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Project-based learning in teaching

translation: students’ perceptions
a b a
Defeng Li , Chunling Zhang & Yuanjian He
a
Department of English, Faculty of Arts and Humanities,
University of Macau, Macau SAR, China
b
Department of Humanities, Imperial College, London, UK
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The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2015.1010357
Project-based learning in teaching translation: students’ perceptions

Defeng Lia*, Chunling Zhangb and Yuanjian Hea
a
Department of English, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China;
b
Department of Humanities, Imperial College, London, UK
(Received 14 November 2013; accepted 8 January 2014)
Along with the increasing interest in learning-centred constructivist approaches to

translator education, there have been proposals to introduce project-based learning

(PjBL), popular in education, to the teaching of translation. Typical of this approach
is that students are usually invited to complete an authentic practical translation
project either in small groups or as individuals. This article, however, presents
another type of project in translator education and discusses how such a project
was incorporated into the teaching of business translation in the Chinese context.
Furthermore, it reports on an investigation of the students’ reception and perceptions
of the PjBL project, which was carried out as part of the evaluation process of the
project. It is hoped that the documenting of our experimentation with the project may
serve as an easy reference for other teachers who may be interested in trying this
methodology in their teaching, and that the findings regarding the students’ percep-
tions mainly investigated through qualitative methods can be further confirmed with
future quantitative research designs.
Keywords: Project-based learning; translation teaching; students’ perceptions; Macau
1. Introduction
Research on translator education has centred around two fundamental issues: what to
teach and how to teach it (Kelly 2005). Over the years, researchers have tried to pin down
the skills and/or competencies of professional translators, hoping that such knowledge will
help determine the ‘what’ and ‘how’ when constructing the translation curriculum. For
instance, the now well-known model of translation competence proposed by the PACTE
(Process of Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation) group consists of six
interrelated sub-competencies, namely bilingual, extra-linguistic, knowledge about trans-
lation, instrumental, strategic and psycho-physiological components (PACTE 2003, 2008,
2011a, 2011b). A recent survey of professional translators and revisers working at
intergovernmental organisations shows that ‘translators need more than language skills:
in addition to general knowledge and in some instances specialized knowledge, they need
analytical, research, technological, interpersonal and time-management skills’ (Lafeber
2010, 108).
Along with these attempts to identify the competencies, skills and knowledge required
of translators, many teachers and researchers have also been engaged in proposing,
devising and debating the most effective approaches and methods to train these skills in
students and/or help them develop such competencies. Kelly (2005, 11–19) gives the
following concise summary of the approaches to translation teaching:
*Corresponding author. Email: defengli@umac.mo
© 2015 Taylor & Francis

2 D. Li et al.
● Delisle’s (1980, 1993) objectives-guided translation teaching;

● Nord’s (1988/1991) ‘towards a profession-based learner-centred approach’;
● Gile’s (1995) process-oriented approaches (1995);
● The cognitive and psycholinguistic research-based approaches proposed by Kiraly
(1995), Jääskeläinen (1998) and Hansen (1999, 2002)
● Vienne (1994) and Gouadec’s (2003) situational approach;
● Hurtado (1999) and Gonzalez Davies’s (2003, 2004) task-based approach;
● Robinson’s (1997/2003) balancing conscious analysis with subliminal discovery;
● Kiraly’s (2000) social constructivist approach;
Following Kiraly’s (2000) proposal of a social constructivist approach to translation

teaching, we recently incorporated project-based learning (PjBL1) into our teaching of
translation in a Chinese context at the University of Macau, aiming to make our teaching
more learning-oriented. However, as we implemented PjBL, we found that although

literature abounds with propositions of innovative methods and approaches to teaching
translation, as summarised in Kelly (2005), relatively few attempts have been made to
provide empirical evidence to actually evaluate the anticipated strengths and effectiveness
of the proposed methods. Consequently, we are sometimes left wondering whether they
are indeed as effective as has been claimed. Also, in many cases, the benefits claimed for
the new methods are described only in broad and general terms. As Kiraly (2012, 93)
rightly points out after discussing his own work,
[I]t is clear that much work is yet to be done to establish the viability of the approach beyond
the scope of my own classes. For example, team-learning processes that have led to success-
ful project work need to be observed and described to show how and why the approach
works. Systematic surveys of student attitudes regarding their emerging competence and self-
confidence as semi-professional translators and as increasingly experienced team members
would also contribute significantly to our understanding of the value of this approach.
We need to understand whether the intended goals can be achieved, which aspects of
translation teaching can be most enhanced, and to what extent, with the implementation of
the new methods. With such knowledge, we can better decide how the proposals, many of
which have worked in other fields, most notably in education and second-language
teaching, may be tweaked to suit translator education.
Therefore, as part of our experiment with PjBL at the University of Macau, we
decided to evaluate the effectiveness of a PjBL project. As the approach adopted is to
effect changes in students’ learning experiences, we decided that the evaluation, as an
exploratory pilot study, would focus on students’ reception and perceptions of the method.
We had two major research questions to guide the evaluation:
● What do the students think of the PjBL project? Do they find it beneficial?
● What do they perceive to be their major areas of growth as the result of carrying out
the project?
In this article, we are going to explain briefly how we understand PjBL, how it was
implemented in our teaching of business translation at the University of Macau, and, more
importantly, how the students perceived the new method and what they felt to be the
major benefits.
The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 3
2. What is PjBL?
A project is usually defined as an individual or collaborative enterprise that is carefully
planned to achieve a certain goal. Students are to accomplish certain tasks under particular
time constraints. Project-based learning as a learning approach varies in definition, though
sometimes only slightly. Blumenfeld et al. (1991) define it in the following terms:
Project-based learning is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engaging

