metals

Article
Melting and Flowing Behavior of Mold Flux in a
Continuous Casting Billet Mold for Ultra-High Speed
Jie Yang 1, *, Dengfu Chen 1, *, Fengting Qin 2 , Mujun Long 1 and Huamei Duan 1
1 Laboratory of Metallurgy and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering,
Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China; longmujun@cqu.edu.cn (M.L.);
duanhuamei@cqu.edu.cn (H.D.)
2 Department of Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, Jiyuan Vocational and Technical College,
Jiyuan 459000, China; qinfengting@163.com
* Correspondence: yangjie2018@cqu.edu.cn.com (J.Y.); chendfu@cqu.edu.cn (D.C.);
Tel.: +86-133-2246-6016 (J.Y.); +86-023-6510-2467 (D.C.)




Received: 8 July 2020; Accepted: 17 August 2020; Published: 28 August 2020


Abstract: High casting speed coincides with the development trend of billet continuous casting,
which significantly changes the casting characteristics. A mathematical model of the billet mold,
which includes multiphase fluid flow, transient heat transfer, and solidification during ultra-high
speed of the casting process was developed. The model is first applied to investigate the flow field of
molten steel in the mold, studying the influence of steel flow upon the melting and flowing behavior
of mold flux. The temperature and velocity distributions of the flux pool that formed above the
molten steel surface are described. A parametric study on the melting temperature and viscosity of
mold flux on liquid flux thickness and flow velocity is then carried out. Finally, the model is used to
derive the relationship between interfacial tension and level fluctuations. The predictions provide an
improved understanding of the melting and flowing behavior of mold flux in the billet mold and
give the guidance for the design and optimization of mold flux for ultra-high speed of billet casting.

Keywords: ultra-high casting speed; billet mold; mold flux; heat transfer; fluid flow

1. Introduction
The increase of the casting speed has always been the goal of efficient continuous casting.
Ultra-high speed has been one of the most distinguishing characteristics of billet continuous casting,
which is also the basis and premise of billet endless rolling. For ultra-high speed of billet casting,
the substantial increase in the flow rate of molten steel will significantly change the flow and heat
transfer behaviors in the mold. Optimal performance of mold flux is critically important to match the
heat transfer and lubrication conditions required in the mold for ultra-high casting speed.
The powder slag spread on the molten steel surface melts into a liquid layer or a flux pool.
The liquid flux infiltrates into the channel between the mold and the shell, which rapidly freezes against
the cooling mold wall and reduces the heat flux across the gap, while those close to the shell remain
liquid to be consumed. The molten steel initially solidifies at the meniscus, where the heat flux and
fluid flow behaviors determine the ultimate quality of the steel [1,2]. Some numerical models focusing
on the phenomenon in the meniscus region assumed the constant meniscus profile based on the classic
Bikerman equation [3–6]. Okazawa and Kajitani [7,8] simplified the flux channel between the mold wall
and the solidified shell into a non-parallel channel to clarify the effect of mold oscillation on the slag
infiltration. Since the consumption rate is an index to evaluate the shell lubrication, which depends on
the layer thickness and viscosity gradients across the liquid layer, many researchers have measured slag
consumption as related to casting parameters [9–11]. Shin et al. [12] proposed an empirical equation

Metals 2020, 10, 1165; doi:10.3390/met10091165 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2020, 10, 1165 2 of 12

on the basis of extensive plant measurements, in which the total slag consumption was divided into
two components—lubrication and oscillation mark consumption. The predictions from this model
show a good consistency with the trends of casting parameter effects on flux consumption of plant
measurements and other works.
The mold flux in the mold experiences the process of melting, resolidifying, and being consumed.
Therefore, the melting and flowing behavior in the pool is an indispensable prerequisite for the
lubrication and heat transfer of the thin gap between the mold and the steel. The study on slag
melting as heat transfer in the slag layers above the molten steel has developed from one-dimension
to three-dimensions [13,14]. The thermal properties used in computational models were varied
with composition and temperature according to empirical equations or measurements. Jonayat and
Thomas [15] presented a transient model of flux flow at the meniscus, which is used to study the
casting condition effects on slag infiltration. Lopez et al. [16,17] developed a mathematical model of
multiphase flow and heat flux in the continuous casting mold, which is applied to predict the complex
phenomena taking place in the meniscus region including the formation of slag layers, slag infiltration,
and initial solidification. However, previous researches on heat transfer and flow of mold flux in the
mold mainly fixed the shape of slag bed or flux channel, and the casting speed in the model calculation
was low. The evolution behavior of mold flux in a billet mold at ultra-high casting speed has not yet
been involved.
The rapid melting and uniform distribution of mold flux in the billet mold is essential for
ultra-high speed continuous casting. The current work presents a computational model of the billet
mold, which couples mold flux and steel flow with heat transfer and solidification. This transient model
is used to describe the melting and flowing behavior of mold flux in a billet mold for ultra-high casting
speed. A parametric study is then carried out to elucidate the influences of a variety of flux properties
on liquid flux thickness, flow velocity and level fluctuations. The model predictions in this study allow
guidance for the evaluation and design of mold flux for ultra-high speed continuous casting.

