INTERUNTYERS ITY PRO G RAMME

IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERTNG

K.U.Leuven - V.U.B.

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*"-
'¡i::it.

HYDRAULICS OF PIPE;ilND.
\ I -aR -^. !
=7,
-

CAlYAL lYETWORKS

PART II
., ,.'''

t
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a+-::,

LECTURER: E. TOORMAN
INTERUNIVERS ITY PRO GTTAMME
IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
K.U.Leuven - V.U.B.

HYDRAULICS OF PIPE A]YD

CA]YAL IYETWORKS

PART II

LECTURER:E. TOORMAN
 l.

GMDUALLY VARIED OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

l. Def initions ,:

WATER - SURFACE PROF ILE (wasr)

OR FLOW PROFIL E
OR BACKWAT ER CURVE

59: Stn 0

B: top width U = Q/e : mean velocity

h : water depth R = A/P : hydraulic radius
A: wetted section H = AIB : hydraulic depth
P: wetted perimeter

Froude number : Fr =
U
-U
'G'H coss €H

Reynolds number : Re , UfR 4-

UH
=
vv =

2. Assumptions $

- steady flow
- the channel is prismatic : So =ct
AA dA
ah dH
-=É_
-**,,
uniform velocity distribution
hydrostatic pressure distribution (streamlines are parallel)
 2-

3. Specific energy E (assume cos0 = l)

TOTAL
HE AD

DATU M z=0

(cosOa¿'l)

Analogy between flow in pipes & open channel flow

Energy line <> Energy line
Hydraulic grade line <> llater surface profile
Pipe <) Streamtube
Total head <+ Total head H e

If in a section the datum z = A coincides with the channel bottom then

Piezometrie head h <+ I{aterdepth h
__2

He¿g
=E=h+9_

The specific energy E is the energy per unit weight of l¡Iater at any
section of a channel measured with respect to the channel bottom.
 3.

4. ic energy curve,;
Specif

,r2
E=h+fu=n.; 02

/i'h (O)

E as a function of h and Q Q as a function of h and E

for a given value of Q

E has a minimum rot $fl = 0forh=h c

?

orr-[lr$l
I
=o and srnce TE =
AA
-6

¿.''dh-c
c

)
2B
I -Q -*=o
I ¿.'
orl c
=o (x)
c th"

c
is ca11ed the critical depth

ath=h
U
c
=l
GT
 4.

It follows from (x) that at the critical state of fIow, the

velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth
For a given specific energy E, there are tvro possible depths
the low stage h, and the high stage hZ . ht and h, are
ALTERNATE DEPTHS.

For a given value of E

Q has a maximum for $ff=o -+O=O
' \nax
forh=h (0'max-)
max =[ C

t_
I

E3 E2 E1
 5.

5. Continuity equation, (steady flow)

Q=UA=ct

6. Equation of motio¡\
Apply Bernoullirs equation Eo astreamlinel-2
(conservat,ion of momentuul or conservation of mechanical energy)

?
-rP
A t- +z+;-+v2 l{av dsl
2
+AF=0
I Pb
^o /.9 s I0 at I

2
AF
_l =
Sf o; is the energy- or friction slope
Assuming

I hydrostatic sections , ,l *'oJf = ri = Z, + h, cos0

or d(z *4) = ¿ zt=d(Z+hcos0)

2 uniform velocity distribuEion
3 velocities are parallel to the channel bottom
 6.

one obtaíns, after multiplying with f rna taking As + 0

$f + coso ** . * #. *{. r, = o. (x)

Since the f1o¡¿ is assr¡med steady r *t = 0

I duz
du- | ^z d ,l
^2 d,t. to-dA\ 2
o'Bdh
2g ds 2g - ds tO2'
=-ll-r-l=--=-L_
I O3 ds ds
*3
dZ
and becau"" É =.- §
o
sot-s_ sot-s- sot-s_
(*) becomes :

Ihis is the DYNAMIC EQ. 0F GRADUALLY VARIED FLOI.I

or the GMDUALLY VARIED FLOI,I EQU/¡'.-ION
or EQ. BY BRESSE.'

-- dh
is *aid to be uNrronM
rF #, = 0 the f loq¡

- The depth, A, P and U arg constanL at every section of the channeL

- The energy-1-ine, water surface and channeL iottom are all para1Le1
their slopes are equal : S, = So.

¿l 6:o - ü, t
LYÉ"
,.7,
rl¿ + ,/t
á
ds ls fr A' ls'ls

lt 2
-{'n4da+@A-Á&
- /1

'iit'E
,ts ls
\.'/E-B
1z
'ile
i--_*-.---:. +
rlh
¿F
./ c
(e,u u.)
ffi)
:1i
L,r*;.*,'
 7.

One assumes that the head Loss at a section is the saine as for a
uniform flow having the velocity and hydraulic radius of the
section.
Thus, the uniform-flow fornuLa may be used to evaluate the energy-
sLope of a graduaLly varied flow at a given channel-station, and
the corresponding coefficient of roughness (developed primarily
for uniform flow) is applicable to'the varied flow.

sr dsr. *#=f-É o, =ilo, = olo,

fl
Es=7 = ! tfl = l; [c] = *ll2 "-l; [uJ = "2 *-l

Oh€sffo rule* S,
IU2
=7ñ- C is a const,ant

3o rnl
12 t'l <c<tooátzonll2 -l
smooth rough

C = ct is only true if Re 1S

For UNIFORM FLOW Sf =§ o

$,e+nü*gif.e,r,ep&*

o u2 =nz e2 p4l3
"f =n2
R4/3 Ato/3
o.olo m-l/g §<n 0.0s e o.o: ill/3 "
s,mooth very rough

For UNIFORM F],ol,l Sf = So AND u = InoB;2l3.stlz

h¡-
 8.

V'atrues s.f . the.h{g*uyin"g eseffieient nlE-t/3 s)u

CanaL Linedwith eonc::ete sLabs, having 0.012

smooth cement joinLs and very smooth surface

Concrete canal poured behind screeding 0.014

and smoothing platform
Earth canaL, with deposiEs of sand and mud 0.018

Very rough concrete 0.020

Straight canaL in hand packed sand 0.020

Cobb Ie-bottom ehairnel' 0.028

canaL with Large-cobble stone bed 0.030
Natural- channel, irreguLar side slopes, 0.035
clean and regular bottom , consEant section

It was suggested that n = 0.04 (UrO)'/U

in v¡hich dr. is . the
90 Z diameter of the granular
soiL maEeriaL (bottom and side sl"opes).

Iü¿i Ée-Co lebrosk-Ihi j sse formul.¿ .

tlith slightly modified coefficients by Thijsse, the
I{hite-Colebrook formuLa for open channels is :

I =- 2.03 1og,.,[ * n"

G ¡v ryne y'f 12.20 B
,

in which : Re = , Uts.
u
1-
ls
s
the equivalent sand-roughness

for rough boundaries (most pract,ical eases) the above equation

reduces to :

I
2.03 1og,o d¿#ts)
'tr s

, .! .,.
 9.

or, using the Cházy-notation I

c - fr= r8 Lo8,o tg{§l

for very smooth channels (concrete lining) k" = 5.01-tL m
a sandy river-bed (bed transport) e 0.1 to l.l0'-t
gravel = Ito5l0'm-,
roeks and stones (dia¡neter d) kz.
a
d

It is guite diffieult to obtain a good estimate of k".

Therefore, and because of the lack of accuraey of other data
(A, So, ...) it ie often advisable and more practicaL to use
the (empiricaL) Maaning-tormula.
 10.

nominator of Ehe gradually varied fLow equation

N=S of-S-

fl-or¡ is said to be uniform it # = 0 i.e. N = 0; So = S,

,o=* to' (x) ') r _r.

'- -r-.. ''-- {."t -., 1
2P f, '
_ t,-azf . a
n
( 'nPr, Jf
,,
/)3

Ttre value of h for which N * 0 is ho : the NORIÍAL DEPfiI.

TTIE DEPTH OF A I]NIFORM FLOT{ IS CALLED ''NOR]',IAL DEPTHIÍ .
h, is obtained by solving eq. (r)
It can be shown t-
f P 2 is a decreasing
:hat decreasine function of h for
fr - a-
func
a given value of Q, Lendtng to infinity for h + 0, and to 0 for
h -+ infinity.

§r0

From the figure, it can be seen that, :

- there is only I value of the normal depth for a given

- h-t1 increases with increasing Q
- h-
n
increases with increasing f
- hn"o decreases with increasins S .
 11

t
tI
Note
With the Manningformula for uniform flow

1
I

Q = An Rn2/3 sol/z
n

a 1 1 R.S/S 1 Anl,66

ilr =' AnRn2/3=-

n
=-
n Pn2l3 n Pno ' 66

is sometimes called the'§gg(gEggg],of the channel

It is an increasing function of depth.
According to the Darcy Weissbach equation the conveyance would be defined as

a lw en3lz 6
,l-
Anl'5
dz='17úm= f P;o;r
 t2.