students in investigation. Within this framework, students pursue solutions to nontrivial
problems by asking and refining questions, debating ideas, making predictions, designing
plans and/or experiments, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, communicat-
ing their ideas and findings to others, asking new questions, and creating artifacts.
Larmer and Mergendoller (2010) stress the following essential elements of PjBL:
● starting with a compelling question or challenge

● creating a desire to acquire or create new knowledge
● carrying out an inquiry to acquire or create the knowledge
● requiring critical thinking, communication, collaboration and technological skills
● incorporating feedback and revision
● making a publicly presented product
● rendering students’ voice and choice.
Nevertheless, it is generally believed that all versions of PjBL share the following
premises. First, they focus education on the student and emphasise learning activities that
are long-term, interdisciplinary and student-centred (Markham, Larmer, and Ravitz 2003).
Students are allowed some degree of voice and choice in making plans of enquiry and
construction of the artefacts to represent their findings or knowledge gained as the result
of the project. They might even be allowed to choose their own research questions within
a specified scope, especially in a higher education context.
PjBL stresses learning by doing (Markham, Larmer, and Ravitz 2003). It begins with a
driving question or challenge, which creates a need to know essential content and skills
and requires in-depth investigation to get to the answer and develop the skills. It values
teamwork and collaboration among participants. Students are often divided into groups of
varied sizes, where they work together, share their findings and decide how to best
represent their new knowledge. They must learn to work in a community and therefore
take shared responsibilities and credits.
To successfully complete a project, students will need to effectively coordinate their
work, communicate with each other and external institutions, critically evaluate their
findings and solve problems arising during their work. It requires critical thinking, problem
solving, collaboration, and various forms of communication, often known as ‘21st Century
Skills’ to achieve their goals (Trilling and Fadel 2012). So students will need to expand
their minds and think more critically, an ability which is often identified as lacking.
In PjBL, students are encouraged to reflect on their enquiry (Barron and Darling-
Hammond 2008; Thomas 2000). Through reflection and discussions among themselves,
they are to revise their findings and presentation of the knowledge gained, at which time they
may collect feedback from the class and the teacher and further revise their conclusions.
PjBL also has a particularly important role for technology (Boss and Krauss 2007;
Krauss and Boss 2013). Students are encouraged to take full advantage of IT tools in their
investigation of the driving questions as well as representing their findings. PjBL also
4 D. Li et al.
Driving
Question
Publicly
Indepth
Presented
Inquiry
Product
Academic
Content
PjBL
Feedback Group Work
& &
Revision
Varied Skills Community
Voice &
Technology
Choice
Figure 1. Project-based learning (adapted from Kiraly 2000).
emphasises that students represent the knowledge gained in the form of artefacts – that is,
publicly presented products or performances.
‘[PjBL] transforms the role of the teacher from content provider to learning coordi-
nator. As a result, teachers spend less time lecturing and leading and more time planning,
observing, listening, coaching, and facilitating’ (National Academy Foundation).
However, this does not mean that the teacher completely relinquishes control over the
class but rather creates an environment of shared responsibility. The teacher will help
students set up interim goals, monitor their progress to ensure they are getting in-depth
and proper understanding of the concepts being investigated, and advise them when they
encounter difficulties or issues.
It is also important to point out that there are no definite criteria regarding what makes
an acceptable project for PjBL. But a well-thought-out project will not only help students
learn key academic content and/or develop new knowledge, but also practise various
social skills such as collaboration, communication and critical thinking.
To summarise the above concepts, PjBL can be expressed in the following figure
(Figure 1).
3. A PjBL activity in teaching business translation

Many have discussed the advantages of PjBL in acquisition of knowledge and social skills as
well as students’ learning experiences (e.g. Boaler 2002; Helle, Tynjälä, and Olkinuora 2006;
Thomas 2000). For instance, Strobel and van Barneveld argue that ‘P[j]BL was superior when
it comes to long-term retention, skill development and satisfaction of students and teachers,
while traditional approaches were more effective for short-term retention’ (2009, 1). But for us,
the idea of adopting PjBL in our teaching also began with a practical need. In 2012, one of the
present researchers taught the course ‘Special Topic in Translation’ at the University of Macau.
As stated in the programme handbook, the exact topic and content of the course depend on the
expertise of the instructor, who usually makes the decision in consultation with the students.
This course is designed to permit visiting scholars, or existing staff, to offer postgraduate
level courses in their particular areas of specialisation. The topic and content of the courses
will vary from year to year depending on the availability of specialised staff.
After discussing with the students, we decided to focus on business translation and we
further decided that besides discussing methods, principles and ethics of business transla-
tion, we would focus on translation of:
● business correspondence
● office memos, minutes of meetings, business reports
● business contracts and other legal documents
● advertisements and other promotional/publicity materials
However, a number of topics that some students were keen to explore had to be
excluded from the core syllabus due to time constraints. To satisfy students’ interests, we
decided to incorporate a PjBL project into the course. That is, as part of the course,
students would also complete a group project exploring translation in Macau in general,
and business translation in Macau in particular. In this way, we were able to construct a
core course syllabus and at the same time cater for the interests of individual students and
expand the scope of the course considerably.
3.1 Implementation of the project