2. Model Development

2.1. Model Description

In order to investigate the melting and flowing behavior of mold flux in a billet mold for ultra-high
speed, a transient model that consists of multiphase flow and heat transfer models was developed in
this work. The Navier–Stokes equations are solved for the multiphase flow, where the Volume of Fluid
(VOF) model is coupled to determine the volume fractions of steel and mold flux. The Continuum
Surface Force (CSF) method is applied to track the steel/slag interface. The realizable k-ε model is used
to calculate the turbulent flow in the fluid region. The heat transfer model solves the Fourier equation,
while the heat extracted from the copper wall is calculated by the water-cooled convection boundary.

∂  →
X . . 
(αs ρs ) + ∇ · αs ρs v = mf-s − ms-f (1)
∂t
∂ →T →
  
→  →→ →
ρmix v + ∇ · ρmix v v = −∇p + ∇ · µmix ∇ v + ∇ v + ρmix g + S σ (2)
∂t
→ ρmix κ∇αf
Sσ = σf-s (3)
1
( ρ + ρs )
2 f
∂ → 
(ρmix Emix ) + ∇ · v (ρmix Emix + p) = ∇·(Keff ∇T ) (4)
∂t
The variables are explained in the list of nomenclature at the end of the paper. Full details of the
mathematical model have been published in our previous works [18,19].
The schematic diagram of the three-dimension model with boundary conditions is given in
Figure 1. The model domain is composed of a quarter of the Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN) and a billet
 atmospheric pressure and hydrostatic pressure of steel. The molten steel with superheat of 20 K is
poured into the mold through the SEN, and its flow rate is calculated according to the mass balance
when the casting speed is 6 m/min. A convective condition on the outside of mold wall is used to
take into account the heat removal by the cooling water. Heat flux through the SEN walls and
symmetry planes are assumed to be zero. The model mesh size ranges from 50 μm to 2 mm. High
degree
Metals 2020, 10,of mesh refinement was applied at the slag area, include the interface between mold flux and 3 of 12
1165
molten steel.
The transient thermal flow model is solved in three steps. First, the isothermal flow model is run
mold.toThe SEN is
develop theimmersed 120 mm
full flow pattern of below
molten the
steelinitial steel level
and steel/flux that is Next,
interface. set tothe
100energy
mm below the upper
equations
edge ofaremold
activated
wall.to The
calculate thelayer
initial shell of growth and slag melting.
slag powder is spreadFinally,
on the theliquid
complete
steelsystem
surfacecoupling
to calculate
casting
the slag bed speed and oscillation
and liquid flux pool.equation
An airis zone
solved,isso the mold
placed on flux is allowed
the slag powder to infiltrate into thethe
top to model gapeffects
between the mold and the shell. The melting and flow behavior of mold flux in a billet mold for ultra‐
of atmosphere pressure. A pressure boundary is applied at the mold outlet based on atmospheric
high casting speed is predicted based on the time‐averaged results from this model. The solution
pressure and hydrostatic pressure of steel. The molten steel with superheat of 20 K is poured into the
procedure is the same when the flux property is varied in different runs.
mold through the SEN, approach
The numerical and its flow usedrate is calculated
in this paper has according to the mass
been successfully applied balance when the
to characterize thecasting
speedmeniscus
is 6 m/min. A convective condition on the outside of mold wall is used
formation and slag infiltration phenomena in the slab casting mold and the conventional to take into account the
heat removal by the
billet mold. coolingslag
Predicted water.
filmHeat flux through
thicknesses, slag the SEN wallsand
consumption, andheatsymmetry
fluxes planes
show aare goodassumed
agreement
to be zero. with plant
The model meshmeasurements
size ranges from and 50 other
µm to models
2 mm.[20,21]. Previousof work
High degree mesh and other was
refinement
appliedmathematical
at the slag models validatethe
area, include theinterface
modelling method,
between which
mold fluxprovides
and molten a basis for this study to
steel.
accurately predict the mold flux behavior in the billet mold during ultra‐high casting speed.

Figure 1. Schematic of model domain and boundary conditions.

The transient thermal flow model is solved in three steps. First, the isothermal flow model is run
to develop the full flow pattern of molten steel and steel/flux interface. Next, the energy equations are
activated to calculate the shell growth and slag melting. Finally, the complete system coupling casting
speed and oscillation equation is solved, so the mold flux is allowed to infiltrate into the gap between
the mold and the shell. The melting and flow behavior of mold flux in a billet mold for ultra-high
casting speed is predicted based on the time-averaged results from this model. The solution procedure
is the same when the flux property is varied in different runs.
The numerical approach used in this paper has been successfully applied to characterize the
meniscus formation and slag infiltration phenomena in the slab casting mold and the conventional
billet mold. Predicted slag film thicknesses, slag consumption, and heat fluxes show a good agreement
with plant measurements and other models [20,21]. Previous work and other mathematical models
validate the modelling method, which provides a basis for this study to accurately predict the mold
flux behavior in the billet mold during ultra-high casting speed.
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12
Metals 2020, 10, 1165 4 of 12
Figure 1. Schematic of model domain and boundary conditions.