At the critical depth

- the denominator of the eq. by Bresse v¿nishes

dh
ds
- is the specific energy nini¡nun

Q2s
^ is obtained from : D = I - a" = O

" gA:

It ean be shown tt at { i" a decreasing function of h, for a

A.
given valueof Q, tending to¡¿ards infinity for h + 0, and to
0forh+infinity.

o2s
qAr t
,\
o
\o',
\

1-So2 *r1 \-_

From the figure, it can be seen that :

- there ís only I value of the critical depth for a given Q

- h" increases ¡¿ith increasing Q
- h" is praetically independent of So (in fact h"l when Sof)
- can be defined if S = 0 and even if S ( 0
hcoo
- h" is independent of the friction factor f.
For a given shape of the cross-section of the channel, the critical
depth is for practicaL purposes a funetion of Q aLone.
 t3.

Since h-
n
is a decreasing function of So (from * to 0) and h" is
a (sIo¡sly) increasing frmction of So,
a critical slope S. exists for ¡¡hich (foragivenQandagiven
shape of the cross-section) hr, = h".

//

o'> o

/'
.¿
h¡:hs

In a channel at "critical slope", the critical state of flow

exists throughout the entire Length of the ehannel. S" is
the slope of the channel that susüains a given discharge at
a uniform and critieal depth (Fr = l).
A slope of the channel LESS thaa the critical slope wil1e cause
a slower flor¡ of subcrit,ical state for the given discharge, and,
hence, is called it'iio or SUBCRTTICAL slope.
"
A slope greater than the critical slope r¡il1 result in a faster
flow of supercritical state, and is ealled t-ffÉf or SIIPERCRITICAL
"
s1ope.

Note : Ilhether a certain channel-slope is mild or steep depeods

uponQ!(seefie.)
 t4.

The general shape of the flow profiles can be predieted by

sLudying the dynamie equation of gradualLy varied flow.
I For the given discharge and channel conditions the normaL-
depth and critical depth lines divide the space in a channel
into three zones :
Zone I : the space above the upper 1-ine
Zone 2 : the space between the t¡¿o liues
Zone 3 3 the space below the lower line

As can be seen from the figure on p.l0 (cfB) the nominator

of the gradually varied fLow equation N.

Í ¿'O
N 0 h h

N 0 h h
n
N 0 h h
n

From p.n ({s) it can be seen that the denoninator D

D<0 h h
c
D=0 h h
c
D>0 h h
c

From this, it follows that

in Zone I (h>h c and h)n dhN o--{fl1; = #ro
dsD
-=->
Zo¡e 3 (h<h c and h)n' o -f§:r - §>o
Zote 2 'n h<h c
dhN
orh c <h< h)n a;'= 5-' u

Thus, the fLow-profiles may be classified into thirteen different

types according to the nature of the channel slope and the zone in
which the flow surface Lies :
 15.

adverse (A2, A3)

horizontal (H2, 1{3)
mi ld (Ml , I,12, M3)
critical (cl, c2, c3)
steep (sl, s2, s3)

The letter is descriptive of the slope, the numeral represents

the zone aumber.
The flow profile represents a BACKI{ATER curve if the depth of
flow increases in the direction of flow (dh/dx > 0) and a
dh
DRAIIDOIüN curve if dx
-(U.

IYPES OE TLO}J PROTILES IN PRISI.'ATIC CHANNELS

Des ignat.ion Relation of h to hncand h

Cl, ¡nne I General type Type of f [or.r
s lope Zone I Zo¡e 2 Zone
of curve
Zone ! Zone 2 Zone 3 3

N<¡ne h>h nc>h None None

liori zontaL hnc>h>h Dravdcm Subcritic¿1
So .0 112

r{3 hnc>h >h Back¡rater Supercritical'

§ri l.d
!fl h ' >h,,ir ,> n--{Bli
h"---lNzo
Bru-
, Baqkuater Subcrit-i. ca1
Subcri ti.cal
M2 ho ü.0- -Drawdo'*n
0<s o <S
Supercrit ical
.

c
w h--n>hc >h-10)0 D.
-BaekúraEer
\til{o !)t-
)¡<u o
cl h>h cn-h Baekwater Subcricical
Cri ti cal. c2 hcn-h-h Parallel to Uniformcritical
SOe=S >0 channel boto¡¡
c3 h -h >h Backueter Supercriti cal
.ca
cl h>h cn>h BackL¡ater Subcri tical
S tÉep s2 hcn>h>h Drawdown Supercriti.cal
soe>s >0 i Supercritical
s3 hcn>h >h I
Baekw¿ter

None h>h nc>h I None None

Adverse A2 h >h>h I Drawdorn Subcriti.cal
so <0 nc I

hnc>h >h I Backwaler §upercritical

Taking into account, the sign ,t * in the different zones

-dh + Q
€tnd (ls I^IIIEN h+h tuttlo "li,e,,de 0 {o onno} -t fn*lo},! a .l.o nrn'-l qs,n}eJr*
-
dh
h+h a l¡ "t ü,-h *,n or'¡,,}t re,*
a; +@ (urnoJ lt¿,rd'e ¡,,4¡¡¡,

The fl"ow-profiles may be classified into 13 different types :

None

@
I *s
Yn

,l ,,J
T l

_*#-
)h:Yc

The profiles near h" (and near the channel bottom) can not be
accurately defined by the gradually varied flow theory because
the basic assumptions are not fulfilled.
 17.

l) adverse slope

2) very qild slope

hq-- - M2
_ N.D.[.
-
M3 -
-r J.ol

3) .ir-q_e_}jgg.

x: dh/ds:Se
 18.

4) critical slope

5) steep slope

6) very steep slope

c.D.L.

PoinE of inflection
on flow profi le
 t5 {/< ?

!t,fi,
+ Fl-ow profiles BELOI,I h" (Fr > I : supererítical flow ; A3, H3,
l.{3, C3, 52, 53) are eontrolled by the upstream boundary
condition (at the first channel seetion).
This is most 1ike1y to occur when the slope in hydraulically
steep.
+ Flow profiles ABOVE h" (Fr < I : subcritical flow z A2, H2,
Ml, M2, Cl, Sl) are controlled by the dor¡nstream bouwndary
condition (at, Lhe last channel section).
This is rnost likely to occur when the slope is hydraulicaLly
mi ld.

JEAGERTS TI1EOREM (sLiehtly modified)

For the flow in open channels the CRITICAL DEPTII will occur
at the first channel section, for supercritical flow, or
at the last channel section, for subcritical flow
IF the upstream, resp. the downstream boundary eondition do
NOT impose a lower, resp. a higher l^Iater IeveI.

From the classificaEion of flo¡, profiles it folIor¡s that

- the on1-y supercritical flow profile starting at h", is a
32 profile (steep slope)
- the only subcritical flow profile starting at h., is a M2
(H2, A2) profile (mi1-d, horizontal or adverse slope).
From the above, it fo1Lows that, if NO particular boundary
conditions are imposed,

in r¡ith a ste?p slope

ehannels
the ftow profile r¡ill- be a S2-profile, starting at h. at the
upstream end; the flow being supereritical
in ehannels with a mil+ (hóti¿óntal or ádvérse) -§Lope
the flow profile will be a 142 (HZ or A2)-profile, starting
at h-c at the downstream end; the flow being subcritical.
Slpercri.ti.clrl f low can occur r¿;':h flovr-profiles starting at
the upstream end at a lor¡er stage than hc both in channels with
steep or mild slopes, íf a lor¿er stage than h. is imposed at the
first channel section.
 20.

e.g. - by a sluice gate

by a supercritical fLow, controlled by its upst,reaxu
condition, in an upstream channel reach.

steep

t.
i

I
:

I
¡ miLd rniLd

I
7=
,
),u,{,n{[., felt,v^¡ .

I
:

sD>SD üq^il
 2t.
5
f t)'
pi
Subcritical flow can occur ¡¡ith flow-profiles starting aü the
downstream end at a higher stage than h"r both in channel-s with C,
I
i

,.r'
1

steep or nild (horizontal, adverse) slopes, if a higher stage

I

than h" is irnposed at the l-ast channel section

- by a high downstream pooL-1eve1
- by a high downstream water-Ievel, caused by a weir,
a dam or a sluice gate, at which the control depth is
known, or can be determined
- by a subcritieal flow, controlled by its downstream
condition, in a downsEream channel reach.
l- ¡

=lrFF
_

s teep

/'i,t
{, [+\
¡^.!,

-.....-F

"f ree overf olt"

" drop "

st eep miLd
 22.

A conflicting situation may occur, when the upstream B.C.

imposes a supercritical flow profile, whilst the do!ürlstream
B.C. imposes a subcritical flow profile. This happens when
the dovrnstream water Ieve1 is too high i.e. when the channel
is "floodedtt by the downstream reservoir.
In is supercritical in the upstream
sueh a case, the flor"r
portion of the channeL reach but subcritical in the dovmstream
protion controlled by the upstream B.C.

