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The Vocational Aspect of Education

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Reforming Technical and Technological Education

a
David N. Wilson
a
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, Canada
Published online: 11 Aug 2006.
To cite this article: David N. Wilson (1993) Reforming Technical and Technological Education, The Vocational Aspect of
Education, 45:3, 265-284, DOI: 10.1080/0305787930450307
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The Vocational Aspect of Education, Vol. 45, No. 3, 1993
Reforming Technical and

Technological Education
DAVID N. WILSON
Downloaded by [Georgia State University] at 06:02 01 October 2013
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, Canada
ABSTRACT This paper examines selected reform efforts in technical and

technological education from a comparative perspective. The similarities
and differences between reforms in selected countries - Brazil, Canada,
Germany, Great Britain, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden - are
analysed to determine major world-wide trends. Lessons are drawn which
should be useful for nations contemplating reform of their education and
training systems. Particular attention is focussed on the time taken to
complete reforms effectively and the need for long-term approaches,
relationships between educational reforms and industrial development, the
interdependence of reforms affecting general, technical and vocational
education, regional co-operation and the decentralisation of national
decision-making.
Introduction
As defined here, technological education (TE) refers to aspects of an
educational system involving instruction in mathematics, science,
technological concepts, directed towards the understanding of and ability
to apply technology. Hallak (1990) contends that "scientific learning is an
area that merits high investment priority". Unfortunately, he noted that:
This area has suffered budget cuts so severe that in many countries
laboratories cannot be maintained, scientific equipment has not been
replaced, materials for experiments are woefully inadequate. Students
are merely taught about science rather than getting scientific learning
... In a context of economic uncertainty and rapid technological
change, HRD policy must seek to improve the quality and flexibility of
265
DAVID N. WILSON
manpower. Experience shows that this is more easily achieved when

students have benefited from long and solid basic science training.
Technical-vocational education and training (TVET) refers to aspects of
an educational system involving pre-service instruction which may be
occupation-specific, as well as training in industry, including
apprenticeship and on-the-job training. Hallak (1990) suggests that there
is "conceptual overlapping... between the areas of general education and
training", particularly with respect to "the application of knowledge to
problem-solving".
Educational system reform refers to activities which affect, often
re-direct, and usually re-structure, aspects of education or an educational
system in its entirety. Fagerlind & Saha (1989) stated that: "The term
'reform' is frequently used in a vague and diffuse way and is usually
defined as an attempt to change things for the better in a country or part
of a country". They define reform as "a thorough change in the structure
of the educational system of a country". Reforms can be achieved
through (a) innovative, stand-alone projects, (b) sectoral and/or policy
changes, and (c) various forms of decentralisation, according to Oliveira
(1989). Plank (1987) categorised educational policy reforms as additive,
external, regulatory and structural. Fagerlind & Saha (1989) noted that
reforms cause major changes in:
• the national allocation of resources to the field of education;
• the allocation of resources within the existing educational system to
other levels of the system;
• the percentage of students completing different levels of the
educational system;
• the percentage of students from different social strata or the
percentage of female students that complete different levels of the
educational system;
• the aims of the curricula and their content.
Ginsburg et al (1990) categorised educational reforms in terms of the
following aspects of educational systems and/or 'social transaction':
• size or number of students, teachers, administrators and buildings;
• goals and objectives;
• policy-making and the administrative/managerial system or power
structure;
• financing and budget-making processes;
• level of funding;
• system organisation: the types, status, and levels of, as well as links
and ages of transition between educational institutions;
• curriculum: content and organisation of what is taught;
• pedagogy: social relations of teaching and learning;
266
REFORMING TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION
• selection, evaluation and promotion criteria and procedures for

students; and
• selection, evaluation and promotion criteria for educational workers
(teachers, administrators, etc.).
Their taxonomy appears to have expanded upon that advanced by
Merritt & Coombs (1977), which listed a "variety of specific measures"
implicit in educational reform, including:
correcting abuses;
enhancing efficiency;
improving effectiveness;
reforming the policy process;

accommodating new groups; and
reforming goals.
The Study of TVET and TE Reform

Studies of reforms in TVET and TE appear to have been focussed upon
changes undertaken in individual nations, rather than upon several
nations in comparative perspective. In this respect, the situation has
changed little since Merritt & Coombs noted this lacuna 15 years ago.
Those few studies which have been trans-national in scope have only
examined selected aspects of TVET (Wilson, 1994). The paucity of
international and comparative studies of TE is even greater than those
examining TVET. Similarly, studies undertaken by multilateral and
bilateral aid agencies appear to have been limited to concerns with
development and lending policies and strategies, in particular the
question of whether to invest in TVET or 'academic' education.
The study of TVET and TE reforms appears to be quite timely in
view of current trends in the globalisation of production and trade, the
focus on international competitiveness, and the concomitant
technological modernisation of the extractive, productive, informatics
and service sectors of economies. The response of many developed,
newly-industrialising and former command economy countries to these
challenges has been marked by renewed interest in TVET and TE system
reforms. An indication of the attention being paid to global
competitiveness is inherent in a comment by the Director-General of the
Israel Ministry of Education, that they were "designing a [technological]
education system to fight the economic wars of the next century"
(Wilson, 1990).
Economic restructuring in most countries suggests that most future
jobs will have significantly higher educational qualifications and that the
continued employment of unskilled and under-educated workers is at
risk. Such restructuring includes the shift in employment opportunities
from the extractive and productive sectors to the service and information
267
DAVID N.WILSON
sectors. The relationship between economic restructuring and TVET/TE

reform was addressed by Neave (1988) in connection with the policy
context of vocationalisation, as follows:
If, in the early 1980s, reform of vocational training was seen as a way
of creating employment, now it became part of a broader plan to
re-equip European industry by updating the knowledge base on which
it rested. And, as Commission documents make clear, the central
element in this knowledge base lay in raising the level of technical
knowledge not only in the active labor force, but in those likely to join
it in the future.
All these factors suggest that greater attention is being paid to the content
and quality of education, particularly to the improved teaching of
mathematics, science and technology. Hallak (1990) places this in the
context of reform by elaborating the resources necessary to successfully
implement such reforms. He notes that:
Prerequisite to curriculum reform is an assurance of resources
adequate to finance teacher training, the modification of textbooks,
and student evaluation and certification, plus the adaptation of
facilities and equipment.
Hallak also notes that "a modification of any part or segment of the
school system will have consequences on its other components". One of
the most neglected aspects of TE and TVET is attention to the routine and
preventive maintenance of facilities and equipment. Only two authors
appear to have paid more than 'lip service' to considerations of
maintenance (Hallak, 1990; Wilson, 1991a). The effect of modifications
throughout an educational system is viewed as an important observation,
since the 'ripple', or 'multiplier' effects of any changes induce both
anticipated (planned) and unanticipated (serendipitous) changes
throughout the entire educational system (and often beyond).
The Systems Studied

This article examines selected aspects of TVET and TE systems in Brazil,
Canada, Germany, Great Britain, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and
Sweden. This grouping of nations provides comparative coverage of
developed, newly-industrialised, and developing nations on four
continents. It covers centralised structures (Great Britain, Indonesia,
Singapore and Sweden) with national ministries of education and
decentralised federal state structures (Brazil, Canada, Germany and
Malaysia) with state/provincial ministries of education. While Canada has
no federal ministry of education, Sweden and Great Britain have
decentralised federal powers and responsibilities to local education
authorities.
268
The grouping also includes nations with unitary TVET/TE systems

under ministries of education and nations with the parallel (non-formal)
structure of a national training board (Brazil, Canada, Germany,
Singapore and Sweden). It is noteworthy that the parallel training board
structure has been adopted by both industrialised and
newly-industrialising nations with stated goals of gaining (or maintaining)
international competitiveness.
Other similarities and differences concern the locus of delivery of
TVET/TE. In Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Sweden the
TVET/TE systems are delivered largely at the secondary school level,
while in Germany and Great Britain the delivery systems are at both the
secondary and post-secondary levels. Although Canadian systems have

vocational and industrial arts streams at the secondary level, most TVET
is delivered at the post-secondary level in community and technical
colleges. Sweden, Germany, Israel and the former USSR have consistently
devoted over 50% of their secondary enrolment to TVET and China plans
to vocationalise its upper secondary programmes (Wilson, 1994). The
delivery of technological education appears, to be primarily at the
secondary level, in order to provide an appropriate 'foundation* for the
ensuing study of TVET and/or technology at the post-secondary level.
Brazil and Singapore have financed their TVET systems through an
industrial levy system of a 1-2% tax on industrial payrolls. Britain had a
levy grant system between 1964 and 1973, in which tax rates varied by
industrial sector, but replaced it with a levy exemption system. The
German BIBB (Federal Institute for Vocational Training) system is
financed by employer contributions. Canada has recently re-directed
unemployment insurance funds (collected from both employers and
employees) from income maintenance to support TVET, while also
eliminating federal fiscal contributions. Most other nations finance TVET
from both central and state/provincial government budgets.
Technological education, in contrast, is normally financed from
government budgets devoted to formal education.
Curriculum development methods vary from centralised curriculum
preparation at the ministry of education in Indonesia, Malaysia and
Sweden, to Land (state) curriculum development in Germany, to
centralised curriculum development by a national training board in Brazil
and Singapore, to decentralised curriculum development at the
institutional level in Canada and Great Britain, following guidelines
produced by the ministries of education. Brazil and Singapore employ the
task analysis method of TVET curriculum development, while Sweden
blends the task analysis method with conventional curriculum design and
the other nations employ conventional methods, sometimes using
variations of the task analysis method, such as DACUM (an acronym for
Developing A CUrriculuM) pioneered in Canada.
269
DAVID N. WILSON
Although the use of task and activity analysis in curriculum