2.2. Material
Material Properties
Properties
The materials properties in model calculation are listed in Table 1. In this this study,
study, the steel thermal
conductivity
conductivity is simulated
simulated using using a linear function of temperature, while other properties of the steel
are defined as constants.
constants. The The constant
constant composition
composition is is used to model the temperature-dependent
temperature‐dependent
properties
properties ofofthe themold
mold flux,
flux, since
since the change
the change in slagincomposition
slag composition
during theduring theprocess
casting castingis process
negligible. is
negligible.
Figure 2 shows Figurethe 2 shows the temperature‐dependent
temperature-dependent viscosityviscosity
and thermaland thermal conductivity
conductivity of theofmold
the mold
flux.
flux. The viscosity
The viscosity of theofmoldthe mold flux
flux is is greatly
greatly affected
affected by temperature,
by temperature, and and its characteristics
its characteristics duringduringthe
the melting
melting andand solidification
solidification processes
processes areare different.
different. TheThe
slagslag powder
powder ononthethe steel
steel toptop
is is modeled
modeled asasit
it sinters
sinters andand melts
melts to to
thethe liquid,
liquid, where
where the the viscosity
viscosity goesgoes through
through a process
a process of increasing
of increasing first then
first and and
then decreasing.
decreasing. The effective
The effective thermal thermal conductivity
conductivity of moldofflux
moldthatflux that comprises
comprises of conduction
of conduction and radiation and
radiation
is used inisthe used in the simulation.
simulation. The thermal Theconductivity
thermal conductivity of slagispowder
of slag powder fixed atis0.3fixed
W/m at K0.3below
W/mits K
below its sintering temperature [22]. Then, the conductivity gradually
sintering temperature [22]. Then, the conductivity gradually increases as air spaces disappear in the increases as air spaces
disappear
sintered layerin thewhensintered layer when keeps
the temperature the temperature
going up. Forkeepsthegoing
liquidup. Fora constant
flux, the liquideffective
flux, a constant
thermal
effective
conductivitythermal conductivity
of 2 W/m K aboveof the2 melting
W/m K temperature
above the melting
is adoptedtemperature
[15,23]. To is examine
adoptedthe [15,23].
effectToof
examine the effect
flux properties of flux
on melting andproperties on melting
flowing behaviors, and melting
different flowingtemperatures
behaviors, different melting
and viscosities at
temperatures
1573 K of mold andfluxviscosities
are usedat in1573 K of mold
the model flux arewhilst
calculation used inthe theother
model calculation
parameters whilst
are held the other
constant.
parameters
In addition are held
to the constant.
standard In addition
interfacial to the between
tension standardmolten
interfacial tension
steel and moldbetween
flux molten steel and
of 1.35 N/m, the
mold
modelflux of 1.35 to
is applied N/m, the model
determine the is applied
effect to determine
of varying thetension
interfacial effect offrom
varying
1.10 interfacial
to 1.60 N/m. tension from
The ranges
1.10 to 1.60
are also given N/m. Thetable.
in the ranges are also given in the table.

Table 1. Materials properties.

Property
Property Value
Value UnitUnit
Steel liquidus temperature 1790 K
Steel liquidus temperature 1790 K
Steel solidus temperature 1761 K
Steel solidus temperature 1761 K
Steel latent
Steel latent heat
heat 264264 kJ/kg
kJ/kg
Steel heat capacity
Steel heat capacity 720720 J/kgK
J/kg·K
Steel thermal
Steel thermal conductivity
conductivity 19.32 + 8.35 × 10×−310× (T-273)
19.32 + 8.35 −3 × (T‐273) W/(mK)
W/(m·K)
Steel viscosity
Steel viscosity 0.0065
0.0065 Pa·sPas
Steel density
Steel density 74007400 kg/m 3 3
kg/m
Flux
Flux melting
melting temperature
temperature 1413, 1363,
1413, 1313
1363, 1313 K K
Flux 3 3
Flux density
density 26002600 kg/mkg/m
Flux
Flux viscosity
viscosity atat 1573
1573 K
K 0.5,0.5,
0.3,0.3,
0.1 0.1 Pa·sPas
Interfacial
Interfacial tension between molten steel
tension between molten steel and
and mold
mold flux
flux 1.60, 1.35, 1.101.10
1.60, 1.35, N/m N/m
Mold thermal conductivity
Mold thermal conductivity 387387 W/(m·K)
W/(mK)
Mold density 8900 kg/m 3
Mold density 8900 kg/m3
Mold heat capacity 390 J/kg·K
Mold heat capacity 390 J/kgK

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Temperature‐dependent
Temperature-dependent viscosity
viscosity and
and thermal
thermal conductivity of mold
conductivity of mold flux.
flux.
Metals 2020, 10, 1165 5 of 12

Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12

3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Flow Field of Molten Steel
3.1. Flow Field of Molten Steel
The increase in the flow rate of molten steel during high casting speed will enhance the interfacial
The increase
disturbance as wellinasthe theflow rate ofheat
convective molten steelofduring
transfer high The
mold flux. casting
steelspeed will enhance
flow field the
in the billet
interfacial
mold disturbance
during the casting asspeed
well asofthe convective
6 m/min heat
is first transfer of mold
investigated, flux. The
as shown steel flow
in Figure 3. Thefield in the
molten
billetflows
steel mold from
during thenozzle
the castingtospeed of 6 m/min
the bottom of theis mold
first investigated, as shownstream,
with the thickening in Figure 3. Theimpacts
which molten
steel
on theflows
innerfrom the nozzle
surface of billettoshell
the bottom
to split of the mold
either upward withorthe thickeningThe
downward. stream,
steelwhich
reachingimpacts on
the top
the inner surface of billet shell to split either upward or downward. The
flows to the mold center, generating a recirculation zone with the new steel stream from the SEN steel reaching the top flows
to theTherefore,
port. mold center, generating
the metal surface a recirculation
in the mold iszone highwith theedge
on the newandsteellow
stream
in thefrom the SEN
middle, port.
of which
Therefore,
the the metal
impact strength at surface
the mold incorner
the mold is largest.
is the high onCompared
the edge and withlow
the in the middle,casting
conventional of which the
speed,
impact strength at the mold corner is the largest. Compared with the conventional
ultra-high casting speed results in a deeper impact depth of the steel flow as well as a higher level rise. casting speed,
ultra‐high
The casting
flow field speedsteel
of molten results in upper
in the a deeper partimpact
of the depth
mold hasof the steel flow influence
an important as well ason a higher level
the melting
rise.flowing
and The flow field ofofmolten
behavior steelasindiscussed
mold flux the upperinpart more of detail
the mold
in thehas an section.
next important influence on the
melting and flowing behavior of mold flux as discussed in more detail in the next section.