Somewhere along the channel reach, the florr profile has to

pass Ehe criticaL depth : there a hydraulic jr,rmp occurs.
In crossing the critical depth line, a hydraulie jump is created,
raising the water surfaee from a lower, "initialtt (supercritical)
depth, to its "sequent" depth (this is a higher, subcritical depth).
In the following section the relation between the ínitial and the
sequent will be discussed; the location of the hydraulic jump wiLl
be determined.
In applying the MOMENTIIM-principle to a short (approx. horizontal)
reach of a prismatie channel, the external forces of weight and
friction may be ignored; then :

\r AmV
Ar =AF
1.fl
:.ti
tpQ) uz - (p Q) ur = pgntAt-pgn2 Az e-|u - 0-tl- Q,I, -
= Q, Az
change in l-inear = force aeting on iíi
moment turn of the flow betr,¡een
the fl-o¡¡ sections I en 2 CIu,
+ {1.fr,- 8'JL ' fl,ij,
b

/ I - -*-*-1

04, +QA- 8:
"t 6 A
r nfi, =ñ'
fr [], d tt'
 23.

ni is the distance of the centroid of the water area A. bel"or¡

1
the water-surface.. Also U, = Q/a, and U, = Q/Ar. Then, the
above momentum equation may be writEen :

*Ar lr =
02 n2
(*)
,rr.o,nr=ü*Az\z

The two sides of eq. (x) are analogous, and, hence, may be
expressed for any channel 'section by a general function r

n2
F = .5 {' n A; (*)
F= tl
becomes r,.l

The function F consists of tr¡o terms :

^2 = the momentum of the flor passing through the channel

*;
#
seetion per unit time and per unit weight of water.
An = the force per unit weight of water. Therefore :

F is the "specif ic force".or "speeif ie momentu¡ntt

(x) that the specific forces in two sections are equal

means
provided that the exEernal forces of friction and weight of
water in rhe reach between the two sections can be ignored.
By plotting the deprh against the specific force F for a given
channeL section and discharge, a SPECIFIC-FORCE-curve Ís obtained.
 24.

h1 hg h2

SUPERC RIT lC A L-{- SUBCRI TIC AL

For a given value of the specifie force, the curve has two
possible depths. The tswo depths constitute the INITIAL
(supercritieal) and SEQIIENT or CONSUGATE (auberi,tical) depths
sf a trtDBAüLIC JITMP.
It can be shown that the depth at the ninimr:m value of the
specific force is equal to the critical depth.
0R : At the critical state of flo¡¡ the specific force is e
minimum for the giveu discharge.

Compare the specific-force curve with the specific-energy curve (¿14).

Both curves are minimr.¡¡n at the critical depth.

- For a given specific energy E, two possible depths exist : a low

stage in the supereritical f1o¡ region, and a high stage in the
subcritical region.
- For a given value of the specific force F also two possibLe depths
exist, namely an initiaL depth in the supercriticaL region, and a
sequent depth in the subcriticaL flo¡ region.
 1

;.
't 25.

- -I¡F:aE
\J_.

u 1
E=h* ^2 F Q2
2S¡t =flA. gA

It is seen that the energy-content for the depth h2 (sequent depth

of h r) is LESS than the energy-content for the depth hr.
Therefore, in order to rnaiirtain a eonstant value of F, the depth
of flow may be changed from h, tot h2 AT TIIE PRICE OF LOSIIG A
CERTAIN AMOUNT OF ENERGY.
AE is the energy loss caused by the hydraulic junp.

Determination of the location of a hydraulic jrunp

- START always by computing a POSSIBLE supercriticaL flow profile

(deterrnined by Ehe upstream B.C.) if ANY;
- if a supercriüical flow-profile I'IAY exist, cheek if the rrater
level in the last channel section is LOI^IER than the sequent depth
of the last water-level. In the latter case, the supercritical
flow-profile exists throughout the channel.
 26.

S. D.L.

C.Dl
- --!'

HYDRAULIC JUMP

In the oEher case, the downstream B.C. iuposes a subcritical

flow profile. The location of the hydrauLic jump is found
by catculating the sequent depths of all the points of the
supercritical flor¡-profile (sequent-depth-1ine : S.D.L.) .
The hydraulic jump occurs at the intersection of the subcritical-
flow-profiLe and the sequent-depth-line.
It that no intersection exists; then the subcritical
may occur
flow exists throughout the channel : the channel then is
"flooded" by the dor¿nstream reservoir.
 27.

of h, and h"
Nr¡merieal caleul-ation
Conputation of the flow profile
Calculation of the sequeuE depth

'I*,*:1,¡,,,,Soryut*tiep'ef,'h6 (normal depth)

- h_
n
is the water depth for uniforn flow ,9L=
ds
o i.e. the aooinator
of Bressers equation :
N=0
or
Sot= S-
in r¿hich
-f.P_2
sf = _1. A- (f = cte -+ Chézy) (*)
ü
or

, e4l3 ?
t, = t' O' (Manning's Law)
if'6

- for a trapezoidal sectj-on

P=b * 2h-
cos0

l=(b+(b+2hrg0) )l=h(b+htge)
* definition of P and A see p. l.
Lhe eomplete nol¡inator becomes

o _r (b *'Slo' + (,.1,, ri,t¿'l

"o-E pG.;;ñ i

or

rr * *h-)*/'
So =rr2 Q2 *.,_ iI f I
l4ürAO (t¡
,ii
t i^¡!l
hlo/3(b+hre¡lr/r \_f
0

both expressions are not explicitly soluble to h, so an iteration

procedure must be üsed to find h

h"4¡rfl
E ll3 (b + 2
_-__= (---H
I
h_
nrrrerd -Bg. Q2/3 (14.t)
so (b + hn,p tee)

or

L
0.6 (b + z5r¿l0.0
cosu
"nrnerd -
-rI ' . Q0'6 (t4,2)
;T,3
o
(b + hn,p tgo)

in which h_ _ is rrthe previóus

rrrP ' vaLue of h_tt.
n

for a widg rectangular section : b >> h

D- B=b
d= B.h = b.h
so:
§= f fI
o Es
ipo' =E'g
ffi q2

or
.D 413 ln2
S-
o
=n m/-3- ,, i-of5
Q2=o2 ''
n.D nlol3 . b6l3
 29.

and

h=
n
( 14.3)

ho=(n2.Sr"'o ( 14.4)
o

to start the iEeration procedure for a ErapezoÍdal section,

the initial value h nrP can be caLculated from equations (14.3)
or (14.4) by assuming a large rectangular section.

- the iteration can be stopped if ltr ---- - hnrprevr

¡nrnelt -l < requested
accuracy

14.2. Computation of h". (criticaL depth)

- hc is the water depth for ¡¡hich the denominator of Bressers

equation
D=0
or
F'z o

1n most, S - is assumed to be l.
o

-fo ra section

re=Q2-(u*z!lee)-
o gn3(t+htgo)3
 30.

again an iteraiion must be used :

(b + 2 h",, tg0)'tl3
h
lleI^t
=1n Q2/3
qt - l/6 (r4.s)
Cr
g so2) (b + h.,p reo)

t'the previous value

in which h^ - is
CrP - of h-"
e

for a wide section (approximation) or a rectangular section

(exact, solution)
,
re
yt D
o2a o'
g .3
- =
O g .J.J n.b-2
=l-

h .b

rl
hc =( ( 14.6)

to start the iteration procedure for a trapezoidal section, the

initial value hC¡P can be calcul-ated from equation (14.6) bv
assuming a r¡ide seetion.

-'the iteration can be stopped if

lr,
' crlleIi,- ----,----l . requested
- hctPrevlous' accuracy

14.3. lgspstegleg-e€ !Ee-Ilss-PreIile

^ ^413 ^
Bresse. :
dh
ds
-= m_
'o-o'^#r"
o gA'
=P (h)

usiug Manningrs l-aw and with P, A and B function of Ehe r^rater depth.
 3t.

This is a boundary-value problem in ¡^'hich 9(h) can vary

0q9(h) §-
or
* ( qa(h) \< 0

Two finite difference schemes may be used

(considering the boundary vaLues
" = "o, h = ho).
14.3.1. Constant Ah, ealcuLate Distanee fron depth
As
TI{E DIRECT STEP METEOD
dh
ds P(h) =
-=

In the interval i + i+l the value can be considered as the

"f *
mean vaLue of
.dh.
(a-")i*l .dh.
and (A;).

"o,;;\ =+
[.#Ji+r+,*,,]
= p(hr)] e 2¿\- a. ' a,
* F,nr*,)
+
Dt: . O
_ Jli) Jt

tl ni4,1 1{¡,¡}

s.r-+ .I = s.r- +
2Lh (t4.7)
e(hi*r¡ + g(hr)
 32.

Depüh from distance

14.3.2. Constant, As, calculate Ah
STAI.IDARD STEP METHOD
As hi+l is not kno.¿n 9(hi+t) cantt be caLculated.

Assuming
dh
cls
constant in the interval i + i+l
-15

dh p (h) ,p (hi)
=
-=
ds

or

Ah
= p (hi)
-=
As

so

hi*l =hi*4".P(hi) ( r 4.8)

r4.3.3. TT?TP1:
Method I : Sl flow profile \r= '/,55?(
So = 0.01 \ a= l,ES¿(f

n = o.o2 sm-l/3
I
a = 25 m'/s
b =2m')
I trapezoidal
e =45")

/3
'r,4
0.0¡ _ 0.2.s ,;-iw!
(h) .,
P=b+ z lin
i,3
|- 6 ', (ir 'r h)l'r
62..s 4l-f
ti
B=b+ 2h
 33.

lr.
t

l.tj0 ¡ .37 0.050

2.00 6.0c i 0.0?4 2,70

4.76
2.10 7.!t6
2.2ü 9.24 i3.52
;.,o 6. 60 20.42
2.40 8.79 6. B0 0.01 3 27.83
2..:ra 9J. 07

t &. t+ ., §regge§iee"gg-gbgisefr§EE§:4gplb.
For a given water depth the specific force is

'=S*n A

and n is the distance of the centroid of the rrater area A below

the water surface :

n'c = /r-t2.u
o 'c
 34.

