains, water will find its own level if it cannot find its way. The result
is flooding. Any plain low-lying area adjacent a river, lagoon or lake is also more

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likely to have floods anytime the water level rises. This includes coastal areas and
shorelines, as seawater can easily be swept inland by strong winds, tides and
tsunamis.
Effects of flooding
Floods can have devastating consequences and can have effects on the economy,
environment and people.
(a) Economic – during floods (especially flash floods), roads, bridges, farms,
houses and automobiles are destroyed. People become homeless. Additionally,
the government deploys police and other emergency apparatuses to help
the affected. All these come at a heavy cost to people and the government.
It usually takes years for affected communities to be re-built and business to
come back to normalcy.
(b) Environment – the environment also suffers when floods happen. Chemicals
and other hazardous substances end up in the water and eventually
contaminate the water bodies that floods end up in. Additionally, flooding
kills animals, and other insects are introduced to affected areas, distorting the
natural balance of the ecosystem.
(c) People and animals – many people and animals have died in flash floods.
Many more are injured and others made homeless. Water supply and electricity
are disrupted and people struggle and suffer as a result. In addition to this,
flooding brings a lot of diseases and infections including military fever and so
on. Sometimes insects and snakes make their ways to the area and cause a lot
of havoc.
(d) Floodplains – there is also something good about floods, especially those
that occur in floodplains and farm fields. Floodwaters carry lots of nutrients
that are deposited in the plains. Farmers love such soils, as they are perfect for
cultivating some kinds of crops.
What you can do before, during and after floods
Sometimes there is no warning of flash floods, and that is why it is important to
think of them and prepare for them before they happen. Here are a few things you
can do.
1. Before the floods
(a) Know about your local relief centres and evacuation routes.
(b) 
Keep emergency numbers and important information handy, as well as
emergency supplies, kits, and first aid items.
(c) Make sure everything that is of importance is secured like documents and other
valuables.

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(d) Plant trees and shrubs and keep a lot of vegetation in your compound if you
are in a low-lying area as that can control erosion and help soften the speed of
the flowing water.
2. During the floods
(a) Flash floods occur in a short space of time. As soon as they start, be quick, keep
safe and ensure that children and elderly are safe by leaving the house to a
higher ground.
(b) Turn off all electrical appliances, gas, heating and the like if there is a bit of time.
(c) Leave the area before it gets too late. Do not drive through the water as moving
water can sweep you away.
(d) Stay away from power lines or broken power transmission cables.
(e) Try to keep away from flood water as it may contain chemicals or other
hazardous materials.
3. After the floods
(a) Make sure you have permission from emergency officers to get back inside
your house.
(b) Keep all power and electrical appliance off until the house is cleaned up
properly and until the electrical personnel has confirmed that it is good to put
them on.
(c) Make sure you have photographs, or a record of all the damage, as it may be
needed for insurance claims.
(d) Clean the entire home, together with all the objects in it very well before you
use them again. They may be contaminated.
Methods of flood prevention
Humans cannot stop the rains from falling or stop flowing surface water from
bursting its banks. These are natural events, but we can do something to prevent
them from having great impact. Here are a few:
(i) Town planning – it is important that builders acquire permission before
buildings are erected. This will ensure that waterways are not blocked. Also,
drainage systems must be covered and kept free from objects that chock them.
This way, water can quickly run through if it rains and minimize any chance of
town flooding. Drainage systems should also be covered to prevent litter from
getting into them.
(ii) Vegetation – trees, shrubs and grass help protect the land from erosion by
moving water. People in low-lying areas must be encouraged to use a lot of
vegetation to help break the power of moving flood water and also help reduce
erosion.