Figure 3. (a)
Figure 3. (a) 3D
3D and
and (b)
(b) 2D
2D flow
flow field
field of
of molten
molten steel
steelin
inbillet
billetmold.
mold.

3.2. Temperature Distribution of Mold Flux

3.2. Temperature Distribution of Mold Flux
Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution at a plane located 5 mm above the steel surface.
Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution at a plane located 5 mm above the steel surface.
Naturally, low temperature is located around the mold under the forced cooling of the mold wall.
Naturally, low temperature is located around the mold under the forced cooling of the mold wall.
There is a high temperature area between the nozzle and the mold corner in the liquid flux pool,
There is a high temperature area between the nozzle and the mold corner in the liquid flux pool,
corresponding to the impact position of the steel flow on the surface. Higher temperature promotes
corresponding to the impact position of the steel flow on the surface. Higher temperature promotes
melting of mold flux, to produce an active region in the liquid flux pool, as marked A in the figure.
melting of mold flux, to produce an active region in the liquid flux pool, as marked A in the figure.
Besides, the temperature of mold flux between the middle of the mold wall and the nozzle is lower
Besides, the temperature of mold flux between the middle of the mold wall and the nozzle is lower
due to the reduced convective heat transfer of molten steel and closer cooling distance from both sides,
due to the reduced convective heat transfer of molten steel and closer cooling distance from both
as marked I in the figure. This temperature difference in the liquid flux pool suggests that the slag
sides, as marked I in the figure. This temperature difference in the liquid flux pool suggests that the
slag powder should be added more often near the mold corner (region A) than in the middle of the
mold (region I) during the billet continuous casting.
Metals 2020, 10, 1165 6 of 12

powder should be added more often near the mold corner (region A) than in the middle of the mold
(region
Metals I) during
2020, 10, x FORthe billet
PEER continuous
REVIEWcasting. 6 of 12
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

Figure 4. Temperature distribution at a plane located 5 mm above the steel surface.

Figure 4. Temperature distribution at a plane located 5 mm above the steel surface.
Figure 4. Temperature distribution at a plane located 5 mm above the steel surface.
Figure 5 presents the temperature distribution near the meniscus region at the symmetry plane.
Figure
The Figure
steel 5 presents
stream the temperature
provides distribution
heat to melt distribution
the near thethe
slag powder meniscus region at the symmetry plane.
5 presents the temperature near on moltenregion
the meniscus steel surface, while theplane.
at the symmetry liquid
The
flux steel
close stream
to the provides
mold wall heat
is to melt
cooled to the slag
form a powder
solid phase on theaccumulates
that molten steelinto surface,
a slagwhile
rim. the liquid
The shape
The steel stream provides heat to melt the slag powder on the molten steel surface, while the liquid
flux
of slagclose
rim to the mold wall is cooled to form a solid phase that accumulates into a slag rim. The shape
flux close tomatches
the moldthe curvature
wall is cooledoftothe meniscus
form a solidand forms
phase thataaccumulates
flux channelinto witha the
slagmeniscus profile
rim. The shape
of
as slag
a rimof
result matches
the the curvature of
two-dimensional thetransfer.
heat meniscusAs and
the forms
steel a flux
flow channel
falls back, with
the the meniscus
vertical heat profile
flux near
of slag rim matches the curvature of the meniscus and forms a flux channel with the meniscus profile
as
thea result of the two‐dimensional
nozzleofdecreases, heat
which leadsheatto thetransfer. As
isotherm the steel
of the moldflow falls back, the vertical heat flux near
as a result the two‐dimensional transfer. As the steel flowflux
fallstoback,
goesthe
down withheat
vertical the flux
declining
near
the
metalnozzle decreases, which leads to the isotherm of the mold flux to goes down with the declining
level.decreases,
the nozzle which leads to the isotherm of the mold flux to goes down with the declining
metal level.
metal level.