Before describing the implementation of our project, we deem it necessary to point out
that there are at least two kinds of projects that may be used in translation training, namely
translation-oriented and research-oriented projects. While they share the same rationale
and theoretical underpinnings, there are also differences. In translation-oriented PjBL,
students preferably work together in small groups and engage themselves in the produc-
tion of an authentic or simulated translation assignment (Kiraly 2005). Their primary task
is to complete a translation project, with guidance from their teachers only when the need
arises. In the process of completing the translation assignment, they activate and improve
their translation competencies (please refer to Li [2013] for a detailed description). The
result is that they gain better translation skills and at the same time become familiar with
some of the dynamics of working as a professional translator in the real world.
On the other hand, in research-oriented PjBL, rather than completing a translation
assignment, students work together and conduct serious and systematic inquiries into transla-
tional issues of considerable interest to them, as discussed by Kiraly (2000). Research-
oriented PjBL starts with important research questions on translation. As they seek answers
to the questions, students also learn to work together and (further) develop their commu-
nication, collaboration, thinking and technological skills, which are deemed essential for
modern-day professional translators. In general, this kind of project does not work directly on
students’ translation competencies, but it enables them to acquire other non-translational
skills, hence contributing indirectly to their growth as future translators. The following table
captures the essence of the translation-oriented and research-oriented PjBL (Table 1).
The project that we incorporated into the syllabus of the course was a research-
oriented one and we called it ‘Exploring Translation in Macau’ (ETiM).The course
‘Special Topic in Translation’ ran for 14 weeks. The project was given as an assignment
at the second meeting of the class. There were a total of 42 students in 2 classes running at
6 D. Li et al.
Table 1. Translation-oriented PjBL vs. research-oriented PjBL.
Translation-oriented PjBL Research-oriented PjBL
Aim To improve translation competencies and To seek in-depth understanding of

become familiar with real-world translational issues
translation dynamics
Task To work in small groups and complete an To work in groups and make an inquiry
authentic or simulated translation project into topics on translation through
various data-gathering methods, e.g.
library search, literature review,
interviews, observations,
questionnaire surveys
Product A completed translation submitted to the Class presentation of findings of the
client investigation
A summary report of the project
Outcome Improved translation competencies Enhanced knowledge of translation

Acquisition of meta-cognitive translation Development and/or growth of meta
skills cognitive translation skills
Indirect contribution to translation
competencies
the time of the experiment. Instructed to team up, they made eight groups of five and two
groups of six. Each group elected a group leader to coordinate and oversee their projects.
Each group chose their own topic and they were encouraged to pursue the topics that
really interested them. The following were the topics they investigated:
● History of business translation in Macau

● Business translation and local economy
● Market of business translation in Macau and neighbouring Hong Kong and the
Chinese mainland
● Use of translation technology in business translation in the region
● Professional translators’ strategies for dealing with regional dialects of Chinese in
business translation
● Cultural and social issues in business translation
● Business interpreting in Macau, Hong Kong and Chinese mainland
● Translation in the Macau gambling industry
● Tourist translation in Macau: methods and strategies
● Working conditions of translators and interpreters in Macau
‘Project work, whether it is integrated into a content-based thematic unit or introduced

as a special sequence of activities in a more traditional classroom, requires multiple stages
of development to succeed’ (Stoller [2002] 2008, 111). The present project consisted of
five phases: preparing for the project, piloting the research, carrying out the investigation,
presenting the findings and summarising the project (see Table 2 below). In the first few
weeks, the students made up their groups, decided on their research topics and made
action plans. After piloting their investigation, the group leaders each briefly presented
their plans to the class and discussed any difficulties encountered in their trial run of the
project. In weeks 6–10, the students carried out their research. In the eighth week, the
group leaders made progress reports on their investigations, and the class offered sugges-
tions where appropriate. The 30-minute formal presentation took place in the 12th week,
Table 2. ETiM project.
Phases The teacher The students
Phase I Announce the project to the class Make groups