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(iii) Education – is very important to inform and caution people about the dangers
of floods, what causes floods, and what can be done to minimise its impact.
(vi) Detention basin – these are small reservoirs built and connected to waterways.
They provide a temporary storage for floodwaters. This means in an event
of flooding, water is drained into the basin first, giving people more time to
evacuate.
Case study: Tokwe Mukosi Floods 2014
The Tokwe-Mukosi flooding was a national disaster that occurred on 4 February 2014
after the torrential rainfall pounded in the Masvingo Province. The flooding which
caused the partial collapse of the Tokwe-Mukosi Dam, rendered over 1 500 families
homeless. The victims were relocated to temporary transit camps especially Chingwizi
Transit Camp in Mwenezi.
After the government declared the flooding a national disaster, work of relocating
those affected villagers who lived downstream started. Around 4,500 villagers lived
along the flood basin of the dam were evacuated after water, escaping from cracks in
the dam wall, flooded the river that flowed directly towards the villages. An estimated
2,500 households who lived upstream of the dam were displaced to Chingwizi, Chisase
and Masangula relocation sites of Nuanetsi Ranch in Mwenezi District.

UNIT 9.5 HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Human trafficking is defined by the United Nations Organisation as the recruitment,
transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons by the use of force or
other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of
power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or
benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person,
for the purpose of exploitation. It is often described as a modern form of slavery.
Causes of human trafficking
(a) Leaving a place of poverty to gain wealth – many victims want to get out of
their situation so they risk everything to leave the place that sees them mired
in poverty. This gives the human traffickers a chance to lure victims to move to
a different country. Some parents sell their children, not just for money, but in
hope that their children may escape poverty and have a better life with more
opportunities.
(b) Political conditions – political instability, militarism, generalized violence or
civil unrest can result in an increase in trafficking as well. The destabilization
and scattering of populations increase their vulnerability to unfair treatment
and abuse via trafficking and forced labour.
(c) War – armed conflicts can lead to massive forced displacements of people.

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 War creates large numbers of orphans and street children who are especially
vulnerable to trafficking. Their families have either passed away or are fighting
a war, complicating child-rearing.
(d) Social and cultural practices – some societies and cultures devalue, abuse
and exploit women and children, creating difficult living conditions for these
groups. With little opportunities of upward mobility and with little value placed
on women and children, they are more vulnerable to human trafficking.
(e) Demand for cheap labour – there is also a demand for cheap domestic and
agricultural labour.
(f ) 
Lack of knowledge – some
people are involved in human
trafficking without knowing
that they are abused. Lack of
that knowledge makes them
vulnerable to human trafficking
effects especially children, and
the aged people.

Fig. 9.17 Children who are victims of human

trafficking

Forms of human trafficking

1. Sexual exploitation
Sexual exploitation involves any non-consensual or abusive sexual acts performed
without a victim’s permission. This includes prostitution. Women, men and children
of both sexes can be victims. Many will have been deceived with promises of a
better life and then controlled through violence and abuse.
2. Forced labour
Forced labour involves victims being compelled to work very long hours, often
in hard conditions without relevant training and equipment, and to hand over
the majority if not all of their wages to their traffickers. The types of work and
working environment can often be described as “dirty, demeaning or dangerous”.
Forced labour crucially implies the use of force and lack of freedom of choice for
the victim. In many cases victims are subjected to verbal threats or violence to
achieve compliance.
Manufacturing, entertainment, travel, farming and construction industries have
been found to use forced labour by victims of human trafficking in various extents.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has identified six elements which
individually or collectively can indicate forced labour. These are:

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 • threats or actual physical harm.
• restriction of movement and confinement to the workplace or to a limited
area.
• withholding of wages or excessive wage reductions that violate previously
made agreements.
• withholding of passports and identity documents so that the workers can
neither leave nor prove their identity status.
Impacts of human trafficking
The impacts of trafficking are felt both in the countries from which people are
trafficked, and the countries to which they are trafficked. These include social,
economic and political effects such as:
• society – including the impacts of family and communities left behind, and
gender relations in receiving countries in which women are often sold into
sexual slavery.
• trafficked people will be denied the right to freedom and education.
• health – women and children trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation
are at risk of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections, and of
spreading the diseases among wider society.
• rule of law – in both sets of countries, the operations of organised criminal
groups, whose illicit activities often extend beyond trafficking, can have
serious implications for national security.
• victims of human trafficking have absolutely no freedoms, and experience
horrors such as abuse, violence, deprivation, and torture. These kinds of
conditions often lead to trauma.
• human traffickers force those who are pregnant to have abortions, with
unclean instruments by non-certified practitioners.
• the children suffer from lack of self-esteem, emotional disturbance,
disorientation, and depression and are scarred for life. They develop deep
psychological disorders that they struggle with for the rest of their lives
even if they have been rescued.
• in some cases, victims are also subjected to substance abuse by being
forced to take drugs. Such individuals also have to constantly battle with
drug addiction.
• availability of such cheap labour hinders employment opportunities and
subsequently, reduces per capita income of the nation.
Ways of reducing human trafficking
• School students can take action at their schools by raising awareness
about these issues and create clubs and organisations to gain momentum
to fight human trafficking.
• Join a task force initiative for law enforcement officials.