Figure 5. Temperature distribution near the meniscus region at the symmetry plane.
Figure
Figure5.5.Temperature
Temperaturedistribution
distributionnear
nearthe
themeniscus
meniscusregion
regionat
atthe
thesymmetry
symmetryplane.
plane.
The typical profiles of molten steel and liquid flux in the billet mold are presented in Figure 6.
The
Thetypical
typicalprofiles
profilesofofmolten
moltensteel
steeland
andliquid
liquidflux
fluxininthe
thebillet
billetmold
moldare arepresented
presentedininFigure
Figure6.6.
A hump‐shaped meniscus is created by the impact of the steel flow, then the steel/flux interface
AA hump‐shaped meniscusisiscreated
hump-shaped meniscus created byby
thethe impact
impact of theof steel
the steel
flow, flow,
then thethen the steel/flux
steel/flux interfaceinterface
appears
appears a valley near the SEN after a flat transition. This indicates that the areas around the mold
appears
a valley anear
valley
the near the SEN
SEN after a flatafter a flat transition.
transition. This indicatesThisthat
indicates thataround
the areas the areas around
the mold and the mold
near the
and near the nozzle are greatly affected by the steel flow, thus it is more likely to cause surface defects
and nearare
nozzle thegreatly
nozzleaffected
are greatly
by affected
the steelby thethus
flow, steelitflow, thuslikely
is more it is more likelysurface
to cause to cause surface
defects defects
related to
related to severe interface fluctuations. For instance, the situation where the meniscus gets close to
related to severe interface fluctuations. For instance, the situation where the meniscus
severe interface fluctuations. For instance, the situation where the meniscus gets close to the slag rim gets close to
the slag rim will lead to abnormal cooling of the shell, increasing the possibility of deeper oscillation
the
willslag
leadrim
to will lead tocooling
abnormal abnormal cooling
of the shell,ofincreasing
the shell, increasing the possibility
the possibility of deeper of deeper oscillation
oscillation mark and
mark and hook formation [24]. In addition, a severe level drop near the nozzle may bring the liquid
mark
hook and hook formation
formation [24]. Inaaddition,
[24]. In addition, a severe
severe level drop level drop
near the near may
nozzle the nozzle may
bring the bringflux
liquid theinto
liquid
the
flux into the steel to result in slag entrapment in the solidified shell [25]. The slag rim corresponds to
flux into the steel to result in slag entrapment in the solidified shell [25]. The slag rim
steel to result in slag entrapment in the solidified shell [25]. The slag rim corresponds to liquid flux corresponds to
liquid flux that returns to solid state in colder area blow the solidification temperature, which is
liquid flux that returns to solid state in colder area blow the solidification temperature, which is
connected to the unmelted flux in the bed forming a sintered layer above the liquid pool. The depth
connected to the unmelted flux in the bed forming a sintered layer above the liquid pool. The depth
of liquid pool determines the amount of liquid flux available to lubricate the shell. As described
of liquid pool determines the amount of liquid flux available to lubricate the shell. As described
before, convection in the recirculating zone creates the thickest liquid flux layer in the middle of the
before, convection in the recirculating zone creates the thickest liquid flux layer in the middle of the
nozzle and mold corner. The liquid layer between the middle of the mold wall and the nozzle is
nozzle and mold corner. The liquid layer between the middle of the mold wall and the nozzle is
Metals 2020, 10, 1165 7 of 12

that returns to solid state in colder area blow the solidification temperature, which is connected to
the unmelted flux in the bed forming a sintered layer above the liquid pool. The depth of liquid pool
determines the amount of liquid flux available to lubricate the shell. As described before, convection in
the recirculating zone creates the thickest liquid flux layer in the middle of the nozzle and mold corner.
Metals
The 2020, 10,
liquid x FOR
layer PEER REVIEW
between the middle of the mold wall and the nozzle is thinner, which is expected77toof be
12
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 12
starved for flux infiltration. This thin position depends on the flow pattern developed in the upper
thinner,
mold and which is expected
the fluidity of moldto be starved for flux infiltration. This thin position depends on the flow
flux.
thinner, which is expected to be starved for flux infiltration. This thin position depends on the flow
pattern developed in the upper mold and the fluidity of mold flux.
pattern developed in the upper mold and the fluidity of mold flux.

Figure 6.
Figure Profiles of
6. Profiles of molten
molten steel
steel and
and liquid
liquid flux.
flux.
Figure 6. Profiles of molten steel and liquid flux.
3.3. Velocity of Mold Flux in the Pool
3.3. Velocity of Mold Flux in the Pool
3.3. Velocity of Mold Flux in the Pool
In order to clarify the flow phenomenon of mold flux in the liquid pool, the velocity distribution
In order to clarify the flow phenomenon of mold flux in the liquid pool, the velocity distribution
In order
of mold flux to
in clarify the flow at
two directions phenomenon
the symmetryof mold
planeflux in the liquid Figure
is investigated. pool, the velocity distribution
7 compares the velocity
of mold flux in two directions at the symmetry plane is investigated. Figure 7 compares the velocity
of mold flux in two directions at the symmetry plane is investigated. Figure 7 compares
of mold flux in casting direction at three positions in the liquid flux pool. The velocity distribution the velocity
of mold flux in casting direction at three positions in the liquid flux pool. The velocity distribution
of moldthe
above flux inchannel
flux casting is
direction at three
an inverted positions
parabolic in the
shape, whereliquid flux pool.
the mold The velocity
flux infiltrates intodistribution
the channel
above the flux channel is an inverted parabolic shape, where the mold flux infiltrates into the channel
above
to be consumed quickly. The vertical velocity of mold flux in the upper part of the liquid poolchannel
the flux channel is an inverted parabolic shape, where the mold flux infiltrates into the is close,
to be consumed quickly. The vertical velocity of mold flux in the upper part of the liquid pool is close,
to be consumed
which decreases quickly.
with the Thedistance
vertical away
velocity of mold
from fluxgap.
the flux in theThe
upper part of
velocity atthe
theliquid poolinterface
steel/flux is close,
which decreases with the distance away from the flux gap. The velocity at the steel/flux interface
which decreases
fluctuates violentlywith
duethetodistance away from
the disturbance the flow,
of steel flux especially
gap. The velocity
near theat the steel/flux interface
nozzle.
fluctuates violently due to the disturbance of steel flow, especially near the nozzle.
fluctuates violently due to the disturbance of steel flow, especially near the nozzle.