development began in the 'blue-collar' trades, its use has been adopted
for, and adapted to, many service and information sector training
systems. The current trend towards competency-based curriculum
development continues the task/activity analysis approach. Moreover,
there are remarkable similarities between the structure of the process
and curriculum development approaches used to produce
computer-assisted instruction software. This suggests that a convergence
between conventional and task/activity approaches to technical (and
even academic) curriculum development methods and approaches has
taken place.
Testing and certification functions are performed by national

training boards in Brazil, Germany and Singapore. In Great Britain
'tradition' has delegated this role to bodies, such as the City and Guilds of
London Institute. However, the current National Council for Vocational
Qualifications (NCVQ) initiative is modernising these traditional
certification approaches. In Canada these roles are performed by both
the federal and provincial governments, but those desiring federal
(Interprovincial Standards Programme) certification must first attain
provincial certification. In Indonesia, Malaysia and Sweden the ministries
of education and labour share the testing and certifying functions.
The most recent system reforms are currently taking place in
Canada, Singapore and Sweden. Great Britain has probably experienced
the most dramatic reform 'oscillations' in its TVET system of any nation
between 1970 and 1992. Indonesia and Malaysia are currently reaping the
benefits of TVET curricular reforms implemented in 1984 and 1987
respectively. In marked contrast, the relative stability experienced in
Brazilian and German systems show evidence of the slow, steady,
incremental addition of innovations, rather than the dramatic 'overhaul'
of TVET systems.
Sweden
The Swedish experience contributes to our understanding of how
long-established systems adapt to changes in economic conditions. In
1944 a National Board for Vocational Schools was established through
co-operation of government with the Swedish Employers' Confederation
and the Swedish Labour Union Confederation, a tri-partite approach. The
reform of upper secondary schools in 1970 integrated vocational and
academic subjects under the National Board of Education (NBE) to
co-ordinate 24 county education committees responsible for technical
and academic education. In 1991, the NBE was abolished and replaced by
a smaller National Agency for Education. The county education
committees have been replaced by decentralised municipal education
authorities, responsible for the planning and execution of education and
270
training. The state subsidy to education is now given to the municipalities

as a lump sum, based upon the number of students. This means that a
long-established, centralised, hierarchical system has been decentralised
to.the local government level. Successive reforms have resulted in the
integration of the old apprenticeship system into a revised
upper-secondary school stage (gymnasieskolari), which enrols over 90%
of the relevant age cohort. Granander (1991) noted that "at times the
vocational oriented streams of this system have become the first choice
by a majority of students leaving the compulsory nine year(s) of
schooling". The 1991 reform is reducing the 22 curriculum 'lines', or
streams, developed after the 1970 reform to 16.
This structure for the delivery of school-based TVET is paralleled by

the National Employment Training Board (NETB), which is responsible
for training within industries and enterprises. Prior to 1989, labour
market training was under the joint authority of the NETB and the NBE.
The AMU Group was created in 1986 as an independent authority to
deliver employment training at 24 regional AMU Centres extending
decentralisation to the non-formal sector.
Canada
The Canadian system reform follows 80 years of federal government
encroachment upon provincial constitutional responsibility for
education. Federal involvement in both institutional TVET and
training-within-industry has been governed, since 1982, by the National
Training Act. Technological education is delivered at the post-secondary
level in universities and community and technical colleges. Federal
funding of post-secondary education and training stems from the 1967
Established Programmes Finance Act (EPF), which provides tax-point
transfers to provincial governments to finance community and technical
colleges delivering TVET, as well as universities. These funds are
transferred to the provinces, which have operational responsibility for
community and technical colleges. These colleges have a considerable
degree of autonomy in curriculum development, although curriculum
guidelines are developed at the provincial ministry level.
Post-secondary TVET is delivered in these 160 community or
technical colleges in Canada's 10 provinces and two territories. Since
1985, the federal government has endeavoured to reduce EPF transfers to
the provinces and devolve fiscal responsibility for post-secondary
education to the provinces. In 1990 the Unemployment Insurance Act was
changed to redirect Can$775 million from income maintenance to labour
force training, as well as to make UIC self-supporting through the
withdrawal of federal contributions.
In 1991, following two Task Force reports, the Canadian Labour
Force Development Board (CLFDB) or national training board was
271
DAVID N. WILSON
established. In addition, a series of provincial and local training boards

were recommended in order to "shift greater responsibility for
programme implementation to the local and/or sectoral level". Further,
"broad provincial jurisdiction in the area of education and training means
that the precise make-up and functions of these Boards in specific regions
of the country can only be determined after extensive federal-provincial
discussion and negotiation". This means that Canadian Training Boards
will adopt the quadra-partite (government, employers, labour and
education) participation model which has evolved in Germany and
Sweden. The CLFDB and provincial and local training boards are to
advise both levels of government on the expenditure of training funds
(Wilson, 1991e).
Although no provincial, or local, training boards have yet been fully

established, the Ontario Training and Adjustment Board is slowly being
created, and is to co-operate with 23 local training boards. This writer
hopes that local boards will take over, and revitalise, the Trade/Industry
Advisory Committees which have worked with most community and
technical colleges since the 1940s to formulate courses and curricula
relevant to local HRD requirements.
As noted above, testing and certification are provincial
responsibilities, undertaken by either the ministries of labour,
post-secondary education, or education and training. In order to facilitate
labour mobility, the federal Interprovincial Standards Programme also
certifies those already holding provincial certification in 27 trade,
technology and service fields.
While the Canadian post-secondary TVET reform is just beginning, it
can be concluded that the reform is structural and regulatory in its
orientation. The reform also appears to be focussed upon the
reorientation of goals and objectives, changing the policy-making and
administrative power structures, the financing mechanisms, and the
relationships between institutions delivering training and the 'consumers'
of training in the extractive, productive, service and informatics sectors
of the economy.
Singapore
Following the decision to industrialise in 1960, a vocational stream was
introduced at the secondary school level in 1964, just prior to
independence in 1965. The Technical Education Division (TED) of the
Ministry of Education was established in 1968. TED adapted transferred
elements from the UK, Canada, Israel and the ILO to create an effective
TVET system for Singapore's newly industrialising economy (Wilson,
1981).
In 1973, the Industrial Training Board was created. The
apprenticeship system was reformed in. 1975. A National Trade
272
Certification system was established in 1973 and in 1977 the Ministry of

Education introduced a Basic Course for the weakest primary school
students which was to be followed by ITB institutional TVET and
employment. In addition, all secondary students failing the GCE ' 0 '
(ordinary) level examinations after three attempts were offered a place in
the ITB's NTC Grade 3 (semi-skilled) courses.
The creation of the Vocational and Industrial Training Board (VITB)
in 1979 reformed the system by amalgamating the Industrial Training
Board and the Adult Education Board. In addition, the Skill Development
Fund (SDF) was established to finance TVET by a levy on wages of 4%
(later reduced to 1%). All TVET facilities were transferred from the
Ministry of Education to the VITB and the educational system itself was
reformed by the introduction of a comprehensive New Education System.
According to Pillay (1991), the underlying philosophy of the New
Education System was that "the best preparation for employment is a
sound education", configured around "bi-lingual ability, mathematics and
science as the core".
Wilson (1981) has labelled the VITB as the second best national
training system in the newly-industrialising countries. The World
Competitiveness Report (HMD, 1990) ranked the Singapore workforce
ahead of South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong in terms of labour-saving
technology, employee turnover, skilled labour and worker motivation,
and second to Hong Kong in labour flexibility. In 1991/92, as part of its
third reform, entitled 'integrating fronts', the VITB was re-named the
Institute for Technical Education and the German dual-system was to be
adopted. All students were to be retained in school for 10 years to
complete a minimum basic secondary education. A fourth secondary
stream was added to accommodate students previously retained in
primary school for eight years. This stream reintroduced the technical
stream, phased out and transferred to the VITB in 1979. TVET has been
"reformed in parallel" and "will henceforth be purely post-secondary".
The objective of the latest reform is to channel 25% of secondary
graduates to university, 40% to the three polytechnics, and 15% to the
labour market. "The social objective is to make appropriate training for
employment available for every school-leaver" (Pillay, 1991).
Singapore is a fascinating 'laboratory' for the study of TVET and TE
reform, since it has dramatically reformed its system three times in the
span of three decades. Each reform has been introduced in concert with
transformations of the Singapore economy; initially from entrepot trading
to industrialisation, then in a transition to a high-technology,
export-oriented economy, and most recently, towards the development of
"a total international investment and business centre, captur[ing]
high-end, high-value-added (including R&D) manufacturing] and ... a
centre of specialist brain service" (Pillay, 1991).
273
DAVID N. WILSON
Great Britain
An example of dramatic shifts from one extreme to another is Great
Britain, which has experienced three phases since the 1964 Industrial
Training Act. First, a levy-grant system supported Industrial Training
Boards (ITBs) i n 24 industrial sectors. Rainbird (1991) noted this to be
"the most effective incentive mechanism for both increasing the volume
and improving the quality of training". Then, the 1973 Employment and
Training Act introduced central co-ordination and planning of national
labour force policy to correct some of the shortcomings of the 1964 Act.
The introduction of state funding for the ITBs made them dependent on
the exigencies of government, vulnerable to policy changes, and

subordinated industrial requirements to those of central government.
The Manpower Services Commission (MSC) was created to co-ordinate
the ITBs and funding was changed from the levy-grant system to a
bureaucratic levy-exemption system. While the government was initially
prepared to subsidise shortfalls in training costs, subsequent policy
changes devolved training policy to voluntary efforts by employers
and/or employer organisations. In 1988, Great Britain wound up, or
privatised (by increasing employer representation), all but one of the
remaining ITBs and shifted responsibility for training to Training and
Enterprise Councils (TECs). Although the Thatcher government devolved
responsibility for training to employers, in terms of company, sectoral
and local-level decision-making, the employer-dominated TECs administer
government funding for training schemes for youth and the unemployed,
as well as pilot-testing Training Credits (Rainbird, 1991).
Germany
Under the 1969 Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz) the Federal
Institute for Vocational Training (BIBB) is responsible for national
training policy, while the Lander (states) have Chambers of Commerce
and Industry responsible for dual mode apprenticeship training within
industry. Administrative autonomy is delegated to BIBB, which is
composed of representatives of business and industry, labour unions,
employers and vocational training institutions. The Act applies only to
on-the-job training, further training and vocational retraining, but not to
vocational schools which, since Germany is a federation, are under the
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education in each Land (state). The dual
system provides for a division of responsibilities between employers and
government in which employers release apprentices to Land vocational
schools for one or two days per week, while receiving in-company
training during the remainder of the working week. The Act stipulates
that youths up to 18 years of age may be .trained only in a recognised
274
training occupation. The German dual system requires quadra-partite