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 • Provide medical assistance to those who have survived human trafficking.
• Help survivors gain access to legal assistance, so that survivors can fight
back as well.
• Write letters to magazines, newspapers and even internet blogs to bring
awareness to these issues.
• Host events to discuss, show films or do anything related to raising
awareness of human trafficking.
• Newspapers, radios and televisions must keep the public updated and
educated about human trafficking issues.
• Communities should create institutions that deal with cases of human
trafficking.
• Volunteer and support anti-trafficking efforts in your community.
Activity 9.9 Information and Communication Technology
Use the computers in your school computer lab to design a social website or blog
where you keep the public updated about issues surrounding climate change and
flooding warnings.
Activity 9.10 Role play
Talk to your school authorities and have a police clearance to initiate a massive
community campaign against human trafficking taking place in Zimbabwe due
to unscrupulous agents. Lead the people involved in the campaign by organizing
the event.
Activity 9.11 Educational tour
Make a proposal to your school authorities seeking a permission to carry out an
educational tour to Masvingo in the Tokwe-Mkosi area to see the impact of the
2013-2014 floods. Your proposal should encompass the benefits that you and your
community are going to have after the tour.
Activity 9.12 Research in groups
1. Conduct a research on how people in rural and urban areas can mitigate the
effects of drought. Give the recommendations to the Ministry of Social Security.
2. Critically assess the devastating effects incurred as a result of the Tokwe-Mkosi
Dam floods which occurred in Masvingo during the 2014 agricultural season.
Propose measures that the dam authorities should do next time to mitigate
floods and serve life.
Activity 9.13 Poems and songs
Write a poem educating your schoolmates and the community at large on how
to fight against drought if it hits them. On the same note, compose a song about
preventive measures against drought.

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Interesting facts
1. In East Africa, the 1984-1985 drought led to a famine, which killed 750,000
people.
2. According to the United States of America State Department, 600,000 to
800,000 people are trafficked across international borders every year, of which
80% are female and half are children.
Summary of the chapter
• Some of these natural resources like sunlight and wind are renewable
resources. This means that they can be used again and again without
being exhausted. But some like forests, minerals, oil and others are non-
renewable meaning they can be exhausted.
• Pollution is bringing of unsafe or toxic substances into the environment,
such as the soil, the air and water.
• A chronic condition is a human health condition or disease that is persistent
or otherwise long-lasting in its effects or a disease that comes with time.
• Infectious diseases are disorders caused by organisms such as bacteria,
viruses, fungi or parasites.
• Drought can simply be defined as extended periods of precipitation
shortage, normally for a season or more resulting in water deficiency for
some human activities or environmental sustainability. Human activities
such as farming, irrigation, or domestic uses of water are normally impacted
during droughts.
• Flooding is the heavy, consistent and prolonged rainfall coupled with the
overflowing of rivers and other water channels. As rainwater reaches and
fills the river channels, the water spreads on the floodplain or the land next
to the river and causes flooding.
• Some people are involved in human trafficking without knowing that they
are abused.
Glossary of terms
Afforestation – is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where
there was no previous tree cover.
Reforestation – is the reestablishment of forest cover.
Recycling – convert waste into reusable material.
Aquatic – living in or near water or taking place in water.
Over-exploitation – the action or fact of making excessive use of a resource.
Aquatic biodiversity – is the variety of life and the ecosystems that make up the
freshwater.