- Solution-scheme :

given depth : h', (supercritical)

+

caLculate F, = F(hr)
+

for the sequent dePth : F =-'F,

+

caLculate sequent depth h, so that F(hZ) = r(ht)

with F, = F(hr) Q,* ñ." -c (hz) . A(hi)

=
g.A(hr) o

For a trapezoidal section

3b+2htgo
rc _h6'b+htge

A =(b+htg0)h
so

hz 3b + 2t].2 tgo
,,=Q2+
'2 g(b + hz tgq h; 'T' ]rEe- . (b + h, tgO) h,

and

F, = F(hr)

F(hr) = ---.91- .t-. (3b + 2 h, tgo)

' g(u + h, tgo) h, 6

l-a'I
6rGr)-@
.2
h2=
@ z,.ztss)
 3s.

Or:

h^= (r4.e)
/,new
(3 ¡ + , rr,o

for a ¡¡ide section' :

', ='r I (r4. ro)

the iteration for a trapezoidal section can be started with

initial- value. hZ,n from equation (14;10).
".l"uLated
 36.

Geneal elassi$o&üion',
"15.1.
In the most upward canal section, the waterlevel may be either controlled (or imposed)
by a gate (Fig. t) or another cana,l in which the flów is supercritical (Fig. 2), ór freé
(Fig. 3).

It
lt
lt
L)

W
Orifice flow may be free (Fig. 1) or submerged (Fig. a)

Therefore four different flow types a,re a priori possible in the upward canal section :

1. (free) orifice flow : the first waterdepth is imposed by the gate : h(o)
- HS (HS is
@n).ThisisaprioripossibIeeitlierwi[hsupeicfiticaloiwith
subcritical flow
 37.

rr| t

2. Submereed lorifice) flow or 3. False hydraulic iumo

h(0) > HS h(o)

HS
Fr <1 :,¡tt't'i'4t-

4. Inflection : the watersurface is free (natural boundary condition)

h(0)=¡ h(o) > hc

F.) 1
"
*rl F.( 1

complete (moximum) inflection incomplete inflection

t5.2.

HS:h(0)
o. inflection b. orifice flow c. submerged flow

Applying the Bernoulli theorem to a strearnline AB between a point A, situated far

enough in the upstream reservoir, where hydrostatic conditions prevail, and a point B in
the first channel section (like all other channel sections assumeil to be hydrostatic), one
finds

B
Ho=(zB+bl*S.
"p829 AE
A
(1)
gz
H0 : h(0) cosO *
U
B
if the velocity distribution in the first channel section is assumed to be uniform and AE
A
negligible.
Since U :e/Ao, in which
A6 is the cross sectional area in the first channel section
As : A(h(o)) in the case of inflexion (Fig. a) or orifice flow (Fig. b)
Ae : A(HS) in the case of submerged ori-fice flow h(o) > HS (Fig. c).

Q=Ao 29 (H0 - h(0) (2)

!n the case of_submerged orifice flow (fig.c), Ao is a constant, independent of h(o).

ConsequentlvQffie.c"éasiíepá¡abolicfunctioirofh?o)rnrol>Iis1.
If however the flow type is rrinflectionrr or (free-oi un+ubmerged) "orifibe oi iate flowr',
{oisafunctionofh(ó)anda[Iffiva]Leofh(o)existsfor"wIái@,
From eq. 2
 39.

aa (-zs )

0a 0a
-0 (3)
zJzs¡Ha*u¡

in which a:
r[= h(o)

§rñnA
áAo áAo 1 B

-
oa ah[5l ¿_sa
Eq. 3 reduces to

2(H0-ar)=,|9rr, 1-s3 (4)

a, is the value of a for which Q : Qro

ar/H0 depends solely on the geometry of the channel cross section.

For a rectangular section ar/H0 = 0.66

triangular 0.80
parbolic 0.75

ar/H0 is given in table 1 for trapezoidal sections with bottom width b, and side slope d
with the vertical

rsa
b/Ho r.b 2.0 2.5 3.0

0 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80

0.25 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.79

0.50 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.78 0.78

0.75 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.77 0.78

1.0 0.74 0.75 0.76 a.77 0.77

2.0 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.75

4.0 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.73

0 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66

Table I
It can easily be shown that the maximum is unique.
Therefore both the left hand side and the right hand side of eq. 4 are represented
graphically.
 40-

----- c

om _t:
Fr) I
1

r._zG-o)
\\
\\
0
---- Q
HO
'.no,

ClearlyQ:0for &:0andfora:H0

a'
-s8>2(Ho-a)' :
As
When & ) &n, -B- Á A3 I
gz
of _:p?> t
gH
The upperpart of the curve Q(a) thus corresponds to subcriticd flow. The lower part
oorresponds to supercritical flow.

15.3. Variation of hc with HS in the case of orifice flow or inflection

When ¿: &nr Q : :
Qru*, &m hc (Qru*).
From eqs 2 and 4 it follows indeed that :

: QBu*
A
2(H0-a,) :(-)/1*SB
A'g B
r L Sá---:0
^ Qflu*A3
,,1 - gB
which is the equation for hs.

Since hs is an increasing function of Q, ur/.,ff - SA is the maximum value of he. To

study the variation of h" with Q, the curves Q(a), Q2/g and
S.mA are represented.
 o
il
x
o

ll
L L L
LL l-L LL L.

c
o
P
:
ao

a
!
== o
x
cfl
c
0 .c.
tc E f
a ; v,
o
o úl
.co
o-
o .= g
E ! o-
I É
o o o o
o o-
-c o
jlg
6 =
o o o
L iE
L L
-c
o o- o
o E
o
o N
-tr tn (.) .E
g o
il s -o
=- c.¡o
f,
o
o v, c
x f
x
o
E
"ll o
E
"ll3 Elrt
ol
x
o
E
"ll I
3
a a o o 0)

il I o 3U'
o o
.> o o
c o
C, .c o -c o a .c o-

E E E
o o o
o
o o o
 43.

5.4. Inflection

% au¡ am
HS< HS: HS>
/'',
uZ
/,*a /.ra
29

Q ( Qro* Q < Q.no" Q ,no, Q

-o*
o b c d
orifice flow (complete) inflection
Consider a canal connected to an upstream constant head reservoir via a gate. When
the gate is lifted gradually, the follo'íving occurs on steep slopes without bac[water effect
(supercritical flow at the gate).

1. ttS/ t - S3= &( &m: Q < Qra*i orificeflow,possiblewiths2,sUen53 profiles.

When the water passes under the gate, potential energy is transformed into kinetic
energy (fig, b).
2. When HS (or a) increases, Q increases

3. When HS / - Sl: &mi Q : Qr"* : 52 flow profiie

1

4. When HS rf 1 - SB , u', nothing changes with respect to the previous situation :

Q : er"*; 52 profile.
This flowtype is a rrcompleterr inflection. Incomplete inflection can occur with
subcritical flow; then Q ( Qrr*.
 44.

16.1. Classification

In the last channel section, the waterlevel may be controlled (or imposed) by a weir
(Fig. 1),,,a gate (Fig..2), an other-canal in whi:h the flow is sübcritiüal (ÉS."S), oia
mnstant head reservoir (Fig. 4), or be free (Fig. 5).

ilttil

'lmmz
m- W-
77m7v7,, w ----<-l---=1--_
I

-=:*-_:-

%^,/h,
Therefore four different flow types are a priori possible in the last channel section

1. : possible with both subcritical and supercritical flow profiles when the
f,ree oYerfall
downstream waterlevel is lower than h(L).

4
-n^
 4s.
10

2. controlled waterlevel : subcritica,l flow profiles start at a waterdepth imposed by the

downstream boundary condition.
3. With supercritical flow a hydraulic iump may occur in the reservoir when
SD (x ='L) > HD or in the Es[]ffi'annei section when SD (x L) : ==TIi-

16.2" The free overfalt

P
1r" r

For a free overfall with a subcritical flowprofile the waterdepth decreases steadily : the
mean veiocity increases in the flow ürection and the slope of the energy line increases;
E, the specific energy decreases. The state of minimum energy E is attained in the last
channel section where the critical waterdepth h" occurs. So, the rrfirstrr waterdepth for a
cubcritical WASP with free overfall is h., the WASP is of the type M2.
 46.
11

If the upstrearn boundary condition is schematized as a constant head reservoir (H0)

eventually provided with a gate (elevation HS), and the downstream reservoir is
schematized as a constant head reservoir (HD), the problem can be outlined as follows.