training board participation (i.e. government, employers, labour and
education) since part of the training is delivered in institutions and part
through in-plant training.
BIBB has the authority to decide, together with appropriate
government ministries, the content and length of training for each
occupation. Between 1969, when the Vocational Training Act was
promulgated, and 1990 the number of trade areas recognised in training
ordinances has been consolidated from 600 to 378. The three to
three-and-a-half year training period culminates in a final examination set
by a Board of Examiners with equal employer and employee
representation and at least one vocational school instructor, established

by the Chambers of Commerce and Industry at the Land level.
In marked contrast to those systems which have recently undergone
broad-based reforms, the German dual system has merely been 'fine
tuned1 during the past two decades. It is interesting to note that the
appeal of the dual system is so widespread that it is currently being
adopted by Singapore, considered by Israel and Sri Lanka, and elements
appear to have been 'borrowed' by the new Canadian Labour Force
Development Board.
Brazil
SENAI, the National Industrial Learning Service of Brazil, is the oldest
national training board, having been established in 1942. SENAI resembles
BIBB in Germany, since it is a private entity under the aegis of the
Federation of Brazilian Industries. In fact, elements of the SENAI system
were adopted from Germany and Switzerland (in 1938) - but adapted to
the Brazilian milieu - by its founder, Roberto Mange.
SENAI benefits from an industrial levy comprising a tax of 1% on
industrial payrolls to finance its training activities. Training is delivered
in pre-service SENAI schools to 14- to 18-year-old apprentices, at the
post-secondary level to technicians and technologists, and to employees
requiring up-grading and/or re-training in industries. Castro & Oliveira
(1991) noted the high regard in which SENAI is held in Brazil, as well as
the fact that their students consistently outperformed academic
secondary students in national examinations. Wilson (19910 noted that
SENAI's performance is so well regarded that six Brazilian states contract
with SENAI to operate their secondary vocational schools.
The SENAI serie metodica ocupacionais (Shopwork Methodical
Series) curriculum has been developed through task analysis since 1942:
The method comprises a task sheet describing operations inherent to
each task ('what' the trainee should do); an operation sheet showing
'how to' perform each operation; a technological information sheet
describing the tools and equipment essential for the performance of
275
DAVID N.WILSON
each operation; and (from 1974) a complementary information sheet

explaining the 'why' of an operation or set of operations, in order to
introduce relevant theory into this practical training system.
The apprenticeship cycle of the SENAI system follows five steps: (1)
study of the task; (2) development of a work plan; (3) demonstration
by the instructor and/or through individualised multi-media packages
and application by the trainee; (4) performance of the task in the
workshop; and (5) evaluation to assess task mastery. (Wilson, 19910
The method has been adapted to the service and information sectors in
Brazil by SENAC (National Commercial Learning Service), established in
1946, and to activity analysis elsewhere. Activity analysis enables the

design of curricula in the service, informatics and social sectors, since it
focusses more upon the information and actions necessary to perform
jobs than technical knowledge and procedures.
Among the features which sets SENAI apart from most other national
training systems are its high degree of autonomy, centralised planning
and co-ordination of operations, and the fact that nearly every aspect of
the system is planned from the curriculum outwards. That is, facility
design, equipment procurement, training consumable supplies, instructor
training, etc. are all planned for the delivery of the Shopwork Methodical
Series. Curricula are designed centrally by experts in task analysis and
then used to design, build and equip the Centros de Formacao
Profissional (SENAI schools) and, subsequently, to order and deliver
training consumable materials to each school when needed. This high
degree of planned integration does not appear to have been replicated by
any other training system.
The SENAI system has been 'transferred' to 19 other Latin American
and two Caribbean nations, largely through the efforts of the ILO
Research and Documentation Centre for Vocational Training in Latin
America (CINTERFOR), and has also contributed to the methodology
'transferred' by the ILO to many developing and newly-industrialising
nations. Although the SENAI system has changed relatively little since its
initial design in 1942, those changes which have been made are in the
nature of refinements which have made the system more effective
(Wilson, 19910-
Thus, while the SENAI system has remained basically unchanged,
the continual adoption of innovations to improve the delivery of training
has cumulatively reformed the system. Such innovations include the
complementary information, or theory, sheets, the use of multi-media
instructional technology support, including audio and video cassettes,
films, computer-assisted-instruction, videodisc and computer simulation
software.
276
Indonesia
Secondary education is divided into three-year junior and senior cycles,
each differentiated into a general-academic track and various
occupation-specific TVET tracks. The junior secondary TVET track, or ST,
is being eliminated during the current Repelita V, or fifth five-year plan
(1989-94). Technical senior secondary schools, STMs, enrolled 12.4%, or
484,432, of the 3.9 million secondary students in 1990/91 (Wilson, 1993).
The growth of TVET has been faster than that of general secondary
education despite constraints imposed by the shortage of workshops and
equipment at public and private STMs. The employment rate for STM
graduates has exceeded that for academic secondary graduates by
20-30%.
Reform of the STM curriculum in 1984 involved the compilation of
competence profiles based upon job analysis. The revised STM
curriculum remains extremely complex, spanning six areas of study,
comprising 39 clusters and 100 study programmes. However, this
complexity facilitates the decentralisation of authority to teach courses
in accordance with local HRD requirements. In the Indonesian geographic
and demographic contexts, this is an extremely important feature.
STM students follow the same basic general subjects as the
academic senior secondary track (SMA) for 30% of the core programme.
Basic vocational courses account for another 30%, with the remaining
40% available for the study of elective courses. The 1984 curriculum was
designed to educate employable and entrepreneurial graduates at the
skilled middle (trade and technician) levels, as well as to prepare
graduates for lifelong education. Academic secondary curricula are
currently being reformed and Curriculum 94 is to be introduced during
Repelita VI, the sixth five-year plan, in concert with the implementation of
nine years of universal basic education.
The major difference between the 1984 STM curriculum and its 1976
predecessor lies in the change from a terminal curriculum to a focus
upon non-terminal academic preparation for entry either to the workforce
or to post-secondary studies. This changed focus is likely to have
resulted from the expansion of the polytechnics, as well as from the
impetus provided by sustained economic and industrial growth. In
addition, policy changes during Repelitas IV and V also affected the
emphasis in the revised curriculum. Among such policy changes were:
the encouragement of production units and co-operatives at STMs,
co-operation with local industries, an industrial practice component and
the co-ordination of specialisations with local employment opportunities.
These major differences in both the content and orientation of the
STM curriculum appear to have also changed student perceptions of
TVET, since there has been a surge in STM enrolment from 1985/86. The
277
DAVID N.WILSON
combination of changed perceptions and improved employment

opportunities for STM graduates, as well as their improved access to
post-secondary education, suggest that the 1984 curriculum reform has
made a considerable impact upon the educational system.
Malaysia
Malaysia attained universal primary education in 1984 and is also
currently implementing a policy of nine years of universal basic
education. The secondary level of education is divided into a two-year
Lower Secondary (Forms I-II) and a two-year Upper Secondary (IV and V)
cycle. A 1979 Cabinet Committee Education Review Report recommended
the reduction of upper secondary streams to two: Academic and

Vocational. While the lower secondary cycle enrols 64% of the relevant
age cohort, the upper secondary cycle enrols only 26%, following the
Lower Certificate of Education (Sijil Rendah Pelajaran, SRP) examination.
In 1984, 98.4% of total secondary enrolment was in academic streams
with only 1.6% enrolled in the vocational stream, in marked contrast to
Indonesia (Wilson, 1991d).
While graduates of the Arts/Science 'academic' stream sit for the
Malaysian School Leaving Certificate Examination (Sijil Pelajaran
Malaysia, SPM), enabling entry to the Sixth Form, TVET students sit for
the Sijil Palajaran Vokasional Malaysia (SPVM) Examination, to enable
application to the polytechnics or facilitate entry to the labour market.
Between 1982 and 1984 TVET curricula were reviewed and a
system-wide reform was planned. The review found that:
• only about half of the SVS students passed both trade and general
academic subjects in the MCE(V) examinations;
• disproportionate credit (five credits) was given for academic subjects
comprising 30% of class time, while TVE subjects comprising 70% of
class time received only one credit;
• there were limited opportunities for better SVS graduates to attend
post-secondary education; and
• the curriculum was not flexible enough to serve both students with
skill development aptitude and those with aptitudes for knowledge
enrichment. (Wilson, 1991d)
A new TVET curriculum was developed with three components: (1) study
of related engineering technology; (2) skill development in specific trade
areas; and (3) technical drawing. Between 1985 and 1987 instructional
materials were developed to standardise practical work and facilitate the
development of specific skills. The course workbooks were accompanied
by phase tests, designed to evaluate student achievement at intermediate
stages and improve the performance assessment system. In-service
courses on curriculum implementation and the use of the new workbooks
278
were conducted to orient SVS teachers to the reformed curriculum and

new texts. The reformed SVS system was implemented during the 1987/88
" academic year.
The most important feature of the curriculum/system reform is the
streaming of SVS students at the end of Form IV (the first year of the SVS)
into vocational and skills streams, depending upon their achievement and
aptitude. Vocational stream students pursue courses with greater
emphasis upon academic subjects, while skill stream students pursue
courses with more practical work to acquire proficiency in trade skills to
industry standards. Vocational stream students will sit for the MCE(V)
examination, while those in the skills stream will sit for the National
Industrial Training and Trade Certification Board examination. Vocational

stream students will have opportunities to pursue higher education at the
polytechnics, while skill stream students are expected to pursue
industrial employment. The reform has, in effect, incorporated a
technological education component in the vocational stream with a focus
upon the improvement of mathematics and science for those destined for
study in the polytechnics and/or entry to the high-skill areas of the
economy.
Thus, the Malaysian reform appears to be curriculum-centred, with
the TVET system being reformed to conform to the revised curriculum.
The attention paid to implementation of the reform appears to have made
use of lessons learned elsewhere about the complexity of curriculum
reform and the necessity of widespread in-service training of the TVET
teachers to make use of the revised curricula.
Selected Lessons and Trends