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Leaching – drain away from soil or similar material by the action of percolating
liquid, especially rainwater.
Infectious disease – are disorders caused by organisms such as bacteria, viruses,
fungi or parasites.
Drought – a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to a shortage of
water.
Flooding – a great flowing or overflowing of water, especially over land not usually
submerged.
Siltation of rivers – earthy matter, fine sand, or the like carried by moving or
running water and deposited as a sediment.
Human trafficking – the action or practice of illegally transporting people from
one country or area to another, typically for the purposes of
forced labour or commercial sexual exploitation.
Desertification – is a type of land degradation in which relatively dry area of land
becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as
well as vegetation and wildlife.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Drought can be defined as extended periods of ___________
A. wind B. humidity
C. precipitation shortage D. environmental sustainability
2. What are the most common human activities usually affected during drought
periods?
A. trees B. farming, irrigation and domestic activities
C. roads D. farming equipment
3. Global warming is caused by ____________
A. animals B. human activities C. high temperatures D. humidity
4. In most cases, global warming tends to increase ___________
A. droughts B. depletion of natural resources
C. weather D. agricultural activities
5. Drought affects societies through _________________
A. outbreak of waterborne diseases.
B. increased budgetary spending by farmers.
C. reduced crop yields.
D. reduction in soil quality.
6. Flooding is ________
A. a heavy, consistent and prolonged rainfall coupled with the overflowing of
rivers and other channels.
B. rainwater reaches and fills the river channels.

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 C. overflow of water
D. rivers, lakes and streams overflow
7. The severity and frequency of flooding is affected by which of the following
factors?
A. climate B. precipitation
C. rivers and dams D. climate, precipitation, elevation, surrounding terrain
8. Floods can result in one of the following_____
A. excitement.
B. climate change.
C. violence and war.
D. loss of life, widespread and spread of waterborne diseases.
9. In short United Nations Organisation defines human trafficking as ________
A. use of force.
B. exploitation of human beings.
C. having control over others.
D. recruitment of persons for the purpose of exploitation.
10. Human trafficking is often caused by ______________
A. poverty B. militarism
C. lack of constitution in a country D. war

Structured Questions
1. (a) Define drought. [2]
(b) State any three causes of drought. [3]
(c) Briefly explain the effects of drought. [5]
2. (a) What does flooding means? [2]
(b) What are the causes of flooding? [2]
(c) Name any three factors that affect the severity and frequency of flooding. [3]
(d) Outline any three negative effects of flooding. [3]
3. (a) Identify two causes of human trafficking. [4]
(b) Discuss one form of human trafficking you know and give its effects. [3]
(c) What measures should be taken to prevent that form of human trafficking?
[3]
Essay Questions
1. (a) Describe two causes of droughts. [10]
(b) Explain the social, economic and environmental effects of drought. [10]
2. Examine the social and economic impacts of flooding. [20]
3. Describe the forms of human trafficking and propose methods of reducing
human trafficking. [20]
4. Discuss the efforts being taken by governments to address human trafficking all
over the world. [20]

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EXAMINATION III
PAPER 1: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 hour 15 mins)
There are 40 questions in this paper. Answer all questions in a separate paper. For each
question there are 4 possible answers, A, B, C, and D. Choose the one ou consider correct.
1. An entitlement is ________________
A. special treatment. B. respect. C. right.
D. the belief that one deserves privileges specified by a tradition.
2. The first entitlement that is supposed to be given to both mothers and fathers as
parents is ______________
A. money B. cars C. respect D. care
3. Z imbabwean oral traditions give women a sacred place as a ____ of any lineage.
A. chief matriarch B. mother C. heroine D. baby sitters
4. The child who assaults their mothers should face ________ as a punishment.
A. death B. misfortunes C. high filial treason D. arrest
5. Fathers are also entitled to such traditional benefits like ____________
A. the pulling of beard (matekenyandebvu) B. lobola
C. motherhood cow D. money
6. Rights can be defined as ___________
A. justice. B. what human beings deserve. C. equality.
D. what every human being deserves, no matter who they are, or where they live.
7. The Constitution of Zimbabwe defines children as every child that is to say every
boy and girl under the age of ________ years.
A. 16 B. 17 C. 18 D. 19
8. What is a factor of production?
A. goods and services. B. inputs. C. raw materials.
D. inputs that a business use to produce a good or service.
9. Identify any four factors of production__________
A. land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.
B. natural resources, inputs, outputs and services.
C. labour, human capital, skills and inputs.
D. land, labour, skills and natural resources.
10. Payment for the use of land is called ______________
A. interest B. wage C. rent D. profit
11. Payment for labour is called __________
A. wage B. rent C. profit D. interest
12. Payment for investing capital is called ___________
A. salary B. profit C. interest D. rent
13. Payment to entrepreneurship is called _______
A. rent B. wage C. interest D. profit
14. An industry is a classification that refers to group of activities that are related
based on their ____________
A. profit making strategies B. primary business objectives
C. motivation D. capital
15. Pre-colonial means before the heyday of massive European colonisation which
occupied much of Africa after which year?
A. 1870 B. 1880 C. 1885 D. 1890