HS

ri"
I

ev. control
of first
woterdepth

The difference in potential energy between the two reseroirt (H) is used to transport a
discharge Q through the canal with a given slope and length, cross sectional shape and
roughness. Clearly two different questions can be asked (when HD is considered to be
constant)

1) reservoir H0 (i.e. the amount of energy

available : , determine the , th-at catrE ünveyed through the cariál
(with its own properties of length, ness, slope a,nd cross section) and under the
gate
2\
' Which amount of energy (i.e. H ) is required to carry a given dischar&e Q through a
canal with given propeiiiei (...X'

1)
,ffiii.|ossibiIityofsupercriticalflow"isconsidered.By
If the discharee O is given, hn and h" can be calculated. Using Boudin and Tison's
comparing the position of the gate (HS) with hs and ho, aad taking into account the
hydraulicál nature of the channéI slope, one can determine which (if any)
supercritical WASP is a priori possible. By considering the downstrea,m B.C.
eventually the subcritical flow profile (and the hydraulic iump) can be computed.
Once the waterdepth in the first channel section is known, Bernoullirs equation can
be applied to calculate H0.
 47.
t2

the procedure is more

a) I a < ar-l : a supercriticai flow profile with h(o) : HS : a/

priori possible. Compute

Qo: Ao

and the corresponding ho and h". If

)
hn h, : the possible supercriticat WASP is M3
ha < hs: either S2, SU or 53 are possible, depending on whether
HS s h,.

If the supercritical WASP matches the downstream B.C., eventually via a

hydrauiic jump and part of a subcriticalwAsP, the solution is found. In the
opposite case, a subcritical WASP is computed by trial a,nd error :

a,- assume a discharge Q < Qo (submerged flow condition at the gate)

b- compute the appropriate subcritical WASP starting from the
downstream B.C.
c- compute a new approximation for the discharge by

Qr: Ao 29 (Ho - h(o) /, - sa I

d* return to b) until the discharge corresponding to h(o) equals the
discharge with which the WASP has been omputed.

b) f-al a;-l Supercritica.l flow is only possible on a hydraulically steep slope

(S2 with complete inflexion). Compute Qra* a¡rd the corresponding hn and hc.
If hn < hs one proceeds as in the previous case. If ho )
h" the flow will be
subcritical. The WASP should be computed by trial a¡d error, starting at the
downstram B.C.
 48.

18. Examples

rB 'I ' :::T:::1lI_lo_:11_n.

a

n = o.O2 s,-l/3
So = 0.01
b =2m
0 = 45o

hr, (m) f orm. h" (n) f orm.

Initial value 1,73 (t 4 .4) 2.52 (r4.6)

Success ive I .52 (14,2) l .69 ( 14. s)
approxima- l .56 t .90
tions t.55 1.84
I .55 r.86
1.85
I .85

IB
' 2. gespglelieE-er-Ée-seqscs!_isplb
?
A =50u'.s -l
n = o.o2 g, l/g
So = 0.0009 fr
b = 12 m, rectangular section
h,I = 0.825 m
hc = I.210 m
 49.

Initial value (14.10) , hZ = 1.701

h.2 2
F(hr)=-ft:.lj_o
gb hl
= 29.825

Successive approximations (14.9) :

I{ith calculated trlith random

.initial value initial val-ue
h, (m) h2 (m)

1.70r 2 000
I .700 I 798
I .700 I 730
I 710
I 703
I 70t
700
700

NoLe : Computation procedures for h", hrr, water surface profiLes

are given in t'Hydrologic and Hydraulic Comput.ations on Smal1.
Prograrnmable Calculator". Th. E. Croley, 1977.
Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research.

18 . 3 . Elgep1sg-g!-EA§B-eelgglelleeg
l8 .-1.1 . Exag¡le I

DATA :

a =6om3s' -t
So = 0.005
Rectangular section:b=l0m
HS= 0.80 m
n = 0.01 sm -t l3
AssumpEion : ,fl] o
= 1
 50.

n_ 5Om
,

Determine the water surface profile for

HD = 0.50 m
1.60 m

2.70 m
3.80 u respectively

SOLUTION :

l) Normal depth :

Aecording to (14.4) the initial value is

hn = 0.906 m
Successive approximations (14.2) :

hn : 0.906
0. 968
0.973
0.973 m

2) Critieal- depth :

For rectangular section h c is calculated according to (14.6)

hc - 1,542 m
 5t.

3) S1-ope :

Since hnc< h : hydrauLieaLLy steep slooe

53 profiLe is possible a priori (iis . hrr) wirh h(0)

HS = 0.80 m

__j.E).L.

"-tr

4) Casel:I{D=0.50n

According to § 14.3 :

(to + zu¡4/t
0.005 -
dh
P(h) =
;ffiffi
-=
ds
---3.674
h

Numerical integration with constant Ah = 0.005 :

2Ah
'i+l "i
-I-
9(hi*t) + 9(hi)
 52.

I
h (m)
e-h't
As (m) s (m)

0. 800 t457.6 0 .000

7 .366
0.805 1 489 .3 7 .366
7 .530
0.8r0 I 523 .0 t4.896
0.815 7 .704 22.600
l 558 .9
7 .889
0.820 1597.1 30. 489
8.086
0.825 l 638.0 38.575
0.830
8.298 46.873
1681.7
0.835
8.524
1728.6 55.397

The waterdepth ín the last section is found by interpolation

h (50) = h(46 .873) + [h(ss.3s7 - h(46.873) {ffi

so : h(50) = 0.832 m

This value is courpatible r¿ith the downstreám reservoir level (HD

= 0.50) : the flor¿ will be eompletely (S3) supercritical with
free overall in the lasL seetion.
 53.

The upstream reservoir lerrel is

)
1Q- =3'667
7e'G;;(dz+h(o)

s) Case 2: I{D = 1.60 m

Again the water surface profiel is 53 (see 4).
As h(L) = 0.832 m < HD free overfall is impossible.
So the sequent depth of h(L) must be calculated : /

h.
P (ht) = F(0.832) =
gb
Q2
hl
.+.b hr

= 47.568

According to (14.10) the initial value for h^

¿
is z 2.582 m,
Successive approximations (14.9) :

h, z 2.582
2 .583
2.583 m

As the sequent depth = 2.583 ) IID = 1.60 rn,

the hydraulic juurp is in the reservoir :
the flow is supercritical (S3)
the level in the upstreám reservoir is 3.667 m (see 4).

6) Case3:HD=2.74n
Again the ¡¿ater surface profiLe is 53 (see 4).
As the sequent depth = 2.583 < dorsnstream leve1 HD = 2.70 m,
the flow must be at least partly subcritical.
The subcritical f1o¡¡ (Sl-profiLe) is calculated from downsEream
to upstream with h'(t) = 2.70 m (iuposed level- dor,mstream), and
Ah=-0.05m
 54.

I
h (m) As (m) | s (,n)
9,6t
2,700 170.6 50 000
- 8.487
2.650 168. 9 4t 513
- 8.395
2.600 166.9 33 r rB
- 8.292
2.550 164.8 24 BZ6
- 8. 182
2 .500 162,5 r6 644
- 8.062
2.450 160.0 8 582
- 7 ,929
2.4A0 157 .2 0 652
- 7 .784
2.350 rs4.2 -7 t32

fhe waterdepth in the first section is found b;r interpol-ation :

h' (0) = 2.400 + (2.350 - 2.400) j-rq;fr;

so:
h' (0) = 2.396 m

Considering h'(0) there axe 2 possibilities :

(l) h'(0) > sequent depth of h(0)

++
subcritieal supercritical

-+the flow is compLetely' subcritical (the uPstreám flow üype

is : submerged j*p)

(2) h'(0) . sequent depth of h(0)

-+the flow is partl-y supercritical and partly subcritical
(with jump in the channel)

Calculation of lhe sequent depth s.D. (h(0)) = h,

h(0) = 9.gg m

r(0.80) =U-$,* háo)2 . u ñ o

= 49.072

InitiaL value (14. !0) , h2 , 2.654 m

 55.

Succcssieve approximation

h, = 2,654
2.655
2.655 m

Since h'(0) = 2.396 *. h2 = 2.655 m

are in casa (2) : the jump has to be located (at the

I.re
intersecüion of subcriEical fLor¿ profile and sequent depth
line)

r(ht) Sequent hr
.ht depüh h.
(m) supercriticaL (m) (m) L subcritical (m)

0. 0.800 49 072 2.655 2.396

0.6s2 2,400
7 .366 0.805 48 827 2.644
8.582 4s0
I 4.896 0. Bl0 48 586 2.632
t6.644 500
22.600 O. BI5 4B 348 2.621
24,826 550
30.489
33.n8
38.s75
4r.513
0.820

0.825
48

47 885
lt5
tt
f2--,ro'l

12.s99l
650
46.873 0.830 47.6s8 2.588
s0.000 0,832 47 -568 2.583 700
 56.

So the jump occurs between

s = 30.489 mand s = 38.575 ra

2.6to
.2,55 l

I
,
I S.D.iTr3s; 2.65
Jur,rp I I
I ¡
io.az I I
¡
I
30.&99 i0. s25
ss.oíí ,
,

síLrli
\t .§.ts

Linear approximation of Sl :

h - 2.60 s- 33.118
re-z:ñ = 7¡3¡
=3376'
h = 2.60 + 5.956 l0-3 (s - 33.llB)

Linear approxirnation of sequenE depth I-ine (S.D.L.)

h - 2.610 s - 30.484
TStt=-T:fi6 : 5il57t .ffi
_a
h'= 2.61 - 1.360 10-' (s - 30.489)

Int,ersection of Sl and s.D.L. :

h = 2.61 - 1.360 l0 -3 (s - 30.489)

h = 2.60 + 5.956 l0-3 (s - 33. l lB)

glves :
h = 2.6052 n
s=34m
 57.