Week 2–3 Explain the requirements and method of Elect a group leader
Preparation assessment for the project Choose topics for the investigation
Discuss possible methods of Work out an action plan
investigation of the topics
Suggest possible topics
Phase II Make himself or herself available for Carry out initial investigation of the
Week 4–5 consultation during office hours and/ project
Piloting or by appointment Report on any problems encountered in
Offer suggestions and guidance their pilot investigation
together with the class Adjust their plans if necessary
Phase III Organise a session of progress reports Carry out full investigation
Week 6–10 Offer feedback and suggestions as Make a progress report on their projects
Investigating necessary
Phase VI Organise presentation sessions for the Present their findings of the project
Week 11–12 groups to share their findings Answer questions from the class
Presenting Obtain feedback from the class
Phase V Receive the final reports from the Summarise their projects, incorporating
Week 13–14 groups the feedback from the class
Summarising Assess the projects (action plan; interim Reflect on their projects
reports; presentation; final reports) Write up the final project reports
Give feedback to the students Submit their reports
when the groups presented a summary of their findings to the class, which was then
followed by Q&A (question and answer) sessions. To encourage reflections amongst the
students, all groups were required to submit a 2000-word written report of their project,
using the following questions as a guide:
(1) What were the primary aims and purposes of your project?
(2) Why was the project important or interesting to you?
(3) What major questions did you wish to answer through this project?
(4) What data and/or materials did you use while you tried to answer the questions?
How were they collected and analysed?
(5) What were the major findings of your investigation?
(6) How did the new findings contribute to our understanding of translation (studies)
in general?
As in a translation-oriented PjBL, the teacher retreated into a supporting role in the
project. No training was provided to the students but they were encouraged to consult the
teacher before/after classes or in specially arranged office hours.
While small group projects have the advantage of encouraging student learning,
assessing group work has been challenging and sometimes even controversial. But the
rule of thumb is that if the focus of the activity is on the group working skills, then the
assessment is on the process; and if the focus is on the performance of the group, then the
focus is placed on the end product. The purpose of our project was twofold: for students to
acquire the knowledge on the topic of their choice and for students to develop skills of
working together as a team. So the focus was on both the product and process.
8 D. Li et al.
The assessment of the project, which accounted for 30% of the overall grade for the
course, consisted of both peer assessment (Freeman 1995; Lejk and Wyvill 2001) and the
teacher’s assessment. For the peer assessment, each student was required to assess the
contribution of all of the other members of their group. The teacher assessed the group
presentations and their final reports. As the focus was on the group working skills, both
the presentations and the reports were assessed per group, not for each individual.
As mentioned previously, the other major purpose of incorporating the project into the
course was to carry out a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of this approach. For
this purpose, the focus was placed on how students perceived such a PjBL project and
where they saw the biggest growth in their skills and abilities. So from the beginning of
the project, we set out to collect relevant data through different means. We found it
gratifying that interesting perceptions were gathered. In the following section, we shall
report on the design of the evaluation process and the major findings, followed by
discussions of the possible implications for future translation teaching.
4. Gathering and analysing students’ perceptions

4.1 Instruments to gather students’ perceptions
Since this was perhaps one of the first attempts to evaluate the use of such kind of research
projects in translation training, a qualitative research method was used to gauge students’
perceptions of the PjBL. With this design, the researchers could probe in detail and in depth
into students’ thoughts, beliefs and experiences of conducting such a project. They were not
restricted to specific questions and the interviews could be guided or redirected in real time.
They could also quickly revise the research framework and direction as new information
emerged (Denzin and Lincoln 2012). The students as research subjects were also free to
fully express their thoughts and report their experiences. We therefore felt such a qualitative
design was particularly appropriate for this exploratory project.
The raw data consisted of students’ reflective journals, a questionnaire survey and two
focus group interviews. All students were invited to hand in, on a voluntary basis, 2
reflective journals (in week 6 and week 14 respectively) on their experience of carrying
out the project. In addition, at the end of the project, they were all invited to complete a
short questionnaire, the primary purpose of which was to gather their perceptions of
possible learning or growth resulting from completing the project. Thirty-six students
completed and returned the questionnaire, a return rate of 85.7%. In addition, two groups
were randomly selected for a one-hour focus-group interview, which was audio-recorded.
The questionnaire consisted primarily of open-ended questions to encourage full,
meaningful answers from the students. The focus group interviews offered them a chance
to discuss and share their understandings and feelings about the project, and the journals
encouraged them to reflect on this experience. The recordings of the focus group inter-
views were later transcribed verbatim.
4.2 Analysing students’ perceptions

The two researchers first read the transcripts of the interviews, together with the written
comments in the questionnaires and students’ journals, and independently identified
themes with regard to students’ perceived areas of growth. They then discussed together
and drew up the final list of the possible themes as shown in Table 3 below. After they
reread and coded one-third of the interview transcripts as per the list, they compared and
Table 3. Students’ perceived areas of growth.
Areas of growth No. of mentions %
Knowledge of the topic 36 100

Team work & collaboration skills 34 94.4
Presentation skills 34 94.4
Communication skills 33 91.7
Technological skills 30 83.3
Research skills 28 77.8
Critical thinking skills 24 66.7
Leadership skills 7 19.4
discussed their coding and resolved the slight differences between them. Finally, they read
and coded the entire data set, and resolved any differences in their coding before the
number of mentions regarding each theme in relation to the students’ experiences and the
project effectiveness was calculated for reporting.
5. Students’ perceived areas of growth