This writer has previously employed the institutional transfer
perspective to examine TVET reforms. This perspective examines the
transfer of innovations and institutions from one country to another and
the resulting structural and functional adaptations which have made the
transferred 'bits and pieces' integral parts of sustainable and
locally-relevant TVET systems. Many of the transfers studied have been
facilitated by bilateral and multilateral aid agencies. The explanatory
power of this theoretical approach facilitates understanding of the
dynamics of TVET system development and reform processes. These
studies have also generated valuable lessons on viable policies and
practices which contribute to the reform process (Wilson, 1981,1991Q-
Perhaps the most salient lesson is that the process of reform can
take considerably longer than initially estimated to yield the planned
results. The post-war reforms of the Japanese and South Korean TE and
TVET systems are a case in point, taking about 25 years to make a
sustained impact. However, the reform of the Singapore and Taiwan
systems were accomplished in about 10-15 years. Several Asian
279
DAVID N.WILSON
'tigers-in-waiting', such as Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and

the Philippines, hope to reduce this 'gestation period*. A related lesson is
that TE and TVET reforms must take place in concert with
industrialisation, or industrial restructuring. Otherwise, the educational
system will over-produce graduates which the economy may be unable to
absorb. The Philippine and Sri Lankan experiences appear to validate this
lesson with surplus educational system output resorting to widespread
labour migration. The Singaporean experience indicates that a
technologically-evolving economy can absorb the output of the education
and training systems.
Foster's (1965) widely-quoted 'vocational school fallacy' article
argued that LDCs should invest in academic secondary education, rather
than TVET, because schools are very clumsy instruments for addressing
manpower shortages. The Ghanaian students he studied perceived an
'academic' secondary education as their appropriate 'vocational'
education, since it led directly to the clerical and white-collar
occupations which they valued. Foster's comments were relevant to the
pre-industrialisation period in Ghana, but the subsequent development of
industries and the expansion of the service sectors provided
remunerative and prestigious opportunities for TVET graduates. In fact,
Wilson (1977) found that Ghanaian A-Level graduates, who were unable to
find employment, had entered TVET programmes at the Accra Technical
Training Centre (where the entry qualification was only a Middle School
Leaving Certificate) to be trained in technical fields where there were
available employment opportunities. Even the World Bank's conservative
approach towards investment in TVET acknowledges its relationship with
industrial growth:
Policies that have sought to solve large-scale problems of youth
unemployment by expanding vocational schooling have not been
effective where economic growth is too slow to provide sufficient
employment opportunities. (World Bank, 1990)
Another lesson from available comparative studies of TVET and TE is that
an optimal balance between 'academic' and 'vocational' education must
be determined by the traditions, requirements and capabilities of each
nation. Thus, it appears that there is no universally applicable criterion
or standard, or even model. Singapore offers valuable insights into this
dictum, since it is currently reforming its TVET/TE infrastructure for the
third time in three decades. An important lesson is that the choice
between 'academic' and 'vocational' education does not have to be
either/or, but rather both/and, because quality TVET must be built upon
an identical 'academic' foundation, particularly in mathematics, science
and an understanding of the applications of technology. If, as noted
above, the entry qualifications for jobs in modernising technological
economies require higher levels of educational attainment, then this
280
observation takes on even greater weight. Even Psacharopoulos (1985),

who is a well-known critic of TVET, acknowledges the "complementarity
of general education and skill training".
Rainbird (1991) notes that rather than "leaping from crisis to crisis",
the most important lesson from British experience has been that "the key
objective of training policy must be to create mechanisms which
encourage the establishment of a long-term approach to planning and
development, underpinned by institutional stability". The politicised
'oscillation' between structural, financial and delivery models in Great
Britain demonstrates that too frequent and too dramatic change can be
damaging to the overall effectiveness of a TVET system. Reform is not a
static process, but is dynamic and continuous.

One emerging trend is the regionalisation of TVET and TE efforts,
dating from the establishment of centres by ILO in Latin America
(CINTERFOR) and Africa (CIADFOR), by the OECD in Europe (CEDEFOP)
and most recently by the South-East Asia Ministers of Education
Organisation (SEAMEO) in Brunei. These centres promote research,
documentation and development of TVET/TE programmes relevant to
conditions in their geographic regions (Wilson, 1991d, 1992). In the case
of CINTERFOR, regional co-operation evolved from earlier transfers of the
SENAI 'model' from Brazil to Colombia and other Latin American
countries (Wilson, 1991e).
Lauglo & Lillis (1988) noted that the trend towards vocationalisation
of educational systems was "not rooted in ideological revival, but in
political and economic conditions" and "are ideas which are 'actualised'
by political and economic circumstance". The movement towards
comprehensive secondary schools in Singapore and Sweden appears to
be related to this trend, as does the provision of nine or ten years of
'basic education', prior to TVET specialisation. The Singaporean case is
illustrative of the trend to provide good 'basic' TE at the secondary level
and defer streaming into TVET to the post-secondary level. This, in effect,
replicates the German 'dual system' which requires quadra-partite
participation - and co-operation - by government, employers, labour and
education.
A trend noted in Germany, Sweden, and Indonesia has been the
reduction in the number of options offered in TVET. This is presumably
related to the development noted above, namely increasing the TE
precursor learning of relevant science, mathematics and other relevant
theories. Both trends parallel developments in technological
modernisation, which require a better trained labour force.
Reforms which have removed the 'bottleneck' of terminal TVET
courses have been implemented in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore.
SENAI in Brazil has facilitated the progression of its graduates to pursue
post-secondary education since the 1950s. Similarly, Sweden and
Germany have long provided avenues for TVET graduates to upgrade
281
DAVID N.WILSON
their education by means of adult education programmes. In Canada,

mature age entry to both community/technical colleges and universities
has also been a long-standing avenue. Such avenues are eroding the
'blue-collar stigma' long associated with TVET and making the systems
more egalitarian in the process.
Another discernible reform trend is the decentralisation of the locus
of delivery for TE and TVET to the local levels. The Swedish and Canadian
reforms suggest that many of the central functions at the national level
can be deconcentrated to regional and provincial levels to accommodate
local economic requirements. While many NICs and LDCs do not appear
to favour decentralisation, the SENAI 'model' from Brazil suggests that a
strong federal structure can also be decentralised to regional levels to

deliver relevant TVET. Indonesia is an example of this trend with its
co-ordination of TVET specialisations with local employment
opportunities.
A convergence of technological education and TVET appears to be
taking place, with emphasis placed upon scientific learning to support
further learning of higher-technology subjects in TVET. This trend
parallels the focus upon global competitiveness and the modernisation of
the extractive, productive, service and informatics economic sectors. As
Neave (1988) noted, reforms to re-equip industry and update the
knowledge base in both existing and future labour force participants are
required. Not surprisingly, therefore, policies advocating the upgrading of
TE and TVET curricula are being adopted by most industrialised and by
many developing nations.
Correspondence
Professor David N. Wilson, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 252
Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada.
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Project-based learning in teaching

translation: students’ perceptions
a b a
Defeng Li , Chunling Zhang & Yuanjian He
a
Department of English, Faculty of Arts and Humanities,
University of Macau, Macau SAR, China
b
Department of Humanities, Imperial College, London, UK
Published online: 03 Mar 2015.
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The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2015.1010357
Project-based learning in teaching translation: students’ perceptions

Defeng Lia*, Chunling Zhangb and Yuanjian Hea
a
Department of English, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China;
b
Department of Humanities, Imperial College, London, UK
(Received 14 November 2013; accepted 8 January 2014)
Along with the increasing interest in learning-centred constructivist approaches to

translator education, there have been proposals to introduce project-based learning

(PjBL), popular in education, to the teaching of translation. Typical of this approach
is that students are usually invited to complete an authentic practical translation
project either in small groups or as individuals. This article, however, presents
another type of project in translator education and discusses how such a project
was incorporated into the teaching of business translation in the Chinese context.
Furthermore, it reports on an investigation of the students’ reception and perceptions
of the PjBL project, which was carried out as part of the evaluation process of the
project. It is hoped that the documenting of our experimentation with the project may
serve as an easy reference for other teachers who may be interested in trying this
methodology in their teaching, and that the findings regarding the students’ percep-
tions mainly investigated through qualitative methods can be further confirmed with
future quantitative research designs.
Keywords: Project-based learning; translation teaching; students’ perceptions; Macau
1. Introduction
Research on translator education has centred around two fundamental issues: what to
teach and how to teach it (Kelly 2005). Over the years, researchers have tried to pin down
the skills and/or competencies of professional translators, hoping that such knowledge will
help determine the ‘what’ and ‘how’ when constructing the translation curriculum. For
instance, the now well-known model of translation competence proposed by the PACTE
(Process of Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation) group consists of six
interrelated sub-competencies, namely bilingual, extra-linguistic, knowledge about trans-
lation, instrumental, strategic and psycho-physiological components (PACTE 2003, 2008,
2011a, 2011b). A recent survey of professional translators and revisers working at
intergovernmental organisations shows that ‘translators need more than language skills:
in addition to general knowledge and in some instances specialized knowledge, they need
analytical, research, technological, interpersonal and time-management skills’ (Lafeber
2010, 108).
Along with these attempts to identify the competencies, skills and knowledge required
of translators, many teachers and researchers have also been engaged in proposing,
devising and debating the most effective approaches and methods to train these skills in
students and/or help them develop such competencies. Kelly (2005, 11–19) gives the
following concise summary of the approaches to translation teaching:
*Corresponding author. Email: defengli@umac.mo
© 2015 Taylor & Francis