EZ

As the flow is supercritieal in the first section the

leve1 in the upstiean reservoir is 3.667 m (see 4)..

7) Case4:HD=3.80n

Again the 53 is calculated (see 4):

h (L) = 0.832 m (see 4)
S.D(0.832)=2.583m (see s)
HD = 3.80 m

As the S.D. = 2.583 m < HD = 3.80 m the flow sust be at

1east, partLysubcritical.
Ihe S1-profile is caLculated ¡¡ith h'(L) = 3.80 m and Ah =

- 0.05 n.

tr (m)
I
As (m) s (m)
act
3 .80 r 90.0 s0. 000
-9.490
3.75 189.6 40 . 510
-9.467
3. 70 189. I 31.043
-9.44s
3.65 188.7 2t .598
-9.422
3.60 188.2 12.t75
-9 .395
3. s5 187 .6 2.780
-9.367
3.50 187.1 -6.587
 58.

By interpolation :

h'(o) = 3.55 + (3.50 - 3.ss) qffi

SO:
h'(0) = 3.535 m

Since the sequent depth S.D. (h(0)) = 2.655 m (sec. 6), the
flow is suberiticaL (sl) with submerged flow in the first
seetion * (fal-se hydraulic jump) .

level in the upstream reservoir rs

The '.

,
uO=1. Q- E+h'(O) =6.402m
¿s (b . HS)'
 59.

IB .3.2. Exa¡np1e 2

DATA :

La- Q=50m's -l
1

So = 0.0009
Rec'tangular section :b= 12 m

@- = -?.--Qo n)
n=o.oz"rll/3
assumPtioo ' ,Qp = t
o

Det.ermine the water surface profile for

HS = 0.50 m
2.50 m respectively

SOLUTION :

t ) Iereel-Éeplb ,

According to (14.4) the initial value is

hn = 1.846 m
Successive approximations (14.2)
h : 1.846
a
2.O55
2.O77
2.O79
2.079 m
 60.

z) 9sltlsel-9eegb
For rectangular section h is calculated according to (14.6)

hc = 1.210 m

3) §lepe
>
nc h- : mild slope
Since h_
Supercritical flow (lt3) is a priori possible if HS < h^ = 1.210 m

4) Casel:HS=0.50n

M3-profile is possible r¡ith h(0) = ES = 0.50 n

tr.§.L.
c .o.L.

Numerical interation with constant Ah = 0.05 u

2Ah
s.r-+ .I = s.l- t
r(hi+t) + P(h)

with :
(r2 + z t¡alz
e (h)
dh
ds
0.0009 -
(,r"lirr
- 1.770
'
I
--
-3
h
 61.

I
As (m) s (n)
h(m)
e 6t'
0.500 t70.9 I .549
0

0.550 171.0 B .549

8.520
0.600 r 69.8 t7 .069
8.422
0. 650 167 .1 25.491
8.254
0.700 163. I 33 .7 45

The r^rater depth in the last section :

h(30) 0.65 + (0.70 - u.b)) ffi.6t

h(30) 0.677 .n

Since h(L) = 0,677 m < IID = 2.00 m, the sequent depEh s.D (h(L) )
has to be calculated :

r (0.677) =t+"t.P b.h(t)=34.119

Aceording to (14.10) the initial value for hris: 2.025 m

Successive approximations (14.9) :

h^
¿
z 2.025
1.985
r.976
t.974
t.973
l.9E m

As the sequent depth = 1.973 m < do¡¿nstream level HD = 2.00 m,

the flow is at least partly subcritical.

 62

The suLc¡:itical f.1.ow (tl2 since h" . h'(L) = HD < l'rrr) is

calcul atecl f rom downs treanl ro ups tream ¡.¡i th h r (L) = 2.00 m

(imposed 1eve1 downst,ream), and Ah = 0.001 m.

I
h(m)
ect As (m) s (m)

2 .000 -7001.6 30 000

-7.05 I
2 .001 -7r01.3 -7 ,152
22 949
2.002 -7203.6 l5 797
-7.256
2 .003 -7308 .6 8 54r
-7.362
2.004 -7 416.3 I t79
-7.471
2.005 -7527 .O -6 292

The r¡ater depth in the first section :

h'(0) = 2,004.+ (2.005 -2.a04)ffi

so

h'(0) = 2.004 m

Considering ht (0) and the sequent depth of h(0) there

2 possibilities : (see exarple l, case 3).
Calcul-ation of S.D. (h(0)) = h,
h(0) = 0.50 m

F(0.50) Q2 *. h(0)2 .b = 43,974

=
b. h(0) -T-
Initial value (14.10) , hz = 2.422 a

Iteration (14.9) :
h^
¿
¡ 2.422
2.422 a
 63.

Since

h'(0) = 2.004, . h2 = 2.422 m

there must be a jurup in the channel (at the intersect,ion of

subcritical flor¡ profile and sequent depth line)

s ht F Sequent hr
supereritical (hr ) depth (hr) subcritical
(m) (m) (n) (m)

0 500 43 .97 4 2.422 2.004

I 179 2.004
I 54r 2 .003
8 549 550 40.427 2 277
l5 797 2.O02
t7 069 600 37 .s55 2 147
22 949 2.001
25 49t 0 650 35.207 2 031

30 000 0 677 34.lr9 I 973 2.000

So there is between s = 25.491 m aads=30m.

a jr.rmp
A computation procedure is expLained in example l, case 3
(see I 6.3.2) :approximation:s=28m

The leveL in the upstrean reservoir :

 64.

Ho= I Q2 + HS = 4.039 m
2s (b HS)
2

Supereri.ticaL flqs is impossibl-e !!

The water surface profile must be M2, r¡ith h'(L) = HD = 2.00 m.

T'lire l^rater depth in the first sectiou : h'(0) = 2.004 (see. 4).

So there is inflexion.
The level in the upstre'am reservoir :

HO = I j--+ h'(0) = 2.224 m

2s (b . h'(0))-
 65.

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 66-

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THE DESIGN OF CHANNELS

1. The best hydraulic section

The Ibest hydraulic section[ is the cross section which conveys the largest discha^rge for
-sectional
a given cross sectional area or, inversely, for which the c¡oss área and thñs the
excavations are minimum for a siven discha¡ee.
It follows from the uniform flów equation "that for a given set of Q, So and f, A is
minimum when R is maximum and Pls minimum;
U is then maximum :

f P,.
')Q2: tu2.
So:-( iQ:UA
8g A3r 8g R/ r'\
Similarly, it
can be shown that for given values of Ss, f and A, Q is m»rimum when 4 is
m&ximum, P is minimum and the conveyan ru oelz¡pt/, i, *oi*u-;
U is maximum :
f P\
')Q2: f u2/ ¡ A
s¡:-( : U A ; R : -\
89 ¡t, ) R/ ; Q
8g -- / / p
( r,,)

Since among all sections with the same area, the circle has the least wetted perimeter,
the semicircle is hydraulically the most efficient of all sections. Therefore sewer pipes,
culverts and tunnels most often have a circular (or nearly circr¡Iar) section. Fof opeú
channels a circular cross section is not easy or eveh impossible to corístruct. Therefor'e it
is most often replaced by a trapezoidal section. The trapezoidal section closest to the
circie is ha,tf a hexagon ( a: 30' ). Stability and geotechnical reasons often do not allow
such steep bank slopes. Therefore in the next séction the best hydraulic section with
given bank slopes is determined.
2. The best hydraulic trapeaoidal scction

The minimum excavation is obtained if, at fixed area A, P ie minimum (R murimum).

dA
FixedA : -0--, I h" db+(2hotgo*b) dh:
dhl 0

(1)

'--0
dPl r
minimumP
dh
I cosa db+2 dh: 0

since A:L(b+hotgo)
2ho
P=b+-
co8(I

In order to fulfill the two equations (1) together :

hn 2hotga*b b 1
: Q ---+ {2)
cosa 2 -=2(--ta)
hn co§o

Itcan easily be shown that then R : ho/2. From (2), togethen with the equation of
uniform flow (e.g. Manning), a = P Sl/' fa# - tga) nl/a = hD, both the bottom
width b and the waterdepth hn can be calculated to discharge Q at minimum erccavation
costs.

The geometric elements of best hydraulic sections are given in the table

Wetted llydraulic Top Hydraulic

Area perimeter radius width depth
Cross section A PRT D

Trapezoid : 1.73h2 3.46h 0.500h 2.31h 0.750h

half of a hexagon

Rectangle: 2h2 4h 0.500h ?h h

hatf of a squa,re

Triangle: h2 2.83h 0.354h 2h 0.500h

half a square

Semicircle 0.500?rh2 rh 0.500h 2h 0.250rh

l
It should be noted that from the point of view of applications, the best hydraulic section
is not necessarily the most economic section. In practice the following factors must be
considered :

1. The best hydraulic section minimizes the area required to convey a specified flow;
however, the area which must be excavated to achieve the flow area required by the
best hydraulic section may be significantly larger if the overburden which must be
removed is considered.
2. It may not be possible to construct a stable best hydrarfic section in the available
natural material. If the channel must be lined, the cost of the lining may be
comparable with the cost of excavation.
3. The cost of excavation depends not only on the a¡nount of material which must be
removed, but also on the ease of access to the site and the cost of disposing of the
material removed.
4. The slope of the channel in many cases must aJso be considered a variable since it is
not necessarily completely defined by topographic considerations. For example,
whiie a reduced channel slope may require a larger cha¡nel flow area to convey the
specilied flow, the cost of excavating the overburden may be reduced.