5.1 Perceptions of the ETiM project
The students were overwhelmingly positive about the project. All of the 36 students who
completed the questionnaires reported that the project helped them gain in-depth knowl-
edge about the topic they studied, and develop and/or enhance skills believed to be crucial
for professional translators (see Table 3).
They felt that the project gave them a chance to work together with their peers to
research on a topic that interested them and gain in-depth knowledge on the topic. It
enabled them to become more independent in seeking answers to their questions. They
also saw themselves as having better research, communication, technological and pre-
sentation skills as well as a heightened sense of teamwork:
(1) I was very excited throughout the entire project . . . It was much more complicated
than I thought at the beginning. We had to go to the library to find the books and
articles we needed, we had to work out a good schedule for all of us because
two of our members had full time jobs. But we found time for sharing and
discussing our findings and rehearsing our presentations . . . I think I’m a better
speaker now. (J:Kary:22)
Many recommended that such projects should be retained in the course in the future.
A few students even suggested adding a small project to be completed in the first part of
the course:
(2) The project helps but we need more. Perhaps to add a small one in the beginning
of the semester would be perfect. (f-1-283)
Interestingly, many reported that the project made them see the need to enhance some
other skills and abilities besides their translational competence, in order to prepare
themselves better for a career as a professional translator. This was especially the case
for those who carried out fieldwork in their investigations:
10 D. Li et al.
(3) We wanted to understand the real situation of tourist translation in Macau. So we

tried to contact Macau Government Tourist Office, Macau Tourist Centre and two
tourist interpreters we knew through contacts. It was not at all easy to talk to these
people. We had to call so many times and waited so long in order to meet them for
an interview.. . . But I think we really need to improve our communication [skills].
At one point we almost blew off [i.e. failed to attend] an important interview due
to a misunderstanding and some communication errors. (f-2-16)
Apart from these general comments, the students also frequently discussed the growth
in their knowledge of the topic they each studied.
5.2 Knowledge of the topic

The topics covered by the 10 groups were quite broad and they actually worked very well
as a supplement to the core syllabus of the course. Students felt they became really
familiar with their topics through their own investigations:
(4) This was a good way to organize a course. It gave us students an opportunity to
contribute to the contents of the course and also a precious chance to pursue
something we are truly interested in and passionate about . . . I think I am almost
an expert on Macau translation history now. It’s very interesting. I also got to
know much about the history of Macau. (J:Tiffany:2)
All students reported that their biggest gain in the project was their acquired knowledge of
the topic they studied. For instance, one group investigated tourist translation in Macau and they
particularly focused on the biggest industry of the area – the casino and hotel business. They felt
they got to know much more about it than they had thought they would, and believed such
knowledge would be useful to them in their future employment as a translator or in other
language related professions:
(5) Although everyone knew the major casinos in Macau, we didn’t know many
background facts about them. We really learned a lot from this research about the
background of the casinos & hotels and how they affect the local economy and
the society as a whole. I think this background information will be very useful to
us when we become professional translators later . . . We also have a good
understanding of the approaches used in translating the names of casinos and
their pamphlets. We learned from concrete examples that function is more impor-
tant than accuracy in many cases when translating these materials. (J:Mary:2)
Another group explored the topic of how professional translators make use of the
Internet in professional translation. They were very excited at discovering there were
actually so many resources available to them on the Internet and they were very grateful
for the many tips the professional translators offered them in their investigations:
(6) I never thought the Internet could help us translate in so many different ways. For
instance we found so many online e-dictionaries, lists of resources for translators,
many tips of using the Internet in actual translation and so on. When doing
translations of different subjects later, we can make good use of them . . . We
also found many useful sites to bid for free lance translation projects. (f-2-32)
The sharing of their findings in the form of class presentations was also seen as useful.
They saw this as an efficient way to get some knowledge of a wide range of topics within
a relatively short period of time. Some got so interested in some presentations that they
decided to pursue further studies on the topic later; for instance, in their MA dissertations:
(7) The presentation Group 4 gave was fascinating and the information they pre-
sented was very useful. Actually their presentation also got me to think about
some of the things I could do for my MA dissertation project. (q/no.154)
The discussions and sharing among the group really helped them to go deep in their
exploration and understanding of the issues in question. It also enabled them to sharpen
their arguments and consolidate their findings. And the sharing gave the class an oppor-
tunity to ask questions. The students found that the questions from the floor enabled them
to ‘look at our research topic and findings from different angles’ (q/no.6).
5.3 Team work and collaborative skills

Teamwork was an area where most students experienced growth. Nearly 95% of the
students reported the project heightened their sense of teamwork. Team spirit for the
students meant first of all understanding each other’s positions and being flexible:
(8) Group meetings were quite important. Since everyone was busy with classes,
jobs, etc. we couldn’t meet as frequently as we wished, but everyone tried to
attend each meeting. In case someone couldn’t attend, we showed understanding
and found ways to pass on the gist of the discussions to her. (f-2-17)
For many of the students, team spirit also meant offering support to peers in need:
(9) Although we tried our best to allocate the same amount of workload for everyone, still
some people may do more and others may do less. Thankfully no one in our group
complained. Understanding and peer-support is very important for group work. We
must help each other, especially when someone has problems. (J:Amanda:1)
Team spirit is also about shouldering responsibilities and sharing successes together:
(10) Cooperation is the key element in a group project. We each go to our own task,
we tried our best to finish our work with high standards and we shared our
successes together. (J:Priscilla:2)
Besides understanding others’ perspectives, being flexible, offering support and sharing
successes, they also felt the project taught them the importance of:
● beginning a project by analysing together the mission