2 D. Li et al.
● Delisle’s (1980, 1993) objectives-guided translation teaching;

● Nord’s (1988/1991) ‘towards a profession-based learner-centred approach’;
● Gile’s (1995) process-oriented approaches (1995);
● The cognitive and psycholinguistic research-based approaches proposed by Kiraly
(1995), Jääskeläinen (1998) and Hansen (1999, 2002)
● Vienne (1994) and Gouadec’s (2003) situational approach;
● Hurtado (1999) and Gonzalez Davies’s (2003, 2004) task-based approach;
● Robinson’s (1997/2003) balancing conscious analysis with subliminal discovery;
● Kiraly’s (2000) social constructivist approach;
Following Kiraly’s (2000) proposal of a social constructivist approach to translation

teaching, we recently incorporated project-based learning (PjBL1) into our teaching of
translation in a Chinese context at the University of Macau, aiming to make our teaching
more learning-oriented. However, as we implemented PjBL, we found that although

literature abounds with propositions of innovative methods and approaches to teaching
translation, as summarised in Kelly (2005), relatively few attempts have been made to
provide empirical evidence to actually evaluate the anticipated strengths and effectiveness
of the proposed methods. Consequently, we are sometimes left wondering whether they
are indeed as effective as has been claimed. Also, in many cases, the benefits claimed for
the new methods are described only in broad and general terms. As Kiraly (2012, 93)
rightly points out after discussing his own work,
[I]t is clear that much work is yet to be done to establish the viability of the approach beyond
the scope of my own classes. For example, team-learning processes that have led to success-
ful project work need to be observed and described to show how and why the approach
works. Systematic surveys of student attitudes regarding their emerging competence and self-
confidence as semi-professional translators and as increasingly experienced team members
would also contribute significantly to our understanding of the value of this approach.
We need to understand whether the intended goals can be achieved, which aspects of
translation teaching can be most enhanced, and to what extent, with the implementation of
the new methods. With such knowledge, we can better decide how the proposals, many of
which have worked in other fields, most notably in education and second-language
teaching, may be tweaked to suit translator education.
Therefore, as part of our experiment with PjBL at the University of Macau, we
decided to evaluate the effectiveness of a PjBL project. As the approach adopted is to
effect changes in students’ learning experiences, we decided that the evaluation, as an
exploratory pilot study, would focus on students’ reception and perceptions of the method.
We had two major research questions to guide the evaluation:
● What do the students think of the PjBL project? Do they find it beneficial?
● What do they perceive to be their major areas of growth as the result of carrying out
the project?
In this article, we are going to explain briefly how we understand PjBL, how it was
implemented in our teaching of business translation at the University of Macau, and, more
importantly, how the students perceived the new method and what they felt to be the
major benefits.
The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 3
2. What is PjBL?
A project is usually defined as an individual or collaborative enterprise that is carefully
planned to achieve a certain goal. Students are to accomplish certain tasks under particular
time constraints. Project-based learning as a learning approach varies in definition, though
sometimes only slightly. Blumenfeld et al. (1991) define it in the following terms:
Project-based learning is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engaging

students in investigation. Within this framework, students pursue solutions to nontrivial
problems by asking and refining questions, debating ideas, making predictions, designing
plans and/or experiments, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, communicat-
ing their ideas and findings to others, asking new questions, and creating artifacts.
Larmer and Mergendoller (2010) stress the following essential elements of PjBL:
● starting with a compelling question or challenge

● creating a desire to acquire or create new knowledge
● carrying out an inquiry to acquire or create the knowledge
● requiring critical thinking, communication, collaboration and technological skills
● incorporating feedback and revision
● making a publicly presented product
● rendering students’ voice and choice.
Nevertheless, it is generally believed that all versions of PjBL share the following
premises. First, they focus education on the student and emphasise learning activities that
are long-term, interdisciplinary and student-centred (Markham, Larmer, and Ravitz 2003).
Students are allowed some degree of voice and choice in making plans of enquiry and
construction of the artefacts to represent their findings or knowledge gained as the result
of the project. They might even be allowed to choose their own research questions within
a specified scope, especially in a higher education context.
PjBL stresses learning by doing (Markham, Larmer, and Ravitz 2003). It begins with a
driving question or challenge, which creates a need to know essential content and skills
and requires in-depth investigation to get to the answer and develop the skills. It values
teamwork and collaboration among participants. Students are often divided into groups of
varied sizes, where they work together, share their findings and decide how to best
represent their new knowledge. They must learn to work in a community and therefore
take shared responsibilities and credits.
To successfully complete a project, students will need to effectively coordinate their
work, communicate with each other and external institutions, critically evaluate their
findings and solve problems arising during their work. It requires critical thinking, problem
solving, collaboration, and various forms of communication, often known as ‘21st Century
Skills’ to achieve their goals (Trilling and Fadel 2012). So students will need to expand
their minds and think more critically, an ability which is often identified as lacking.
In PjBL, students are encouraged to reflect on their enquiry (Barron and Darling-
Hammond 2008; Thomas 2000). Through reflection and discussions among themselves,
they are to revise their findings and presentation of the knowledge gained, at which time they
may collect feedback from the class and the teacher and further revise their conclusions.
PjBL also has a particularly important role for technology (Boss and Krauss 2007;
Krauss and Boss 2013). Students are encouraged to take full advantage of IT tools in their
investigation of the driving questions as well as representing their findings. PjBL also
4 D. Li et al.
Driving
Question
Publicly
Indepth
Presented
Inquiry
Product
Academic
Content
PjBL
Feedback Group Work
& &
Revision
Varied Skills Community
Voice &
Technology
Choice
Figure 1. Project-based learning (adapted from Kiraly 2000).
emphasises that students represent the knowledge gained in the form of artefacts – that is,
publicly presented products or performances.
‘[PjBL] transforms the role of the teacher from content provider to learning coordi-
nator. As a result, teachers spend less time lecturing and leading and more time planning,
observing, listening, coaching, and facilitating’ (National Academy Foundation).
However, this does not mean that the teacher completely relinquishes control over the
class but rather creates an environment of shared responsibility. The teacher will help
students set up interim goals, monitor their progress to ensure they are getting in-depth
and proper understanding of the concepts being investigated, and advise them when they
encounter difficulties or issues.
It is also important to point out that there are no definite criteria regarding what makes
an acceptable project for PjBL. But a well-thought-out project will not only help students
learn key academic content and/or develop new knowledge, but also practise various
social skills such as collaboration, communication and critical thinking.
To summarise the above concepts, PjBL can be expressed in the following figure
(Figure 1).
3. A PjBL activity in teaching business translation

Many have discussed the advantages of PjBL in acquisition of knowledge and social skills as
well as students’ learning experiences (e.g. Boaler 2002; Helle, Tynjälä, and Olkinuora 2006;
Thomas 2000). For instance, Strobel and van Barneveld argue that ‘P[j]BL was superior when
it comes to long-term retention, skill development and satisfaction of students and teachers,
while traditional approaches were more effective for short-term retention’ (2009, 1). But for us,
the idea of adopting PjBL in our teaching also began with a practical need. In 2012, one of the
present researchers taught the course ‘Special Topic in Translation’ at the University of Macau.
As stated in the programme handbook, the exact topic and content of the course depend on the
expertise of the instructor, who usually makes the decision in consultation with the students.
This course is designed to permit visiting scholars, or existing staff, to offer postgraduate
level courses in their particular areas of specialisation. The topic and content of the courses
will vary from year to year depending on the availability of specialised staff.
After discussing with the students, we decided to focus on business translation and we
further decided that besides discussing methods, principles and ethics of business transla-
tion, we would focus on translation of:
● business correspondence
● office memos, minutes of meetings, business reports
● business contracts and other legal documents
● advertisements and other promotional/publicity materials
However, a number of topics that some students were keen to explore had to be
excluded from the core syllabus due to time constraints. To satisfy students’ interests, we
decided to incorporate a PjBL project into the course. That is, as part of the course,
students would also complete a group project exploring translation in Macau in general,
and business translation in Macau in particular. In this way, we were able to construct a
core course syllabus and at the same time cater for the interests of individual students and
expand the scope of the course considerably.
3.1 Implementation of the project

Before describing the implementation of our project, we deem it necessary to point out
that there are at least two kinds of projects that may be used in translation training, namely
translation-oriented and research-oriented projects. While they share the same rationale
and theoretical underpinnings, there are also differences. In translation-oriented PjBL,
students preferably work together in small groups and engage themselves in the produc-
tion of an authentic or simulated translation assignment (Kiraly 2005). Their primary task
is to complete a translation project, with guidance from their teachers only when the need
arises. In the process of completing the translation assignment, they activate and improve
their translation competencies (please refer to Li [2013] for a detailed description). The
result is that they gain better translation skills and at the same time become familiar with
some of the dynamics of working as a professional translator in the real world.
On the other hand, in research-oriented PjBL, rather than completing a translation
assignment, students work together and conduct serious and systematic inquiries into transla-
tional issues of considerable interest to them, as discussed by Kiraly (2000). Research-
oriented PjBL starts with important research questions on translation. As they seek answers
to the questions, students also learn to work together and (further) develop their commu-
nication, collaboration, thinking and technological skills, which are deemed essential for
modern-day professional translators. In general, this kind of project does not work directly on
students’ translation competencies, but it enables them to acquire other non-translational
skills, hence contributing indirectly to their growth as future translators. The following table
captures the essence of the translation-oriented and research-oriented PjBL (Table 1).
The project that we incorporated into the syllabus of the course was a research-
oriented one and we called it ‘Exploring Translation in Macau’ (ETiM).The course
‘Special Topic in Translation’ ran for 14 weeks. The project was given as an assignment
at the second meeting of the class. There were a total of 42 students in 2 classes running at
6 D. Li et al.
Table 1. Translation-oriented PjBL vs. research-oriented PjBL.
Translation-oriented PjBL Research-oriented PjBL
Aim To improve translation competencies and To seek in-depth understanding of

become familiar with real-world translational issues
translation dynamics
Task To work in small groups and complete an To work in groups and make an inquiry
authentic or simulated translation project into topics on translation through
various data-gathering methods, e.g.
library search, literature review,
interviews, observations,
questionnaire surveys
Product A completed translation submitted to the Class presentation of findings of the
client investigation
A summary report of the project
Outcome Improved translation competencies Enhanced knowledge of translation