This emphasises the fact that estimates based on eq. (2) repreent an optimum section
shape only from a, very restricted viewpoint. Therefore ma¡y empirical rules have been
proposed e.g. by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

b
(3)
-=4-tga
hn

Formula (3) gives values of the order of 3, whilst (2) yields valus of about 0.3 to 1.
French (Ref. ) proposes a generalised version of eq. (2) to be used in case that the cost
per unit area of lining is different on the base of the ch¡.nnel and on the sides, because
the material used or the layer thickness is different :

(4)

inwhich: Kr:20(22+ 1) -[1+4(Fl]¿,

Kz:(1-f )6^l z, + L*1oz(F)
Kr: -s (F )
 4

B : cost of uaseffi'*rr.r,, for specified thickness per unit area

k - cost of corner materiaJs per unit length
| : cost of side lining material for speciñed thickness per unit area
z: side slope (z: tga)
Eq. (¿) reduces to (2) when B : I.

3. Velocitv reouirements

The flow velocity il ao irrigation canal should be neither too low nor too high. If the
yelo-ci!¡r is lower than, say 0.7 ms-t sedimentation and vegetative growth may occur.
Both phenomena reduce the discha¡ge capacity of the ca,nal."If the ddsign velociiy is too
low the canal design understa¡dingly will be uneconomical. If on tfe countrary, the
velocity is too high, say fn excess of 2.5 to 3 ms-1 (f.¡ ms-t for asphaltic concreté) the
lining material may become e¡oded.

4. Desien procedure for siven O and Sn

1- estimate Manning's n and the side slope tg ,, taking into account the type of lining
materiaJ.
2- assume an initial value for design depth hn.
3- determine the bed width of the canal using an equation for b/hn (either (2), (3), (4)
or other).
4- computer Q with the uniform flow formula (V).
5- Cq¡npare the calculated discha¡ge with the given üscharge- If the two values are
diffeient, repeat steps 3 througliS with a¡ o"ther value oftne flow depth, until the
ca.lculated and given discharges are equal.

3: Thi-s 4eqigq procedure is carried out automatically by the prograrn

CANAL.NET developed by K.P.P. PATHIRANA in the Center for Irrigátion
Engineering K.U.Leuven.
II. Design of unlined (erodible) chenuels for uniform flow ft

1. Erosion and sedimentation criteria

Where unlined channels run through fine-grained (more or less cohesive) soils, in which
irrigation may be vital, it is also vltat to avoid exc'essive erosion of the precious topsoil.
A c-hannel which does not exhibit long term changes in geometry or aiignment,.and..in
which neither objectionabie scour noi deposition occursl is said to be-stable (or "in
regime").

It is obvious that there should be a relationship betwen the hydraulic para,meters (flow
rate, average velocity, ...), the geometric parameters of the channel cross section, the
properties óf ttre maleriái comlosing thé bed and sides of the channel (grain size
distribution, density, ...) aod the stability of the channel.
Intuitively one can understand that for each bed material there should exist some
'rcritical velocity" Vs : as long as V ( Vc, no erosion occus. When V ) V" the bed
material wiil be eroded; on th-e other hand, if the water ca¡ries suspended sediments,
those sediments will precipitate if ihe flow velocity drops beiow a critical value, and
sedimentation will occur.
Based on experiments, HjülstrPrn proposed a relation between the grainsize d and the
-Foi a given
critical flow velocity (Fig. ) grain size the ciitical velocity for
sedimentation is lowér thañ the critical velócity for erosion. This means that a higher
flow veiocity
-
is needed to erode particles of a given size, tlan !o l.eep them moving in
suspension. The high critical erosion velocities Ior the very fine hed materials are due to
the cohesion of these sediments.

Manv other emoirical data are mentioned in literature. e.s. the critical velocities for
e.osion (i.e. maicimum permissible velocities in stable chañneh) mentioned by _Fortier
and ScoÜey. For water-depths over 1m the critical velocity may be increased by 0.15
ms-1. In cánals with sinuous aligment a reduction of 25 % is recommended.

10 L

erosror o
o
EI
E

'6
rU
vt //
o a
l¡, 0.1 l/
-o trone ,Ort iV sedimer otion

co 0.01
tU
E

0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1 000
diometer (mm)
A more rational approach consists in examining the forces which cause scour. Scour on
the perimeter of a channel occurs when the partides oa the perimeter a.re subjected to
forcés of sufficient magnitude to cause particle movement. When a particle resfs on the
level bottom of a channel, the force acting to cause movement is the result of the flow of
water past the particie : i.e. the ilTractive forcerr (drag force). It is easy to show that in
uniforrir flow the unit trac_tive force (i.e. tractive toríe per'uoit of weíted area), or the
-
bed shear stress, ro: pgRS or pg ho S in wide channels.

Clear water Water transporting

colloidal silts
MateriaJ ¡2 u(m/s) rs(N/mz) U(m/s) 16(N/mz)
Fine sand, 0.020 0.457 1.29 0.762 3.59
noncolloidal
Sandy loam, 0.020 0.533 1.77 0.762 3.59
noncolloidai
Silt loam, 0.020 0.610 2.30 0.914 5.27
noncolloidal
Alluvial silts, 0.020 0.610 2.30 1.07 7.18
noncolloidal
Ordinary firm 0.020 0.762 3.59 1.07 7.18
Ioam
Volcanic ash 0.020 0.762 3.59 1.07 7.18
Stiff clay, 0.025 1.14 L2.4 L.52 22.0
very colloidal
Alluvial silts, 0.025 1.14 12.4 L.52 22.0
colloidal
Shales and 0.025 1.83 32.1 1.83 32.1
hardpans
Fine gravel 0.020 0.762 3.59 t.52 15.3
Graded loam to 0.030 1.L4 18.2 L.52 31.6
cobbles when
noncolloidal
Graded silts to 0.030 1.22 20.6 1.68 38.3
cobbles when colloidal
Coarse gravel 0.025 1.22 14.4 1.83 32.t
noncolloidal
Cobbles and 0.035 1.52 43.6 1.68 52.7
shingles

Since the flow is neither accelerated nor decelerated, the force equilibrium in the flow
direction indeed requires that the axial component of the weight óf a volume (A "s) of
water,- equals the tángential resisting force'exerted by the Éd a¡d the banki on ihe
wetted perimeter :
(pg A As) So: ro (P As)
from which : 16:pgRSs
 pronview

\"
wsin a

? 42
(degrees) +
40 ¿) á
Very ongulor

38

o 36 ,/,
a
//
ta
/
^I $
Moderotely ongulor
Stightly ongulor
/ .I Slightly rounded
E I
c 34
o
N
, ,/, f Moderotely rounded
L
o /, Very rounded
.c 32
//t /
=
o
a
o 28
o-
30
/ //t
0,
L
/ / //
o 26
0,
I /
(rl I
L 24
/
22

20
I
I
18
5 10 20 100
Porticle size (mm)
 mot¡on

0.1 _T tht
I

+
--l =- ilnl §»m( ,tion
il
10 100 1 000
u*d
ol.-
-

N/r$
fo0

10 J
-l -1
#
/
/

7/

0.1
0.01 o.1 10 100
d(mm)
(c 1oo
E
z
0,
ü
L
o
C)

I
L
ro

c
f
0)
3o
.t2
E
!
81
0.1 1 10 100
Averoge porticle diometer (mm)

1 Recommended volue for conols with high content of fine sediment

in the woter
2 Recommended volue for conols with low content of fine sediment
in the woter
3 Recommended volue for conols with cleor soter
+ Recommended volue for conols in coorse noncohensive moteriol,
d>25

50

\
N
( §
\
E

310
I Sondy cloys (sond<S0)
lt,
o
L
Heorry cloyey soils
o_
e5
(, Cloys
.¿
o
o
T \\( Leon cloyey soíls
f2 t-l N
c {
:f \
lt
0.'l 4.2 0.5 1.0 2.O

Void rotio
 8

,1t K
vs
V6

1 0.45 0.67
2 0.67 o.82
a 0.77 0.88

p=30'

The critical shear stress for erosion (a : 0), or the ma¡rimum permissible unit tractive
force as obtained by Shietds (i936)'are shbwn in dimensionlesi form in Fis. . and in
dimensional form in Fig-
-. -In Fig. and more re@ntly obtained rqults (iatye 1988)
are displayed together with the ctaÑical Shields results.
AII these values refer to straight canals. They need to be lowered for sinuous cana,ls.
Lane (1955) suggested a reduclion with
10 % for slightly sinuous canals,
25 Yo for moderately sinuous canal, and
40%tor very sinuous canals.