● working together to specify and ‘build consensus about our goals of the project’
(J:Cecelia:7)
● formulating together strategies for carrying out their project
● determining how to monitor the progress of the project
● electing a group leader to coordinate the project.
12 D. Li et al.
5.4 Presentation skills

Presentation skills were another area where the students saw substantial growth. All the
groups were required to make a formal presentation to share their findings with the class
and at the same time obtain feedback from their peers on their research before they wrote
up the final summary reports. In general the students had little previous research experi-
ence but were quite excited about making their presentations despite some apprehension.
Many confirmed that the experience helped to build their confidence as well as improve
their presentation skills. For instance, they reported that they found it easier to have eye
contact with the audience and felt more at ease in presenting in English without the scripts
after many rounds of rehearsals and mocks:
(11) I’m now more confident in speaking in front of the class, and I am not afraid to
have eye contact with the audience and I can even use some gestures to help me.
Also, I don’t need to hold any scripts in my hands while I’m speaking in
English. This is a big progress for me. (J:Karen:1)
Some also felt the experience taught them how to prepare and structure an effective
presentation and how to select the most important information to present within limited
time. They recognised the importance of having a structure for their presentation as well
as having proper rehearsals:
(12) We gathered a huge amount of information, but time was limited for our
presentation. So we learned how to show the most important parts to the
audience in a limited period of time . . . I know now how to organize a successful
presentation; I know the process of the whole presentation (outline, details,
conclusion). I think a good presentation should go in an organized and logical
order. (J:Cathy:2)
They realised that the purpose of a presentation was not only to present information,
but more importantly to engage the audience in the presentation through interactions and
activities:
(13) When doing presentation, we should arouse the listener’s interest and let them
join our presentation so that it will receive more attention and response in the
whole process. During the presentation, you need to engage your audience as
much as possible, attract their attention through all kinds of interactive activities,
such as video clips, discussion questions and games, and give effective and
instant feedback to the audience. (J:Grace:1)
Some even felt they could project their voice more effectively after plenty of rehearsals
and the formal presentation. They recognised that when making a presentation, it is important
‘to speak clearly and loudly’ and ‘the tone and the voice should not be flat’ (q/no.3).
5.5 Communication skills

Another area of considerable growth for the students was their communication skills,
which are seen as important for many professions including translation and other language
service professions. As reported, the students needed to communicate amongst their

groups to discuss their project plans, findings and their presentations. For groups whose
investigations involved fieldwork, such as interviews, they needed to identify and contact
the interviewees. They realised that communication was most important, especially when
they encountered problems and disagreed over their plans:
(14) Like I said, we might have different opinions sometimes, and we needed to have
some debating and persuasion skills. I learnt how to get my ideas [a]cross and
how to convince people in a friendly [and] yet powerful way. [f-2-11)
Some students also reported that they learned how to get across their views to their
peers more effectively:
(15) This evening our group met for the 2nd time. We had different opinions about
the action plan and we really needed to talk. It was a long discussion of about 2
hours but I actually didn’t mind that. Because I felt I knew better how to express
my own opinion, how to express my disagreement in a kind way without
quarreling, and how to emphasize what is correct and convince others it is
correct. (J:Masey:1)
They also realised that sometimes, to be able to listen with patience was equally
important:
(16) There was a hard time when we were discussing the main direction of our project
since it was the first time we tried to do a project on this topic . . . This made me
understand that everyone has a different way of thinking. When we have different
opinions, we share our thoughts and we listen to one another. (J:Daniel:1)
It is indeed encouraging to see that the students realised that different opinions and
disagreements were necessarily part of the execution process of such projects and that
they were actually helpful to building a strong project:
(17) Different opinions and setbacks in communication actually make the project
more consummate . . . In our group discussions, we would use nice attitudes and
words to express our ideas and would not blame anyone for suggesting an
inappropriate idea. (J:Jasmine:2)
In a nutshell, the students found that through the project they became even more aware
of the importance of effective communication and some felt they became better commu-
nicators because of the practice and the strategies they developed, such as:
● be gentle and polite to each other when there is a conflict of opinions

● consider others’ feelings
● look at things from others’ perspectives
● learn how to express oneself
● be bold to give comments and suggestions
● learn to appreciate different opinions.
● ask group members for help when encountering difficulties.
14 D. Li et al.
5.6 Technological skills

The students also mentioned that the project gave them an opportunity to learn and make
use of technology for research purposes. As mentioned above, they made good use of the
Internet to gather data, collect information and search for related literature on the topics
they were studying. For a few students, the experience of working together with group
members helped them overcome their fear of technology. One student reported that s/he
had ‘never made a ppt[®] presentation before but overcame my technophobia through
working closely with my very helpful group member in making the ppt[®] presentation
slides for our group’ (J:Rose:3). Most groups took advantage of the Internet to coordinate
their project, share their findings and exchange views:
(18) We set up a forum on facebook[®] for daily contact. We posted our findings,
questions, doubts, etc. on the forum and it was really easy for us to help each
other. (q/no.8)
All groups made use of PowerPoint® slides in their presentations. Enthusiastic about
their presentations, the students worked very hard to provide impressive PowerPoint®
slides. Some reported they really learned a lot from their group members and even
personal friends in making sophisticated slides:
(19) I think our presentation slides were the best. I was assigned to take charge of the
preparation of the ppt[®] slides.. . . I was so worried because I didn’t want to let
my friends down. My friend from the Mathematics Department really helped me
a lot. He should perhaps take the credit! But I’m so glad I really learned in the
process. I won’t panic now if I have to do something similar. (f-1-37)
The students also reported that working together with group members enabled
them to:
● stay focused on task in order ‘to get things done, without being sidetracked to other
unrelated readings on the web’ (J:Ben:4)
● become skilled in selecting best keywords to google® for resources and
information
● get to know different search engines, such as Google Scholar® or Scirus®, to find
articles and evaluate their respective strengths.
5.7 Research skills