Acquisition of meta-cognitive translation Development and/or growth of meta
skills cognitive translation skills
Indirect contribution to translation
competencies
the time of the experiment. Instructed to team up, they made eight groups of five and two
groups of six. Each group elected a group leader to coordinate and oversee their projects.
Each group chose their own topic and they were encouraged to pursue the topics that
really interested them. The following were the topics they investigated:
● History of business translation in Macau

● Business translation and local economy
● Market of business translation in Macau and neighbouring Hong Kong and the
Chinese mainland
● Use of translation technology in business translation in the region
● Professional translators’ strategies for dealing with regional dialects of Chinese in
business translation
● Cultural and social issues in business translation
● Business interpreting in Macau, Hong Kong and Chinese mainland
● Translation in the Macau gambling industry
● Tourist translation in Macau: methods and strategies
● Working conditions of translators and interpreters in Macau
‘Project work, whether it is integrated into a content-based thematic unit or introduced

as a special sequence of activities in a more traditional classroom, requires multiple stages
of development to succeed’ (Stoller [2002] 2008, 111). The present project consisted of
five phases: preparing for the project, piloting the research, carrying out the investigation,
presenting the findings and summarising the project (see Table 2 below). In the first few
weeks, the students made up their groups, decided on their research topics and made
action plans. After piloting their investigation, the group leaders each briefly presented
their plans to the class and discussed any difficulties encountered in their trial run of the
project. In weeks 6–10, the students carried out their research. In the eighth week, the
group leaders made progress reports on their investigations, and the class offered sugges-
tions where appropriate. The 30-minute formal presentation took place in the 12th week,
Table 2. ETiM project.
Phases The teacher The students
Phase I Announce the project to the class Make groups

Week 2–3 Explain the requirements and method of Elect a group leader
Preparation assessment for the project Choose topics for the investigation
Discuss possible methods of Work out an action plan
investigation of the topics
Suggest possible topics
Phase II Make himself or herself available for Carry out initial investigation of the
Week 4–5 consultation during office hours and/ project
Piloting or by appointment Report on any problems encountered in
Offer suggestions and guidance their pilot investigation
together with the class Adjust their plans if necessary
Phase III Organise a session of progress reports Carry out full investigation
Week 6–10 Offer feedback and suggestions as Make a progress report on their projects
Investigating necessary
Phase VI Organise presentation sessions for the Present their findings of the project
Week 11–12 groups to share their findings Answer questions from the class
Presenting Obtain feedback from the class
Phase V Receive the final reports from the Summarise their projects, incorporating
Week 13–14 groups the feedback from the class
Summarising Assess the projects (action plan; interim Reflect on their projects
reports; presentation; final reports) Write up the final project reports
Give feedback to the students Submit their reports
when the groups presented a summary of their findings to the class, which was then
followed by Q&A (question and answer) sessions. To encourage reflections amongst the
students, all groups were required to submit a 2000-word written report of their project,
using the following questions as a guide:
(1) What were the primary aims and purposes of your project?
(2) Why was the project important or interesting to you?
(3) What major questions did you wish to answer through this project?
(4) What data and/or materials did you use while you tried to answer the questions?
How were they collected and analysed?
(5) What were the major findings of your investigation?
(6) How did the new findings contribute to our understanding of translation (studies)
in general?
As in a translation-oriented PjBL, the teacher retreated into a supporting role in the
project. No training was provided to the students but they were encouraged to consult the
teacher before/after classes or in specially arranged office hours.
While small group projects have the advantage of encouraging student learning,
assessing group work has been challenging and sometimes even controversial. But the
rule of thumb is that if the focus of the activity is on the group working skills, then the
assessment is on the process; and if the focus is on the performance of the group, then the
focus is placed on the end product. The purpose of our project was twofold: for students to
acquire the knowledge on the topic of their choice and for students to develop skills of
working together as a team. So the focus was on both the product and process.
8 D. Li et al.
The assessment of the project, which accounted for 30% of the overall grade for the
course, consisted of both peer assessment (Freeman 1995; Lejk and Wyvill 2001) and the
teacher’s assessment. For the peer assessment, each student was required to assess the
contribution of all of the other members of their group. The teacher assessed the group
presentations and their final reports. As the focus was on the group working skills, both
the presentations and the reports were assessed per group, not for each individual.
As mentioned previously, the other major purpose of incorporating the project into the
course was to carry out a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of this approach. For
this purpose, the focus was placed on how students perceived such a PjBL project and
where they saw the biggest growth in their skills and abilities. So from the beginning of
the project, we set out to collect relevant data through different means. We found it
gratifying that interesting perceptions were gathered. In the following section, we shall
report on the design of the evaluation process and the major findings, followed by
discussions of the possible implications for future translation teaching.
4. Gathering and analysing students’ perceptions

4.1 Instruments to gather students’ perceptions
Since this was perhaps one of the first attempts to evaluate the use of such kind of research
projects in translation training, a qualitative research method was used to gauge students’
perceptions of the PjBL. With this design, the researchers could probe in detail and in depth
into students’ thoughts, beliefs and experiences of conducting such a project. They were not
restricted to specific questions and the interviews could be guided or redirected in real time.
They could also quickly revise the research framework and direction as new information
emerged (Denzin and Lincoln 2012). The students as research subjects were also free to
fully express their thoughts and report their experiences. We therefore felt such a qualitative
design was particularly appropriate for this exploratory project.
The raw data consisted of students’ reflective journals, a questionnaire survey and two
focus group interviews. All students were invited to hand in, on a voluntary basis, 2
reflective journals (in week 6 and week 14 respectively) on their experience of carrying
out the project. In addition, at the end of the project, they were all invited to complete a
short questionnaire, the primary purpose of which was to gather their perceptions of
possible learning or growth resulting from completing the project. Thirty-six students
completed and returned the questionnaire, a return rate of 85.7%. In addition, two groups
were randomly selected for a one-hour focus-group interview, which was audio-recorded.
The questionnaire consisted primarily of open-ended questions to encourage full,
meaningful answers from the students. The focus group interviews offered them a chance
to discuss and share their understandings and feelings about the project, and the journals
encouraged them to reflect on this experience. The recordings of the focus group inter-
views were later transcribed verbatim.
4.2 Analysing students’ perceptions

The two researchers first read the transcripts of the interviews, together with the written
comments in the questionnaires and students’ journals, and independently identified
themes with regard to students’ perceived areas of growth. They then discussed together
and drew up the final list of the possible themes as shown in Table 3 below. After they
reread and coded one-third of the interview transcripts as per the list, they compared and
Table 3. Students’ perceived areas of growth.
Areas of growth No. of mentions %
Knowledge of the topic 36 100

Team work & collaboration skills 34 94.4
Presentation skills 34 94.4
Communication skills 33 91.7
Technological skills 30 83.3
Research skills 28 77.8
Critical thinking skills 24 66.7
Leadership skills 7 19.4
discussed their coding and resolved the slight differences between them. Finally, they read
and coded the entire data set, and resolved any differences in their coding before the
number of mentions regarding each theme in relation to the students’ experiences and the
project effectiveness was calculated for reporting.
5. Students’ perceived areas of growth

5.1 Perceptions of the ETiM project
The students were overwhelmingly positive about the project. All of the 36 students who
completed the questionnaires reported that the project helped them gain in-depth knowl-
edge about the topic they studied, and develop and/or enhance skills believed to be crucial
for professional translators (see Table 3).
They felt that the project gave them a chance to work together with their peers to
research on a topic that interested them and gain in-depth knowledge on the topic. It
enabled them to become more independent in seeking answers to their questions. They
also saw themselves as having better research, communication, technological and pre-
sentation skills as well as a heightened sense of teamwork:
(1) I was very excited throughout the entire project . . . It was much more complicated
than I thought at the beginning. We had to go to the library to find the books and
articles we needed, we had to work out a good schedule for all of us because
two of our members had full time jobs. But we found time for sharing and
discussing our findings and rehearsing our presentations . . . I think I’m a better
speaker now. (J:Kary:22)
Many recommended that such projects should be retained in the course in the future.
A few students even suggested adding a small project to be completed in the first part of
the course:
(2) The project helps but we need more. Perhaps to add a small one in the beginning
of the semester would be perfect. (f-1-283)
Interestingly, many reported that the project made them see the need to enhance some
other skills and abilities besides their translational competence, in order to prepare
themselves better for a career as a professional translator. This was especially the case
for those who carried out fieldwork in their investigations:
10 D. Li et al.
(3) We wanted to understand the real situation of tourist translation in Macau. So we

tried to contact Macau Government Tourist Office, Macau Tourist Centre and two
tourist interpreters we knew through contacts. It was not at all easy to talk to these
people. We had to call so many times and waited so long in order to meet them for
an interview.. . . But I think we really need to improve our communication [skills].
At one point we almost blew off [i.e. failed to attend] an important interview due
to a misunderstanding and some communication errors. (f-2-16)
Apart from these general comments, the students also frequently discussed the growth
in their knowledge of the topic they each studied.
5.2 Knowledge of the topic