Figure 7. Velocity in casting direction of mold flux as a function of distance from the mold.
Velocityinincasting
Figure7.7.Velocity
Figure castingdirection
directionof
ofmold
moldflux
fluxas
asaafunction
functionof
ofdistance
distancefrom
fromthe
themold.
mold.

Figure
Figure 888 shows
showsthe
shows the velocityininthe
the x direction of mold flux as a function of distance from the
Figure the velocity
velocity in thex xdirection
directionof of
mold
moldfluxflux
as aasfunction of distance
a function fromfrom
of distance the mold.
the
mold. The direction
The direction of theofof
fluxthe flux flow towards the mold wall is considered as positive. Apparently, the
mold. The direction theflow
fluxtowards the mold
flow towards wall iswall
the mold considered as positive.
is considered Apparently,
as positive. the closer
Apparently, the
closer
to the to the molten
molten steel, steel,
the moretheactive
moremold
activeflux,
moldso flux,faster
the so the faster
flow flow
rate. rate.
Since the Since
mold the mold
flux near flux near
the near
mold
closer to the molten steel, the more active mold flux, so the faster flow rate. Since the mold flux
the mold wall mainly infiltrates into the flux channel, the velocity in the horizontal direction is small.
the mold wall mainly infiltrates into the flux channel, the velocity in the horizontal direction is small.
The flow of mold flux away from the mold is variable. Some of the mold flux in the upper part of the
The flow of mold flux away from the mold is variable. Some of the mold flux in the upper part of the
liquid pool flows slowly to the mold, while others first flow down to the interface and then quickly
liquid pool flows slowly to the mold, while others first flow down to the interface and then quickly
move to the flux channel as a supplement. Therefore, the mold flux near the SEN has more residence
move to the flux channel as a supplement. Therefore, the mold flux near the SEN has more residence
time above the molten steel because of the slow melting and flowing process.
time above the molten steel because of the slow melting and flowing process.
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12
Metals 2020, 10, 1165 8 of 12

flow field somewhere. This flow in the opposite direction drives the flux away from the mold wall to
generate a recirculation
wall mainly zonethe
infiltrates into in flux
the flux pool the
channel, [14].velocity
However, thehorizontal
in the upward steel flow quickly
direction is small.falls
Theafter
flow
reaching the highest
of mold flux away from position, resulting
the mold in a Some
is variable. low horizontal
of the mold flow
fluxrate in upper
in the the billet
partmold,
of the which has
liquid pool
little effect on the consumption flow to the flux channel. Therefore, the liquid flux
flows slowly to the mold, while others first flow down to the interface and then quickly move to the flow in the billet
mold is predominantly
flux channel in the direction
as a supplement. Therefore,toward
the mold theflux
mold wall.
near the An
SENopposing
has moreflow at thetime
residence flux above
melt
interface
the moltenmay appear
steel at the
because ofedge of the
the slow slag rim
melting due
and to the blocking
flowing process. of the slag rim. This phenomenon
implies that if the slag rim grows overly, it will hinder the infiltration of mold flux to a greater extent.

Figure
Figure8.8.Velocity
Velocityininxxdirection
directionofofmold
moldflux
fluxasasaafunction
functionofofdistance
distancefrom
fromthe
themold.
mold.

It is of
3.4. Effect found
Flux that the flow feature of mold flux in the billet mold is significantly different from that
Properties
of the slab. There is a long channel toward the narrow face for the mold flux in slab mold, so the
The effects of flux property on the liquid flux thickness and velocity are explored for better
backflow of molten steel attempts to bring the flux toward the SEN to produce a separation in the
understanding the melting and flowing behavior of mold flux in the billet mold during the ultra‐high
flow field somewhere. This flow in the opposite direction drives the flux away from the mold wall to
casting speed. Figure 9 shows the effect of melting temperature on the liquid flux pool depth at the
generate a recirculation zone in the flux pool [14]. However, the upward steel flow quickly falls after
symmetry plane. In general, lower melting temperature of mold flux shifts the melt interface of the
reaching the highest position, resulting in a low horizontal flow rate in the billet mold, which has little
slag bed upward to form a deeper liquid pool. It should also be noted that further decreasing melting
effect on the consumption flow to the flux channel. Therefore, the liquid flux flow in the billet mold is
temperature will reduce the effect of increasing the thickness of the liquid flux layer. The general
predominantly in the direction toward the mold wall. An opposing flow at the flux melt interface may
increase in liquid layer depths is expected to improve feeding to the middle of the mold wall.
appear at the edge of the slag rim due to the blocking of the slag rim. This phenomenon implies that if
the slag rim grows overly, it will hinder the infiltration of mold flux to a greater extent.