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16. Identify any three pre-colonial states in Zimbabwe _______
A. Kololo state, Nyasaland and Mutapa state
B. Buganda state, Ndebele state and Shona state
C. Asante state, Khoi Khoi and Bunyoro state
D. Ndebele, Rozvi state and Mutapa state
17. Primary industries are based on _____________
A. extraction of raw materials. B. processing goods.
C. goods and services. D. improving performance and productivity.
18. Tertiary industry is involved in ____________
A. processing of goods and services.
B. extraction of raw materials.
C. provision of semi-skilled and skilled people to improve productivity.
D. finished products.
19. What does GDP stands for?
A. Gross Domestic Product B. Great Political Party
C. Government Domestic Production D. overall spending per person
20. Informal sector refers to people who are _________
A. not educated B. self-employed C. poor D. thieves
21. Which one of the following is not a type of indigenous food?
A. mufushwa (dried green leafy vegetables) B. cowpeas
C. madora (caterpillar worms) D. pizza
22. Madora (mopane caterpillar worms) are common in which area in Zimbabwe?
A. Mashonaland West B. Masvingo
C. Manicaland D. Matebeleland South – Gwanda
23. Contemporary food simply refers to _________________
A. modernized cooking. B. foreign ways of cooking.
C. indigenous food for Zimbabweans. D. food cooked on electric stoves.
24. Define food preservation _______
A. the process of spoiling food B. the process of preventing food from
decaying
C. food conservation D. growth of bacteria
25. Which one of the following is not a method of indigenous food preservation?
A. drying B. smoking C. salting D. refrigeration
26. A natural resource is anything that people can use which comes from_______
A. human resources B. agriculture C. water D. natural environment
27. Which of the following is not a natural resource?
A. fossil fuels B. minerals C. cars D. forests
28. What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources?
A. non-renewable resources cannot be exhausted like renewable resources.
B. renewable resources can be exhausted unlike non-renewable resources.
C. renewable resources can be used over and over again.
D. renewable resources cannot be exhausted unlike non-renewable resources.
29. What should be done to preserve forests in Zimbabwe?
A. start veld fires during winter season. B. practice paddocking of livestock.
C. practice crop rotation. D. do afforestation and reforestation.
30. L and is a very important natural resource. In which of the ways can it be
conserved?
A. overgrazing B. digging holes
C. cutting down trees D. educating, informing and sustainable use

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31. Pollution is __________
A. water contaminated. B. destroying the environment.
C. bringing toxic substances into the environment. D. natural environment.
32. Which one of the following is not a type of pollution?
A. air B. land C. water D. environment
33. A chronic problem is ______
A. a health problem. B. a psychological condition.
C. a common disease. D. a human health condition that is persistent.
34. The term chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more
than ______
A. 1 month B. 2 months C. 3 months D. 4 months
35. I nfectious diseases are caused by microorganisms such as ________ which can
be spread directly or indirectly from one person to another.
A. HIV/AIDS B. asthma
C. cancer D. bacteria, fungi, viruses, or parasites
36. Drought can be defined as extended periods of _______________
A. wind B. humidity
C. precipitation shortage D. environmental sustainability
37. What are the most common human activities usually affected during drought
periods?
A. trees B. farming, irrigation and domestic activities
C. roads D. farming equipment
38. Drought affects societies through _________________
A. outbreak of waterborne diseases.
B. increased budgetary spending by farmers.
C. reduced crop yields. D. reduction in soil quality.
39. Floods can result in one of the following:
A. excitement B. climate change
C. violence and war D. loss of life and spread of waterborne diseases
40. Human trafficking is often caused by ______________
A. poverty B. militarism
C. lack of constitution in a country
D. leaving a place of poverty to gain wealth, political instability, war, social and
cultural practices and demand for forced labour