The topics covered by the 10 groups were quite broad and they actually worked very well
as a supplement to the core syllabus of the course. Students felt they became really
familiar with their topics through their own investigations:
(4) This was a good way to organize a course. It gave us students an opportunity to
contribute to the contents of the course and also a precious chance to pursue
something we are truly interested in and passionate about . . . I think I am almost
an expert on Macau translation history now. It’s very interesting. I also got to
know much about the history of Macau. (J:Tiffany:2)
All students reported that their biggest gain in the project was their acquired knowledge of
the topic they studied. For instance, one group investigated tourist translation in Macau and they
particularly focused on the biggest industry of the area – the casino and hotel business. They felt
they got to know much more about it than they had thought they would, and believed such
knowledge would be useful to them in their future employment as a translator or in other
language related professions:
(5) Although everyone knew the major casinos in Macau, we didn’t know many
background facts about them. We really learned a lot from this research about the
background of the casinos & hotels and how they affect the local economy and
the society as a whole. I think this background information will be very useful to
us when we become professional translators later . . . We also have a good
understanding of the approaches used in translating the names of casinos and
their pamphlets. We learned from concrete examples that function is more impor-
tant than accuracy in many cases when translating these materials. (J:Mary:2)
Another group explored the topic of how professional translators make use of the
Internet in professional translation. They were very excited at discovering there were
actually so many resources available to them on the Internet and they were very grateful
for the many tips the professional translators offered them in their investigations:
(6) I never thought the Internet could help us translate in so many different ways. For
instance we found so many online e-dictionaries, lists of resources for translators,
many tips of using the Internet in actual translation and so on. When doing
translations of different subjects later, we can make good use of them . . . We
also found many useful sites to bid for free lance translation projects. (f-2-32)
The sharing of their findings in the form of class presentations was also seen as useful.
They saw this as an efficient way to get some knowledge of a wide range of topics within
a relatively short period of time. Some got so interested in some presentations that they
decided to pursue further studies on the topic later; for instance, in their MA dissertations:
(7) The presentation Group 4 gave was fascinating and the information they pre-
sented was very useful. Actually their presentation also got me to think about
some of the things I could do for my MA dissertation project. (q/no.154)
The discussions and sharing among the group really helped them to go deep in their
exploration and understanding of the issues in question. It also enabled them to sharpen
their arguments and consolidate their findings. And the sharing gave the class an oppor-
tunity to ask questions. The students found that the questions from the floor enabled them
to ‘look at our research topic and findings from different angles’ (q/no.6).
5.3 Team work and collaborative skills

Teamwork was an area where most students experienced growth. Nearly 95% of the
students reported the project heightened their sense of teamwork. Team spirit for the
students meant first of all understanding each other’s positions and being flexible:
(8) Group meetings were quite important. Since everyone was busy with classes,
jobs, etc. we couldn’t meet as frequently as we wished, but everyone tried to
attend each meeting. In case someone couldn’t attend, we showed understanding
and found ways to pass on the gist of the discussions to her. (f-2-17)
For many of the students, team spirit also meant offering support to peers in need:
(9) Although we tried our best to allocate the same amount of workload for everyone, still
some people may do more and others may do less. Thankfully no one in our group
complained. Understanding and peer-support is very important for group work. We
must help each other, especially when someone has problems. (J:Amanda:1)
Team spirit is also about shouldering responsibilities and sharing successes together:
(10) Cooperation is the key element in a group project. We each go to our own task,
we tried our best to finish our work with high standards and we shared our
successes together. (J:Priscilla:2)
Besides understanding others’ perspectives, being flexible, offering support and sharing
successes, they also felt the project taught them the importance of:
● beginning a project by analysing together the mission

● working together to specify and ‘build consensus about our goals of the project’
(J:Cecelia:7)
● formulating together strategies for carrying out their project
● determining how to monitor the progress of the project
● electing a group leader to coordinate the project.
12 D. Li et al.
5.4 Presentation skills

Presentation skills were another area where the students saw substantial growth. All the
groups were required to make a formal presentation to share their findings with the class
and at the same time obtain feedback from their peers on their research before they wrote
up the final summary reports. In general the students had little previous research experi-
ence but were quite excited about making their presentations despite some apprehension.
Many confirmed that the experience helped to build their confidence as well as improve
their presentation skills. For instance, they reported that they found it easier to have eye
contact with the audience and felt more at ease in presenting in English without the scripts
after many rounds of rehearsals and mocks:
(11) I’m now more confident in speaking in front of the class, and I am not afraid to
have eye contact with the audience and I can even use some gestures to help me.
Also, I don’t need to hold any scripts in my hands while I’m speaking in
English. This is a big progress for me. (J:Karen:1)
Some also felt the experience taught them how to prepare and structure an effective
presentation and how to select the most important information to present within limited
time. They recognised the importance of having a structure for their presentation as well
as having proper rehearsals:
(12) We gathered a huge amount of information, but time was limited for our
presentation. So we learned how to show the most important parts to the
audience in a limited period of time . . . I know now how to organize a successful
presentation; I know the process of the whole presentation (outline, details,
conclusion). I think a good presentation should go in an organized and logical
order. (J:Cathy:2)
They realised that the purpose of a presentation was not only to present information,
but more importantly to engage the audience in the presentation through interactions and
activities:
(13) When doing presentation, we should arouse the listener’s interest and let them
join our presentation so that it will receive more attention and response in the
whole process. During the presentation, you need to engage your audience as
much as possible, attract their attention through all kinds of interactive activities,
such as video clips, discussion questions and games, and give effective and
instant feedback to the audience. (J:Grace:1)
Some even felt they could project their voice more effectively after plenty of rehearsals
and the formal presentation. They recognised that when making a presentation, it is important
‘to speak clearly and loudly’ and ‘the tone and the voice should not be flat’ (q/no.3).
5.5 Communication skills

Another area of considerable growth for the students was their communication skills,
which are seen as important for many professions including translation and other language
service professions. As reported, the students needed to communicate amongst their

groups to discuss their project plans, findings and their presentations. For groups whose
investigations involved fieldwork, such as interviews, they needed to identify and contact
the interviewees. They realised that communication was most important, especially when
they encountered problems and disagreed over their plans:
(14) Like I said, we might have different opinions sometimes, and we needed to have
some debating and persuasion skills. I learnt how to get my ideas [a]cross and
how to convince people in a friendly [and] yet powerful way. [f-2-11)
Some students also reported that they learned how to get across their views to their
peers more effectively:
(15) This evening our group met for the 2nd time. We had different opinions about
the action plan and we really needed to talk. It was a long discussion of about 2
hours but I actually didn’t mind that. Because I felt I knew better how to express
my own opinion, how to express my disagreement in a kind way without
quarreling, and how to emphasize what is correct and convince others it is
correct. (J:Masey:1)
They also realised that sometimes, to be able to listen with patience was equally
important:
(16) There was a hard time when we were discussing the main direction of our project
since it was the first time we tried to do a project on this topic . . . This made me
understand that everyone has a different way of thinking. When we have different
opinions, we share our thoughts and we listen to one another. (J:Daniel:1)
It is indeed encouraging to see that the students realised that different opinions and
disagreements were necessarily part of the execution process of such projects and that
they were actually helpful to building a strong project:
(17) Different opinions and setbacks in communication actually make the project
more consummate . . . In our group discussions, we would use nice attitudes and
words to express our ideas and would not blame anyone for suggesting an
inappropriate idea. (J:Jasmine:2)
In a nutshell, the students found that through the project they became even more aware
of the importance of effective communication and some felt they became better commu-
nicators because of the practice and the strategies they developed, such as:
● be gentle and polite to each other when there is a conflict of opinions

● consider others’ feelings
● look at things from others’ perspectives
● learn how to express oneself
● be bold to give comments and suggestions
● learn to appreciate different opinions.
● ask group members for help when encountering difficulties.
14 D. Li et al.
5.6 Technological skills

The students also mentioned that the project gave them an opportunity to learn and make
use of technology for research purposes. As mentioned above, they made good use of the
Internet to gather data, collect information and search for related literature on the topics
they were studying. For a few students, the experience of working together with group
members helped them overcome their fear of technology. One student reported that s/he
had ‘never made a ppt[®] presentation before but overcame my technophobia through
working closely with my very helpful group member in making the ppt[®] presentation
slides for our group’ (J:Rose:3). Most groups took advantage of the Internet to coordinate
their project, share their findings and exchange views:
(18) We set up a forum on facebook[®] for daily contact. We posted our findings,
questions, doubts, etc. on the forum and it was really easy for us to help each
other. (q/no.8)
All groups made use of PowerPoint® slides in their presentations. Enthusiastic about
their presentations, the students worked very hard to provide impressive PowerPoint®
slides. Some reported they really learned a lot from their group members and even
personal friends in making sophisticated slides:
(19) I think our presentation slides were the best. I was assigned to take charge of the
preparation of the ppt[®] slides.. . . I was so worried because I didn’t want to let
my friends down. My friend from the Mathematics Department really helped me
a lot. He should perhaps take the credit! But I’m so glad I really learned in the
process. I won’t panic now if I have to do something similar. (f-1-37)
The students also reported that working together with group members enabled
them to:
● stay focused on task in order ‘to get things done, without being sidetracked to other
unrelated readings on the web’ (J:Ben:4)
● become skilled in selecting best keywords to google® for resources and
information
● get to know different search engines, such as Google Scholar® or Scirus®, to find
articles and evaluate their respective strengths.
5.7 Research skills