3.4. Effect of Flux Properties

The effects of flux property on the liquid flux thickness and velocity are explored for better
understanding the melting and flowing behavior of mold flux in the billet mold during the ultra-high
casting speed. Figure 9 shows the effect of melting temperature on the liquid flux pool depth at the
symmetry plane. In general, lower melting temperature of mold flux shifts the melt interface of the
slag bed upward to form a deeper liquid pool. It should also be noted that further decreasing melting
temperature will reduce the effect of increasing the thickness of the liquid flux layer. The general
increase in liquid layer depths is expected to improve feeding to the middle of the mold wall.
For ultra-high speed continuous casting, sufficient pool depth is a guaranteed supply of liquid flux,
and good fluidity is used to ensure the consumption flow into the flux channel. Figure 10 compares
the velocities for mold flux with different melting temperatures. In order to diminish the influence
of steel fluctuations and sintered
Figure layer
9. Effect melting,
of melting the velocity
temperature in the
on flux middle
pool depth.of the liquid flux pool is
chosen to better reflect the effect of flux properties on the flux flow in the pool. It is found that lower
For ultra‐high
melting temperature speed continuous
significantly casting,
increases thesufficient
flow rate pool
of thedepth
mold is a guaranteed
flux, supply
especially near the of liquid
meniscus,
flux,
which and good
will fluidity
promote theisconsumption
used to ensure flowthe
intoconsumption flow into
the flux channel. This the flux channel.
indicates that lowerFigure 10
melting
compares
temperaturethe permits
velocities for mold
larger fluxthat
velocity withgenerates
differentmore
melting temperatures.
convective In order
heat transfer to diminish
from the
the steel/flux
influence
interface of
to steel fluctuations
the active and
region of thesintered layerpool.
liquid flux melting, the velocity in the middle of the liquid flux
pool is chosen to better reflect the effect of flux properties on the flux flow in the pool. It is found that
lower melting temperature significantly increases the flow rate of the mold flux, especially near the
 The effects of flux property on the liquid flux thickness and velocity are explored for better
understanding the melting and flowing behavior of mold flux in the billet mold during the ultra‐high
casting speed. Figure 9 shows the effect of melting temperature on the liquid flux pool depth at the
symmetry plane. In general, lower melting temperature of mold flux shifts the melt interface of the
slag bed upward to form a deeper liquid pool. It should also be noted that further decreasing melting
Metals 2020, 10, 1165 9 of 12
temperature will reduce the effect of increasing the thickness of the liquid flux layer. The general
increase in liquid layer depths is expected to improve feeding to the middle of the mold wall.

Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12

meniscus, which will promote the consumption flow into the flux channel. This indicates that lower
melting temperature permits larger velocity that generates more convective heat transfer from the
Figure 9.
Figure Effectof
9. Effect ofmelting
meltingtemperature
temperature on
on flux
flux pool
pool depth.
depth.
steel/flux interface to the active region of the liquid flux pool.

For ultra‐high speed continuous casting, sufficient pool depth is a guaranteed supply of liquid
flux, and good fluidity is used to ensure the consumption flow into the flux channel. Figure 10
compares the velocities for mold flux with different melting temperatures. In order to diminish the
influence of steel fluctuations and sintered layer melting, the velocity in the middle of the liquid flux
pool is chosen to better reflect the effect of flux properties on the flux flow in the pool. It is found that
lower melting temperature significantly increases the flow rate of the mold flux, especially near the

Figure10.
Figure Effectof
10.Effect ofmelting
meltingtemperature
temperatureon
onflow
flowvelocity
velocityof
ofmold
moldflux.
flux.

ItItisis known
knownthat thatthe
the flux
flux consumption
consumptionrate ratedecreases
decreaseswith
withincreasing
increasingcasting
castingspeed,
speed,thus
thuslower
lower
viscosity is usually used to obtain adequate flux consumption during high
viscosity is usually used to obtain adequate flux consumption during high speed continuous casting. speed continuous casting.
Figure11
Figure 11shows
showsthe theeffect
effect of
of viscosity
viscosity onon the
the flow
flow velocity
velocity of
of mold
mold fluxflux in
in the
the liquid
liquid pool.
pool. The
Thelower
lower
viscosity increases the flow rate of the mold flux, contributing to the uniformity
viscosity increases the flow rate of the mold flux, contributing to the uniformity of heat transfer of heat transfer in the
in
liquid pool. It is worth noting that since the liquid flux pool in the slab mold
the liquid pool. It is worth noting that since the liquid flux pool in the slab mold is more active, is more active, including
a large recirculation
including zone, the lower
a large recirculation fluxlower
zone, the viscosity
fluxwill enhance
viscosity willthe convective
enhance heat transfer
the convective heatintransfer
the flux
in the flux pool, thereby deepening the local liquid flux layer. However, this change is not obviousflux
pool, thereby deepening the local liquid flux layer. However, this change is not obvious in the in
pool of billet casting.
the flux pool of billet casting.
Although the interfacial tension between molten steel and mold flux depends more on the surface
tension of molten steel, it has an important influence on the slag entrapment, meniscus depression,
and flux infiltration [22,23]. Therefore, the effect of interfacial tension between molten steel and
mold flux on the level fluctuations is examined, as presented in Figure 12. It should be pointed
out that the predicted level fluctuations in this study are expected to be slightly lower than those
from plant data, since the effect of mechanical vibration is not considered in the model calculation.
However, the predictions are able to explain the relationship between the interfacial tension and level
fluctuations. It can be seen from the decrease of the maximum fluctuations (Figure 12, right top),
the higher interfacial tension is conducive to reduce the interface fluctuations. Moreover, the increase
of the interfacial tension shows a good effect on stabilizing the liquid level near the nozzle, which
decreases the incidence of severe level drop, minimizing the possibility of slag entrapment.

Figure 11. Effect of viscosity on flow velocity of mold flux.