PAPER 2
SECTION A: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS (Time: 2 hours) [100 marks]
Answer all questions in this section. Each question carries 10 marks.
1. (a) Define an entitlement. [1]
(b) What is the significance of a mother’s cow as an entitlement for women. [2]
(c) Name any special entitlement for fathers in Zimbabwe indigenous knowledge
system. [2]
(d) What is a right? [1]
(e) Define a child in line with the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe. [1]
(f ) Define and briefly describe the responsibilities of children at home and at
school. [2]
(g) State one right and one responsibility of a child in Zimbabwe. [1]

215
2. (a) Define factors of production. [2]
(b) Identify the importance of the factors of production. [2]
(c) What is an industry? [2]
(d) Identify any two characteristics of the informal sector. [2]
(e) Mention any two disadvantages of the informal sector. [2]
3. (a) Define food preservation. [2]
(b) Discuss four ways of preserving food. [2]
(c) Define a natural resource. [2]
(d) What is meant by preservation of natural resources? [2]
(e) State two ways of preserving forests and wildlife. [2]
4. (a) What is aquatic life? [2]
(b) Identify three ways of conserving aquatic life in Zimbabwe. [3]
(c) Define the term pollution. [2]
(d) Identify any three types of pollution. [3]
5. (a) What is a chronic disease? [2]
(b) Give two examples of chronic diseases that affect human beings? [2]
(c) State any two microorganisms that cause infectious diseases. [2]
(d) Explain in brief, what is hypertension. [2]
(e) What does the abbreviation HIV and AIDS stands for? [2]
6. (a) State any two causes of drought. [2]
(b) Briefly explain the effects of drought. [2]
(c) What are the causes of flooding? [2]
(d) Outline any two factors that affect the severity and frequency of flooding. [2]
(e) Identify two causes of human trafficking. [2]

SECTION B: ESSAY QUESTIONS

Answer any two questions in this section. Each question carries 20 marks.
7. (a) Describe the rights given to children in Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) How do people learn about their rights and responsibilities? [10]
8. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the informal sector. [20]
9. Explain any five methods of preserving food and give examples of the food pre-
served by each method. [20]
10. Explain any three chronic diseases you know and their common symptoms. [20]
11. (a) Describe two causes of droughts. [10]
(b) Explain the social, economic and environmental effects of flooding. [10]