Most students felt that the project helped them improve their research skills. First of all,
they felt that working together and learning from each other under the teacher’s guidance
taught them how to go about investigating their topics and also where and how to search
for and gather together related materials and relevant data:
(20) I know more effective ways to search [for] the information I wanted on the
Internet . . .We should not only search the data from [the] Internet, but also from
various other related places . . . I haven’t had many opportunities to do a practical
research [project] like this. Those I did before were more academic. It’s a great
chance to study a topic which is more practical and we could get ideas from our
daily life, for instance to interview people in the field, to observe people at work,
to find answers to our questions. (f-1-27)
Those who had previous research experience confirmed that this project made them
even ‘more adept at carrying out effective investigations’ (J:Dave:1). Students used
different ways to gather the data and resources they needed, such as library search,
Internet search, consulting experts on the topic and interviewing relevant professionals.
More specifically, they all stressed the convenience and efficiency of using the Internet to
gather information and data for their projects. They felt they became more skilled in
locating useful websites and gathering relevant materials while carrying out their projects:
(21) The Internet helped me a lot in the data-collecting phase. It’s highly efficient and
the data gathered were quite accurate . . . Now I know more about searching for
useful information on the Internet. (f-2-4)
5.8 Critical thinking

Another area of growth referred to repeatedly by the students was their ability to think
critically. One student commented that the project ‘enhance[d] our critical thinking as we
learned to choose the data and examples to answer our question’ (J:Stefan:6). Many
reported that they knew better where to find the data or resources they needed to support
their claims and how to tease out irrelevant data:
(22) The process of selecting data from different sources made me more sensitive to
the most suitable data for analysis. I know what information is not suitable for
my project . . . I can support my point of view with detailed analysis of the data
. . . I’m more objective when analyzing the collected data. And I try to come up
with results without bias. (f-1-9)
They also felt that the project taught them the importance of prioritisation and order of
precedence and urgency. As many of the students were working full-time and studying the
programme on a part-time basis, they had very busy schedules. In order to complete their
work in good time, they needed to ‘make good plans of prioritization’ (J: Cherry:2).
Other skills they reported having acquired or improved in carrying out the project
include:
● knowing which materials and information to trust and which not

● scanning materials for pertinent information and summarise relevant points
● noting the interviewees’ facial expressions and speech tones when analysing the
information they provided.
5.9 Leadership skills

Several students also valued the opportunity to develop their leadership skills. It is
generally accepted that leadership skills are important for translators these days, given
that many will have to work in a team or lead a team of translators in a professional
context. A translator may be commissioned to undertake a project that requires several
16 D. Li et al.
translators to work together in order to finish the project within the specified period of
time, or it might require translation into several languages and therefore has to involve
coordination of several translators working together. Several of the students reflected on
their leadership and coordination opportunities in the project. For some, this meant first of
all delegating responsibilities equally and tapping into the different talents and strengths of
the group:
(23) I think as a group leader, it’s important to make it clear who is in charge of what,
and to allocate [an] equal amount of work for each member, so that no
one complains. As I do this, I also need to make full use of the academic merits
of each member: some may be good at literature review, some may be skilful
in collecting data and someone may have a technical knack for making
PowerPoint[®] slides. (J:Priscilla:2)
Some recognised that as leaders of the group they needed to make sure every member
finished his/her work according to the agreed time frame and also offered help and
support when a member was stuck:
(24) Some of my group members might work a bit slower than others and I needed to
remind them from time to time to ensure a steady progress. It required both
patience and a bit of force. (J:Daren:2)
The students also referred to the following as the result of their experience of leading
the projects:
● taking on leadership in making plans for their project

● being assertive in making decisions
● being fair in job distribution
● giving clear explanations to their members
● being firm in enforcing deadlines.
Although the number of mentions for the area of leadership skills (7) appears
drastically lower than the other areas (between 24–36) in Table 3, we should note that
there were altogether 10 groups of students and accordingly 10 group leaders, who had
the opportunity to lead the projects. The adjusted percentage for this area is actually 70%
(7 of the 10 group leaders), which then puts it squarely amongst the other areas in
importance.
6. Summary and conclusion

As discussed at the beginning of the article, all the elements of PjBL fit in very nicely
with the goals and objectives of today’s translation training programmes. PjBL can
effectively enhance many skills beyond translation-specific competencies. These skills
are considered essential for students to succeed as professional translators, but unfortu-
nately are often inadequately developed on conventional translation training courses.
Our first attempt to introduce PjBL into translation teaching seems to have worked out
well. The ETiM project served as a welcome supplement to the core syllabus of the course
and made it possible for the students to pursue some topics of their interest in addition to
the lectures of the course. As they acquired and created new knowledge on their research
topics and became independent in their investigations, they also brought prior knowledge
into play. Therefore, in a sense, this also helped to bridge the divide between classroom
teaching and the real field of translation and enabled the students to make sense of their
learning outside the ivory tower.
The students’ reception and perceptions of the PjBL project were positive and
encouraging. All who completed the questionnaire thought favourably of the activity
and confirmed they benefited considerably from the project. They were also able to
point out the specific areas in which they saw the most obvious growth. These included
such skills as critical thinking, interpersonal communication, collaboration, research,
presentation and technological skills, as well as the sense of teamwork.
As these skills are not specially required for business translation only, but rather for
translation of all genres, it is therefore apparent that such PjBL projects can be incorpo-
rated into the teaching of many other translation courses as well.
The success of this project also confirms that PjBL in translator education can also use
another kind of project in the teaching. Different from the practice-oriented projects as
described by Kiraly (2005), this project is more research-oriented and it focuses on
students’ acquisition of knowledge about translation and key meta-skills essential for
translators, such as critical thinking, interpersonal communication, collaboration, research
and presentation, as well as technological skills.
Similarly, the project’s success supports our view that it is indeed possible and necessary
to evaluate the implementation of new proposals for translation teaching. This is especially
important today when teachers and researchers alike are eager to borrow ideas and theories
from neighbouring disciplines (e.g. education, language teaching or linguistics) and intro-
duce innovative practices into translation classrooms. We need to make sure the innovations
indeed achieve the intended goals and objectives. We should also be clear about what exact
positive changes they will effect in the students and specifically in which aspects and to
what extent the innovative practices outperform more traditional ones.
To answer these questions, we may need to tap into the potentialities of quantitative
research methods, either alone or in combination with qualitative methods. This should be
especially effective given that the findings presented in this study can be used as working
hypotheses. For instance, as suggested by one of the reviewers of an earlier version of this
article, a design of pre- and post- tests may be used to find out to what extent the students
shift in their beliefs and perceptions, and to examine the correlations of the shifts in their
beliefs with their research questions and the success of their projects. Future efforts may
also be directed towards quantification of their growth in many of the areas discussed
above. Only when we have knowledge of this sort can we make informed decisions
regarding when, where, how and at what level of training we can make the best use of
these innovations.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express thanks to Donald Kiraly and another anonymous reviewer for
their critical and insightful comments on an earlier version of the article.
Notes
1. PjBL is used here instead of PBL, which is often used to refer to problem-based learning.
2. ‘J’ stands for ‘journal’. ‘Kary’ is the pseudonym of the student who wrote the journal. ‘2’
indicates it is an extract from the second journal Kary submitted.
18 D. Li et al.
3. ‘f’ refers to ‘focus group interview’. ‘1’ indicates it is a comment made by a member of the first
focus group. ‘28’ indicates the page number of the transcripts of the interview discussions.
4. All the returned questionnaires were randomly numbered. ‘q/No.15’ stands for Questionnaire
No. 15.
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On: 01 October 2013, At: 06:02

The Vocational Aspect of Education

Reforming Technical and Technological Education

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305787930450307

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Reforming Technical and

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, Canada

ABSTRACT This paper examines selected reform efforts in technical and

manpower. Experience shows that this is more easily achieved when

• selection, evaluation and promotion criteria and procedures for

reforming the policy process;

The Study of TVET and TE Reform

sectors. The relationship between economic restructuring and TVET/TE

The Systems Studied

The grouping also includes nations with unitary TVET/TE systems

secondary and post-secondary levels. Although Canadian systems have

Although the use of task and activity analysis in curriculum

Testing and certification functions are performed by national

training. The state subsidy to education is now given to the municipalities

This structure for the delivery of school-based TVET is paralleled by

established. In addition, a series of provincial and local training boards

Although no provincial, or local, training boards have yet been fully

Certification system was established in 1973 and in 1977 the Ministry of

the exigencies of government, vulnerable to policy changes, and

training occupation. The German dual system requires quadra-partite

representation and at least one vocational school instructor, established

each operation; and (from 1974) a complementary information sheet

1946, and to activity analysis elsewhere. Activity analysis enables the

combination of changed perceptions and improved employment

the reduction of upper secondary streams to two: Academic and

were conducted to orient SVS teachers to the reformed curriculum and

Industrial Training and Trade Certification Board examination. Vocational

Selected Lessons and Trends

'tigers-in-waiting', such as Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and

observation takes on even greater weight. Even Psacharopoulos (1985),

static process, but is dynamic and continuous.

their education by means of adult education programmes. In Canada,

strong federal structure can also be decentralised to regional levels to

Lauglo, Jon & Lillis, Kevin (1988) Vocationalizing Education: an international

Castro, Wilson & Oliveira, op. cit.

The Interpreter and Translator Trainer

Project-based learning in teaching

Click for updates

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2015.1010357

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Project-based learning in teaching translation: students’ perceptions

Along with the increasing interest in learning-centred constructivist approaches to

translator education, there have been proposals to introduce project-based learning

*Corresponding author. Email: defengli@umac.mo

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

● Delisle’s (1980, 1993) objectives-guided translation teaching;

Following Kiraly’s (2000) proposal of a social constructivist approach to translation

more learning-oriented. However, as we implemented PjBL, we found that although

Project-based learning is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engaging

● starting with a compelling question or challenge

Figure 1. Project-based learning (adapted from Kiraly 2000).

3. A PjBL activity in teaching business translation

3.1 Implementation of the project

Table 1. Translation-oriented PjBL vs. research-oriented PjBL.

Translation-oriented PjBL Research-oriented PjBL

Aim To improve translation competencies and To seek in-depth understanding of

Outcome Improved translation competencies Enhanced knowledge of translation

● History of business translation in Macau