Although the interfacial tension between molten steel and mold flux depends more on the
viscosity is usually used to obtain adequate flux consumption during high speed continuous casting.
Figure 11 shows the effect of viscosity on the flow velocity of mold flux in the liquid pool. The lower
viscosity increases the flow rate of the mold flux, contributing to the uniformity of heat transfer in
the liquid pool. It is worth noting that since the liquid flux pool in the slab mold is more active,
including a large recirculation zone, the lower flux viscosity will enhance the convective heat transfer
Metals 2020, 10, 1165 10 of 12
in the flux pool, thereby deepening the local liquid flux layer. However, this change is not obvious in
the flux pool of billet casting.

Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12

near the nozzle, which decreases11.the

Figure11. incidence
Effect of severe
ofviscosity
viscosity onflowlevel
flow drop,
velocity minimizing
ofmold flux. the possibility of slag
moldflux.
Figure Effect of on velocity of
entrapment.
Although the interfacial tension between molten steel and mold flux depends more on the
surface tension of molten steel, it has an important influence on the slag entrapment, meniscus
depression, and flux infiltration [22,23]. Therefore, the effect of interfacial tension between molten
steel and mold flux on the level fluctuations is examined, as presented in Figure 12. It should be
pointed out that the predicted level fluctuations in this study are expected to be slightly lower than
those from plant data, since the effect of mechanical vibration is not considered in the model
calculation. However, the predictions are able to explain the relationship between the interfacial
tension and level fluctuations. It can be seen from the decrease of the maximum fluctuations (Figure
12, right top), the higher interfacial tension is conducive to reduce the interface fluctuations.
Moreover, the increase of the interfacial tension shows a good effect on stabilizing the liquid level

Figure12.
Figure Effectof
12.Effect ofinterfacial
interfacialtension
tensionon
on level
level fluctuations.
fluctuations.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The melting and flowing behavior of mold flux in a billet mold of continuous casting during
The melting and flowing behavior of mold flux in a billet mold of continuous casting during
ultra-high speed is characterized using a mathematical model that couples the fluid flow with heat
ultra‐high speed is characterized using a mathematical model that couples the fluid flow with heat
transfer and solidification. The relationships between the mold flux properties and responses are
transfer and solidification. The relationships between the mold flux properties and responses are
investigated to provide insights into the evaluation of flux properties for ultra-high casting speed of
investigated to provide insights into the evaluation of flux properties for ultra‐high casting speed of
billet mold. The main findings include the following.
billet mold. The main findings include the following.
1.
1. Thehigh
The highspeed
speedsteel
steel flow
flow produces
produces aa hump‐shaped
hump-shaped meniscus meniscus at at the
the steel/flux
steel/flux interface
interface and
and
maximum in level fluctuations near
maximum in level fluctuations near the SEN. the SEN.
2.
2. AnAnactive
activeregion
regionwith
withhigher
highertemperature
temperature andand thicker
thicker layer
layer is generated
is generated nearnear
thethe
moldmold corner
corner in
in the
the liquid
liquid fluxflux pool,
pool, corresponding
corresponding to the
to the impact
impact position
position of theof the
steelsteel
flowflow on the
on the surface.
surface. In
In contrast,
contrast, thethe
fluxflux temperature
temperature between
between thethe middle
middle ofof themold
the moldwallwallandandthethenozzle
nozzleisislower
lowerdue
due
totothe
the reduced convective
convectiveheat heattransfer
transferofofmolten
molten steel andand
steel closer cooling
closer distance
cooling fromfrom
distance both sides.
both
3. Lower melting temperature of mold flux produces deeper liquid pool, which is expect to contribute
sides.
3. to the consumption
Lower flow, especially
melting temperature of mold theflux
feeding to the middle
produces deeper of the mold
liquid pool,wall.
whichTheisdecreases
expect toof
melting temperature
contribute and viscosity
to the consumption flow, permit
especiallylarger
thevelocity
feeding that
to the generates
middle of more
the convective
mold wall. heat
The
decreases of melting
transfer from temperature
the steel/flux interfaceand
to theviscosity permitoflarger
active region velocity
the liquid pool.that generates more
4. convective heat transfer
Higher interfacial tension from the steel/flux
between interface
molten steel to theflux
and mold active regionthe
reduces of interface
the liquidfluctuations,
pool.
4. Higher
which interfacial tension
is particularly betweento
conducive molten steelthe
decrease andincidence
mold fluxofreduces
severe thelevelinterface fluctuations,
drop near the SEN,
which is particularly
minimizing conducive
the possibility of slagtoentrapment.
decrease the incidence of severe level drop near the SEN,
minimizing the possibility of slag entrapment.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.Y. and D.C.; investigation, J.Y. and F.Q.; methodology, J.Y. and
M.L.; data curation, J.Y. and H.D.; writing—original draft preparation, J.Y.; supervision, D.C. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Metals 2020, 10, 1165 11 of 12

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.Y. and D.C.; investigation, J.Y. and F.Q.; methodology, J.Y. and M.L.;
data curation, J.Y. and H.D.; writing—original draft preparation, J.Y.; supervision, D.C. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant numbers 51904046
and 51874060) and the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of Chongqing (grant number cstc2019jcyj-bshX0027).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
α Phase fraction
ρ Density
→
v Velocity vector
m Mass transfer between the phases
p Pressure
g Gravitational force
µ Viscosity
→
Sσ Momentum sink due to the interfacial tension
σf-s Flux/steel interfacial tension
κ Local surface curvature
E Enthalpy
K Thermal conductivity

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