216
INDEX
A
contemporary food 153, 163, 164
abiotic 114, 117, 122, 199 community 1, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 18, 21, 31, 32,
actual resources 114 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 44, 46, 48, 49,
Africa 58, 71, 90, 93, 96, 103, 156, 159, 168, 52, 53, 61, 73, 80, 81, 84, 87, 91,
170, 214 94, 98, 102, 103, 104, 118, 122,
age of consent 35, 52, 57 127, 131, 132, 141, 145, 146,
agriculture 88, 105, 131, 156, 157, 158, 159, 148, 177, 187, 194, 201, 209
170, 185, 194, 215 common courtesies 35, 38, 40
air pollution 117, 183 -188, 197 court 53, 83, 127, 130, 134, 146
ambient air pollution 184, 185
ashes 182 D
B dance 48, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 75, 76
David Livingstone 95, 96
behaviour 1-4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 20, 35, 37, 38, 39, deforestation 1  17, 175, 181, 182, 194, 198,
58, 61, 62, 73, 76, 132, 150, 203 200
beliefs 5, 8, 9, 20, 21, 32, 62, 75, 80, 87, 149 development of personality 2
birth certificate 26- 29, 31-34, 67, 70, 119, diabetes 188, 189, 197
138, 145 diseases 1  4, 15, 42, 45, 48, 56, 75, 79, 102,
biotic 114, 121, 199 174, 178, 179, 183, 188, 189, 192,
bows and arrows 22, 24, 31, 74, 77 193, 200, 204, 208, 210
bridal price 152 driver’s licence 29-31
C drought 7  3, 101, 117, 174, 197-202, 209,
210
cage trap 23, 33, 67
capital 94, 141, 149, 153, 154, 155, 168, E
169, 170, 173, 213, 214 Ebola 192, 193
case study 3, 111, 114, 159, 162, 180, 201, ecosystems 115, 175, 177, 179, 180, 200
202, 206 education 6 , 15, 21, 42, 52, 57, 109, 111,
caretakers 5, 17 118, 124, 127, 129, 145, 154,
cultural goals 2 160, 197, 201, 206, 208
Chewa 18, 20, 21 elections 80, 124, 130
chief 19, 51, 53, 63, 73, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, environmental pollution 117, 174
89, 97, 98, 130 entitlement 141, 142
child-headed family 14, 15 entrepreneur 155
Chinhoyi caves 92, 97, 98, 104 entertainment 21, 35, 58, 59, 95, 207
circumcision 46, 48, 49, 61 ethnic 35, 37, 60, 90, 91, 101, 102
citizens 5, 29, 37, 88, 91, 92, 98, 109, 110, exploitation 1 45, 149, 176, 180, 206, 207,
111, 112, 122, 123, 126, 127, 128, 208
129, 131, 133
clapping hands 38, 39, 102 F
climate change 117, 209,
cognitive and social development 4 factors of production 153, 154, 155, 168
concept of unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu 35 family members 1, 5, 6, 13, 15, 16,17, 46,
conservation of natural resources 117 53, 200
Constitution of Zimbabwe 18, 35, 57, 109, feral children 4
122, 124, 126, fish trap 23
127, 128, 129, flooding 19, 202-206, 209, 210
132, 133, 145, folktales 21, 22, 59, 60, 62

217
food preservation 163, 165, 166, 167, 168 91, 96, 111, 141
forests and wild animals 175 land reform 88, 127
land pollution 180, 181, 183, 184, 188
G legislature 124, 130
games 3, 7, 58, 59, 60 liberation struggle 88, 99, 100, 103, 129
global warming 117, 198 M
government 2  9, 43, 80, 81, 83, 88, 111, 122,
123, 124, 130, 131, 158, 161, mafukidzadumbu 143
162, 180, 187, 199, 201, 204, mass media 5, 8
206 meteorological drought 197
grandparents 5-7, 16, 59, 129 mining 155-159, 177, 180, 181, 182, 183
greetings 38, 39, modern inheritance 40, 42, 43
grinding stone 25, 31 mombe yeumai 142, 143, 149
monogamous family 13, 14
H Mosi-oa-Tunya 95, 96
musengabere 55
headman 79, 80, 81, 82, 97
heritage 1, 18, 35, 61, 71, 75, 87, 88, 90, 92- music 5, 58-62
96, 100-102, 109, 110, 111, 131, N
174
heirship 35, 40 naming rites 45, 46
hierarchy 71, 80, 81, 83 national anthem 87, 90, 91, 92
human rights 123, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133 national flag 87, 88, 89, 110, 122,
human trafficking 174, 206 -210 National Heroes Acre 99, 100, 103, 104
hypertension 189, 190 national identity 13, 18, 20, 26, 28, 29, 30,
31, 98
I national identity card 28, 29, 30, 31
idioms 18, 20, 31 national monuments 92, 98
Importance of socialisation 1, 2, 4 national shrines 87, 99
indigenous hunting tools 22 national symbols 87, 91, 92
industry 155-159, 168, 193 natural resources 17, 87, 109, 112-118,
infectious diseases 188, 192, 210 154, 174, 177
informal sector 153, 160, 161, 162, 168 Ndau 18, 21, 51, 55, 60
inheritance system 40, 41, 42, 43, 87 Ndebele 1  8, 19, 20, 21, 35, 45, 49, 90, 97,
inkomo yohlanga 142 98, 101, 156, 168
instruments 61, 78, 80, 122, 208 nduma or rundakuda 54
new generation 2
K Njelele shrine 100, 102
non-living 114, 115
Khoi Khoi 22, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83 non-organic material 114
Knowledge skills 2 non-renewable resources 114, 154, 174
kuganha 55 norms 1, 2, 5, 17, 20, 35, 36, 37, 38, 141
komba 46, 47
kurova guva 40, 51 O
kutema ugariri 55
occupational roles 2
L
P
labour 15, 55, 91, 131, 145, 153, 154, 155,
157, 159, 168, 206, 207, 208 pandemics 188
landfill 182 parenthood 3
language 1, 6, 7, 13, 18, 19, 20, 22, 35, 54, passport 29, 129, 208