Most students felt that the project helped them improve their research skills. First of all,
they felt that working together and learning from each other under the teacher’s guidance
taught them how to go about investigating their topics and also where and how to search
for and gather together related materials and relevant data:
(20) I know more effective ways to search [for] the information I wanted on the
Internet . . .We should not only search the data from [the] Internet, but also from
various other related places . . . I haven’t had many opportunities to do a practical
research [project] like this. Those I did before were more academic. It’s a great
chance to study a topic which is more practical and we could get ideas from our
daily life, for instance to interview people in the field, to observe people at work,
to find answers to our questions. (f-1-27)
Those who had previous research experience confirmed that this project made them
even ‘more adept at carrying out effective investigations’ (J:Dave:1). Students used
different ways to gather the data and resources they needed, such as library search,
Internet search, consulting experts on the topic and interviewing relevant professionals.
More specifically, they all stressed the convenience and efficiency of using the Internet to
gather information and data for their projects. They felt they became more skilled in
locating useful websites and gathering relevant materials while carrying out their projects:
(21) The Internet helped me a lot in the data-collecting phase. It’s highly efficient and
the data gathered were quite accurate . . . Now I know more about searching for
useful information on the Internet. (f-2-4)
5.8 Critical thinking

Another area of growth referred to repeatedly by the students was their ability to think
critically. One student commented that the project ‘enhance[d] our critical thinking as we
learned to choose the data and examples to answer our question’ (J:Stefan:6). Many
reported that they knew better where to find the data or resources they needed to support
their claims and how to tease out irrelevant data:
(22) The process of selecting data from different sources made me more sensitive to
the most suitable data for analysis. I know what information is not suitable for
my project . . . I can support my point of view with detailed analysis of the data
. . . I’m more objective when analyzing the collected data. And I try to come up
with results without bias. (f-1-9)
They also felt that the project taught them the importance of prioritisation and order of
precedence and urgency. As many of the students were working full-time and studying the
programme on a part-time basis, they had very busy schedules. In order to complete their
work in good time, they needed to ‘make good plans of prioritization’ (J: Cherry:2).
Other skills they reported having acquired or improved in carrying out the project
include:
● knowing which materials and information to trust and which not

● scanning materials for pertinent information and summarise relevant points
● noting the interviewees’ facial expressions and speech tones when analysing the
information they provided.
5.9 Leadership skills

Several students also valued the opportunity to develop their leadership skills. It is
generally accepted that leadership skills are important for translators these days, given
that many will have to work in a team or lead a team of translators in a professional
context. A translator may be commissioned to undertake a project that requires several
16 D. Li et al.
translators to work together in order to finish the project within the specified period of
time, or it might require translation into several languages and therefore has to involve
coordination of several translators working together. Several of the students reflected on
their leadership and coordination opportunities in the project. For some, this meant first of
all delegating responsibilities equally and tapping into the different talents and strengths of
the group:
(23) I think as a group leader, it’s important to make it clear who is in charge of what,
and to allocate [an] equal amount of work for each member, so that no
one complains. As I do this, I also need to make full use of the academic merits
of each member: some may be good at literature review, some may be skilful
in collecting data and someone may have a technical knack for making
PowerPoint[®] slides. (J:Priscilla:2)
Some recognised that as leaders of the group they needed to make sure every member
finished his/her work according to the agreed time frame and also offered help and
support when a member was stuck:
(24) Some of my group members might work a bit slower than others and I needed to
remind them from time to time to ensure a steady progress. It required both
patience and a bit of force. (J:Daren:2)
The students also referred to the following as the result of their experience of leading
the projects:
● taking on leadership in making plans for their project

● being assertive in making decisions
● being fair in job distribution
● giving clear explanations to their members
● being firm in enforcing deadlines.
Although the number of mentions for the area of leadership skills (7) appears
drastically lower than the other areas (between 24–36) in Table 3, we should note that
there were altogether 10 groups of students and accordingly 10 group leaders, who had
the opportunity to lead the projects. The adjusted percentage for this area is actually 70%
(7 of the 10 group leaders), which then puts it squarely amongst the other areas in
importance.
6. Summary and conclusion