2. Armourinp (or "agine") of channels

Most erosion and sedimentation criteria refer to homogenous bed material. Some
artifacts (e.g. usjng_4s0, dao) axe suggested by the authoríto make them applicabie to
mixtures as well. Mixtures howevef may behave in a way completely différent from
uniform material. Depending on the [rain size distribütion bf the be¿ material
I'ar1oo3r.ing"
Iouy occur : the finer fractión of the bed material in the upper layer is
eroded,. but the coarser material remains. After some time only the coa¡sé-mateiial is
left and forms on rrarmoutrr which protects the underlaying sedfuients. tr'rom then on the
bed is stable. This phenomenon ii also known as "agingx. Geasler proposed a method
^See
which allows to calculate the probability that an amoüi ñyer is formeil.

lecture notes "waterwegenrr, J. Beriamont, wouters Leuven (in Dutch)

:
SETRA a -co_mputeirprogram developed b1, R. Mendb (Civif Engineering
department K.U.Leuven) te óompute Sediment i¡a.nsport.
J. Gessler : Th.e beginiing of -Bed Load Movemedt of mixtures investigated as I

Natural Armouring in chanñels, CALTEC, transl T-5, March 1g71.

3. Design methods

3.1. Method of maximum permissible velocity

The cross sectional shape, waterdepth and channel slope should be selected in such a way
that the mean flow velocity is not higher than the maximum permissible velocity. The
side slopes may not exceed the angle of repose of the soil.
This can be done by trial and error e.g. using simulation (cfr. ).A straightforward
design procedure could be as follows :

1. estimate the Manning coefficient nt side slope Z and maximum permissible velocity V
based on the kind of material forming the canal bed. Assume Ss.
2. Compute R using Manning's formula R : (n V¡3lz 5o3l+
3. Determine the wetted area A, necessaxy to ca.rry the discharge Q at maximum
permissible velocity V

A:e/V
4. CalculateP:A/R
5. Knowing A and P, one can solve simultanously for b and ho. The bed width to flow
depth ratio b/ho should be in accordance with the requirements (e.g. minimum
excavation eq.(2)). Often a value of 4 is recommended
3.2. Method of maximum permissible unit tractive force

Again, the design can be done by trial and error, the geometric parameters being
adjusted in such a way that the maxium permissible unit tractive force (shear stress) is
not exceeded neither on the bed, nor on the sides. A straightforwa¡d design algorithm
could be as follows.

step 1 Choose a value of the side slope based on the grain size distribution of the
material forming the canal body.
step 2 Choose a value of Manning's coefficient and a ratio of bed width to flow
depth. For erodible canals the US Bureau of Recla.mation recommends a
value close to 4.
step 3 Estimate a value of the permissible tractive force on the bed (Bb) for
average particle size. Determine the tractive force ratio (K) for the selected
angle of repose and side slope. Determine the pamissible tractive force on
the inclined slopes (rr) by rs : K*rb
step 4 Determine the aliowable channel slopes to avoid exceeding the permissible
unit tractive force. Assume a value of flow depth (h).
For side slopes : s : r./(0.75 pg h)
Forbottom: s:ral@gb).
Select the minimum value as the aliowable slope of the canal.
step 5 Determine the bed width of the canal. Determine the discharge in the canal
by using Manningrs formula.

lfor non cohesive bed materials ¿nd in the absence of "bedforms", i.e. for a flat bed n
:
may be estimated by n 0.04(des)1/6
 10

step 6 : Compare the caiculated discharge with the given discharge.

If the twovalues a¡e different repeat steps 4, 5 and 6 with another vaiue of the
flow depth; until the calculated and given üscharges are reasonably equal.

3.3. Regime aporoach

A lined channel has only one degree of freedom (waterdepth). For a given discharge the
system stabilizes rather rapidly : some distance away from the controlling boundary
condition the normal depth is installed (Sz, Sa, Ar, Az flow profiles). A, unlined channel
however exhibits multiple degrees of freedom. It is subject to erosion and deposition,
which may change the bed slope and the channel cross section and alignment. An
artificially straight channel in an erodible bed is seldom stable. The flow will usually
compel the course to meander. Therefore the degrees of freedom of an erodible channel
a¡e waterdepth, width, slope and alignment. Stabilization of such channel may take a
long time and, indeed, may in some cases never be attained.

Intuitively it is expecied that a finaI equilibrium situation should exist for a channel
running through erodible land and ca,rrying a given discha.rge. In this rrregimerr situation
there should be an equilibrium between the geometry of the chamel cross section, the
channel slope (i.e. the thalweg length) and t[e discharge. This feeling is confirmed by
many in situ me&surements and experiments. It is however very üfEcult to formuiate
these equilibrium conditions in a quantitative way. Many attempts have been made
(e.S. Lacey (1929*1958), Blech (1950-1970), Kennedy (1890), Chitale (1965-), ...)
"Regime formulas" give the interrelations between geometric and hydraulic parameters
in stable channels, e.g. Lacey formula

ProB-4.816q1/z (MKS)
R r h: g.aOz ql/e
So = 0,000 7l qtlo

A selection of Simons & Albertsonrs equations (in metric units) is given below, (a
complete list may be found in Henderson (1966) :

B :0.9P P:6rq1/z
1 V a,
R: K2Qo'36 Ss:-(-)'/n
R2 K3
L-)
I 1.21R. R < 2.1m
Irn- \
I o.or + 0.93R, R > 2.1m

The values for the various constants depend on the channel type. For ena,rrple, a Type 2
channel (sandy bed and cohesive banks) would use.

Kr = 4.71 Kz:0.484 Ke : 10.81 n : 0.33

 11

The rrregime approach" consists in adjusting the cha¡nel parameters to the hydraulic
parameters iq s_uqh a way that the rrregime equationsrr are met. The method, ivhich is
pjlely_empirical, h-as r-nany protagonistsbut is also strongly criticised by many.
-
The. Kennedy method is p-resentéd he¡e as ar oca.mple. It may be useful- only for a
preliminary design. According to the US Bureau of Hecla.mationihe final design should
be based on the tractive fore method.
T\e §en¡edy formula was $eveloped to determine the non silting and non eroding
velocity for silt-laden water flowing in a canal having a bouldary of slmitar material.

Vs: 0.55 Ch0'64 (s.r.)

Typical values of the Kennedy coefficient C for differmt m¿terials a¡e indicated in the
table.

Values of Kennedy coefñcient C

Soil type

Extremely fine soil 0.56

Fine, light, sandy soil 0.84
Coarser, light, sandy soil 4.92
Sandy, loamy silt 1.01
Coarse silt or hard soil debris 1.09

The Kennedy formula has been modified by the US Bu¡eau of Reclamation to suit the
canals which carrv relatively clear water. The modified Kmnedy fo¡mula is written as
follows;

Vs : 0.55 Ch0'5

Design procedure

D:b/h
Vr: 9'556¡1/z
A : Q/Vs : Q/(0.55 Ch'lr)
A:h(b*Zh)+b:Alh-Zh
5 : Q/(0.5 ,r¡3lz¡ - zh
 L2

since b/h:D D : Q/(o.uuCaulr)

;
q,
solving for h ; [:
[ (z + D) * 0.55 * C fls
b: D.h

III. Simulation

The different design methods discussed in the prwiouo section all assume a steady
uniform {low. Irrlgation canals operate under st'eady flow onditions, but the flow ii
seldom uniform. Therefore the design of a channel sliould__by checked by simulating its
real behaviour under non uniform flów conditions. The diffeirnt flow prófiles contró'Iled
Fy tl¡e !ou-nd_a,ry cgnditions as there a¡e weirs and gates, shoüld be calculated. It shor¡ld
be checked that the waterlevel does not orceed tñe ma¡rimum allowable level (terrain
Ievel - required. freeboard)_and that the velocities a¡e neither tm high (erosionf nor to
Iow (sedimentation, poor efficiency).

Such simulations or flow p1ofil9 calculations are done automatically by the program
CANALNET developed atihe Center of Irrigation of the K.U.IÉuven Uí p.tr,t.'Chósáni
(1e8e).

It is clear that a cha.nnel design may also be carried out by trial and error using such
simulation model. The channel parameters are adjustel rmtil ¿ll requiremeáts of
waterlevel and velocity (and sediment transport) are mét.

In the case that one wants to study the effect of unsteady flow e-g. caused by the
operation of gates, an unsteady flow rirodel should be used. ifuampt€s E e nlO (¿e"pt. oi
Civil Engineering K.U.Leuven) and MIKE 11 (Danish Hydraulic L¡$titute).
Selected References

"open-channel hydraulics"; R.H.French; McGrarr-Hill (1985); ISBN 0-07-022134-0.

"Open Channel Hydraulics'; V.T. Chow; McGraw-HiI[ (1959).

"Theorie van de verhanglijnen" (in Dutch); J. Berlamonq wouters, Leuven (19s0).

'civil Engineering Hydraulics"; R.E. Featherstone & Nalburi; Granada (19??);

ISBN 0-246-11483-5.

"Hydraulícs in civil Engineering"; A. Chadwich & J. Morfett; Allen & unwin (19s6);
ISBN 0-04-627003-5.

"Design and optimization of irrigation distribution networks'; FAO, irrigation and

drainage paper 44, Rome 1988.