218
pesticides 178-181, 184, V
physical security 16
polygamous family 14, 15 values 2, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 35, 36, 37, 38,
pre-colonial 58, 71, 141, 156, 157, 158 39, 59, 81, 87, 95, 103, 110, 111, 112,
preamble 109, 110, 111, 126, 128, 133 122, 126, 128, 133, 143, 146
primary industries 156 Venda 18, 19, 21, 42, 48, 50, 55
proverbs 7, 18, 19, 20, 50 Victoria Falls 90, 92, 95, 96
property 4, 19, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 79, 83,
W
117, 147
water pollution 1
 77, 178, 179, 180, 182,
Q 201
winnowing basket 25
Queen Victoria World Heritage 93, 94, 95, 96
R X
raw materials 112, 113, 116, 118, 153, 154,
Xhosa 18, 20, 41, 49, 51
155, 156
referendum 109, 124, 125, 126, 128, 133 Z
renewable natural resources 114
responsibility 16, 17, 36, 40, 41, 54, 72, 124, Zimbabwe bird 88, 89, 90, 92, 94
141, 146, 147
riddles 18, 20, 21
rights of children 17, 145
rivers and dams 176, 177
rock art 75, 79, 80
S
San 22, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80
secondary industries 156
schools pledge 109, 110, 111
Shangani 18, 21, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50
siblings 4, 5, 6, 7, 17
social development 4, 6
social learning 2
social order 2
socialisation in the home 1, 4, 5, 8
spear 22, 24, 77, 81, 101, 157
stakeholders 118, 125, 126
T
table manners 38, 39
tertiary industry 156
Tonga 15, 18, 21, 35, 39, 46, 48, 52, 56, 59,
95
traditional food 164
traditional leaders 71, 80, 81, 131
U
Unknown soldier 99, 100

219
 A Practical Approach to Heritage Studies Form 1 - 4 Series

FORM FORM
New curriculum

New curriculum
A Practical Approach A Practical Approach

Heritage Studies
This is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective
understanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:
to
1 Heritage Studies
to
2
A Practical Approach to Heritage Studies

A Practical Approach to Heritage Studies

well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.
interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in
the learning of Heritage Studies.
activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning
process.
content that helps learners to appreciate the norms, values as well as the
tangible and intangible cultural heritage of Zimbabwe.
simple language to enhance understanding.
attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up
examinations meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and
knowledge have been grasped.

Approved by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education,

September 2017
Form 1

Form 2

ISBN 9780797481862
90000 >

Anchors of the new schools curricula 9 780797 481862

Christine Gwirayi Mary Nyevedzanayi Munyaradzi Gunduza

Glorious Chikati Jubilee Mavondo

FORM FORM
New curriculum

A Practical Approach A Practical Approach

New curriculum

This is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

understanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:
Heritage Studies
to
3 Heritage Studies
to
4
A Practical Approach to Heritage Studies
A Practical Approach to Heritage Studies

well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.

interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in
the learning of Heritage Studies.
activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning
process.
content that helps learners to appreciate the norms, values as well as the
tangible and intangible cultural heritage of Zimbabwe.
simple language to enhance understanding.
attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up
examinations meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and
knowledge have been grasped.

Approved by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education,

November 2017

ISBN 9780797481909
Form 4

90000 >
Form 3

Anchors of the new schools curricula

9 780797 481909

Johannes M. Mupisa Mary Nyevedzanayi

Flintstone Muchichwa Tinashe Mutsengiwa Sharon Hofisi Thoko Ndebele

All Approved by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 2017

220