As discussed at the beginning of the article, all the elements of PjBL fit in very nicely
with the goals and objectives of today’s translation training programmes. PjBL can
effectively enhance many skills beyond translation-specific competencies. These skills
are considered essential for students to succeed as professional translators, but unfortu-
nately are often inadequately developed on conventional translation training courses.
Our first attempt to introduce PjBL into translation teaching seems to have worked out
well. The ETiM project served as a welcome supplement to the core syllabus of the course
and made it possible for the students to pursue some topics of their interest in addition to
the lectures of the course. As they acquired and created new knowledge on their research
topics and became independent in their investigations, they also brought prior knowledge
into play. Therefore, in a sense, this also helped to bridge the divide between classroom
teaching and the real field of translation and enabled the students to make sense of their
learning outside the ivory tower.
The students’ reception and perceptions of the PjBL project were positive and
encouraging. All who completed the questionnaire thought favourably of the activity
and confirmed they benefited considerably from the project. They were also able to
point out the specific areas in which they saw the most obvious growth. These included
such skills as critical thinking, interpersonal communication, collaboration, research,
presentation and technological skills, as well as the sense of teamwork.
As these skills are not specially required for business translation only, but rather for
translation of all genres, it is therefore apparent that such PjBL projects can be incorpo-
rated into the teaching of many other translation courses as well.
The success of this project also confirms that PjBL in translator education can also use
another kind of project in the teaching. Different from the practice-oriented projects as
described by Kiraly (2005), this project is more research-oriented and it focuses on
students’ acquisition of knowledge about translation and key meta-skills essential for
translators, such as critical thinking, interpersonal communication, collaboration, research
and presentation, as well as technological skills.
Similarly, the project’s success supports our view that it is indeed possible and necessary
to evaluate the implementation of new proposals for translation teaching. This is especially
important today when teachers and researchers alike are eager to borrow ideas and theories
from neighbouring disciplines (e.g. education, language teaching or linguistics) and intro-
duce innovative practices into translation classrooms. We need to make sure the innovations
indeed achieve the intended goals and objectives. We should also be clear about what exact
positive changes they will effect in the students and specifically in which aspects and to
what extent the innovative practices outperform more traditional ones.
To answer these questions, we may need to tap into the potentialities of quantitative
research methods, either alone or in combination with qualitative methods. This should be
especially effective given that the findings presented in this study can be used as working
hypotheses. For instance, as suggested by one of the reviewers of an earlier version of this
article, a design of pre- and post- tests may be used to find out to what extent the students
shift in their beliefs and perceptions, and to examine the correlations of the shifts in their
beliefs with their research questions and the success of their projects. Future efforts may
also be directed towards quantification of their growth in many of the areas discussed
above. Only when we have knowledge of this sort can we make informed decisions
regarding when, where, how and at what level of training we can make the best use of
these innovations.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express thanks to Donald Kiraly and another anonymous reviewer for
their critical and insightful comments on an earlier version of the article.
Notes
1. PjBL is used here instead of PBL, which is often used to refer to problem-based learning.
2. ‘J’ stands for ‘journal’. ‘Kary’ is the pseudonym of the student who wrote the journal. ‘2’
indicates it is an extract from the second journal Kary submitted.
18 D. Li et al.
3. ‘f’ refers to ‘focus group interview’. ‘1’ indicates it is a comment made by a member of the first
focus group. ‘28’ indicates the page number of the transcripts of the interview discussions.
4. All the returned questionnaires were randomly numbered. ‘q/No.15’ stands for Questionnaire
No. 15.
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Project-based learning in teaching

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Project-based learning in teaching translation: students’ perceptions

Along with the increasing interest in learning-centred constructivist approaches to

translator education, there have been proposals to introduce project-based learning

*Corresponding author. Email: defengli@umac.mo

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

● Delisle’s (1980, 1993) objectives-guided translation teaching;

Following Kiraly’s (2000) proposal of a social constructivist approach to translation

more learning-oriented. However, as we implemented PjBL, we found that although

Project-based learning is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engaging

● starting with a compelling question or challenge

Figure 1. Project-based learning (adapted from Kiraly 2000).

3. A PjBL activity in teaching business translation

3.1 Implementation of the project

Table 1. Translation-oriented PjBL vs. research-oriented PjBL.

Translation-oriented PjBL Research-oriented PjBL

Aim To improve translation competencies and To seek in-depth understanding of

Outcome Improved translation competencies Enhanced knowledge of translation

● History of business translation in Macau

‘Project work, whether it is integrated into a content-based thematic unit or introduced

Table 2. ETiM project.

Phases The teacher The students

Phase I Announce the project to the class Make groups

discussions of the possible implications for future translation teaching.

4. Gathering and analysing students’ perceptions

4.2 Analysing students’ perceptions

Table 3. Students’ perceived areas of growth.

Areas of growth No. of mentions %

Knowledge of the topic 36 100

5. Students’ perceived areas of growth

(3) We wanted to understand the real situation of tourist translation in Macau. So we

5.2 Knowledge of the topic

5.3 Team work and collaborative skills

● beginning a project by analysing together the mission

5.4 Presentation skills

5.5 Communication skills

service professions. As reported, the students needed to communicate amongst their

● be gentle and polite to each other when there is a conflict of opinions

5.6 Technological skills

5.7 Research skills

5.8 Critical thinking

● knowing which materials and information to trust and which not

5.9 Leadership skills

● taking on leadership in making plans for their project

6. Summary and conclusion

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