Hexffibook off

SonfldWa-stes
I\Iiemegl@m@mG

I
r IOBAL H. KHAN
Sen.or P oiesso...Ci,vr.
Ph.DlBadrod
8 Enl.ronmenrdr
Eng
Jamra Nliitia slamia New DerhL -
,]ee.,ng.

I NAVED AHSAN
LeciLirer, Deparheni ot Crvrt Enoineenno

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Jam,a Mitlia tstamta. New d. h

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t cBS
I cBS-_
? gBLtSHERS & DtsTRtBUTORS
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4596t1-A,11 Darya canj, New Dethi _r ro
Websjie I httpr/www.cbspd.com
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Preface

Ihis book has evolved out of our teaching, research aod cgggUltancv work
iD the field ofsolid wastes Eraoagerlent. It is iDteDded as a t€xt book for
undi@and
students of envitonoental engineering both at Dostgt-aduate
ievel. Auenpl has been Dade ro include aI relevan:6;ffiincludirr;;fr;As
and guidelines issued by the central and state gov€mmeDts il1 this regatd.
Ihis book should therefore be of intetest trot only to students and teachers
but also to etrgiaeers working itr the field ofsolid wastes managemeDt.
NuDe(ous solved a]ld unsolved Dumerical problems have been included for
effective !99!g!94i0! ofthe issues by studeats and engineers.
The varioustopics include the geDeratiotr, coDlposition, collection and
treatheDt options ofsolid wastes, disposal ofwaste on laddlill including
enginee ng aspech oflandfiIl disposal systems.
I{azardous *"stes including hdustrial wastes ed biooedical wastes, have
a high hazard poteDtial. A s€parate chapterhas tL€retore bee! alevojed to
this categgll of wastes
Aj!!!!4g!ishing fealure ofrhis book is tbe empbasis oo tbe use ofIT
tools in rhe ir@Eient ald operations of a solid GGG-anagement system.
The book should thetefoie be ofiBterestto urbaD plaDners.
We hav€ also included several Case Studies l.om our consultaDcv.
Mary friends andcolleagues havehelped h !be endevour. to all of'whom
we wish to express out siDcere thaols. Thants are alio dGio CBS publishers
for bringing out lhis rext book.
Thl6'ksiilialso due
ro rhe AII lldia Council forTechnical Educatio! for
tbeir suppon i!
bringing out ttris book.
ADy comments or suggestiotrs fot i&proveoent wilt be gratefully
acknowledged.

Iqbal E. Khrn
Nrved Ahsatr
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iii Contents

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List of tigures I
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Fig. 1,1 I
Fig- 1-2
Fig. 1,3
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Fig. 1.4
Fig.2.1
Fig.2.2
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Fr" l.r
Fig.2.4 I
Fig. 2.5
Fig. 2.5
fig. 2.5
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Fig. 2.6
FiE 2.7 I
Fig. 2.8
Fig. 2.9
Fig.2.10
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Fig.2.11
Fig.2.l2 I
Fig.2.13
Fig.2.l4
Fig.2.15 I
Fig.3.l
Fig.3.l
Fig.3.1
Fig- 3-2
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6. Ilaz3rdous Wastes Management atrd Site ReEediation .......................'.............".'.... 123
t22
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Characteristics ofHazado[s Wastes ..................... ............... 123
Managementofl{azardousWastes.-.,..,.,.,..................-.,.--.,.,.,,-,..,..-.-,--.....-..........124 T
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Chemical Oddalion....................... 128

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Risk Assessment in Siting ofa Hazardous Waste Disposal Facility--Case Study
Fig.3.3 Twical LayoutPlan ola Landfll ......... -- - -.........10
Fig.3.,1 various TlPes ofcell Layou6 . ... . .. . .. . . .........'.71
Fig.3.5 TFical Cross-section oflandfill Cove ....... ........ 74
Fig.3.6 Sxrface Water Drainage Charmel .... ...-- ............ 75
Fig.3,7 TypicalMoaitoringlnstrumentationatLandfiilSite.................-..---.-.......76
Fig. 3.8 Sarnpler
Cirab . . .. .. . " " 77
Fig.3.9 GromdwalerMoritoringwelt ......:rr::,.=.-?s
Fig,3.10 Aii Quality Monitoring in Vado
Probe for 7e - "" -" ..'-.-' -': :-:: " 79
7-'1L

Fig.3.1l T]?icallysimerer:.,..:.......... --......- - - '79

Fig. 1.1 Twical ConcentrationProfile ofleachate Consititue s............ .-.- "87
Fig. d.2 Landfill as Simulated in HELP Modei . . "- -- ' '91
Fig. 4.3 (a): Single Lin - " 92
Fig.4.3 (r): Single Composite Liner '... . . . ........... -- "" 92
Fig.4.3 (c): Double Composite Liner......... .... '- - '93
Fig.4.4 Methods ofThermal Seaning ofceomembraDe . . .. - "."" - "96
Fig,4.5 Leachatecollectionsystem............ " ""98
Fig.4.6 InvenedFikeraroundleachaiecollectionPiPes.........",' - .- " 98
Fig.4.7 A Tlpical Sumpwell for Leachate Ccllection ........................'. " 99
Fig.4.8 T)pical Leak Delection System . ... "" 100

Iig. 4,9 LeachateReckculation System ..... .... "_ "'- " 101
Fig.,l.lo Sketch ofa Twicai Aemted Lagoon """ " "i02
Fig.4.1l ActivaledsludEeProcess...-....... ......... " " "" ' 103
Fig. 4.12 RoraijngBiological Cortactor... .... . . "_ "" 103
Fig.4.13 TricklingFihe ""." "" ' 103
Fig.,t.l4 Two Stage Anaerobic Tleatment Process "'- " "" 104
Fig.4.15 USB Reactor. "- -" '105
Fig.,t.16 Twicat Sequence ofPhysicavchemical Tleatmmt "" "" "" "" " 105
Fig.5,1 Phases in Lardfillcas Generation ...... """ "" "111
Fig.5.2 Palh\%ys oflandfill Gas Migmtion..... " "" 1l4
Fig.5.3 Components ofcas Collection Syslem . ...... " 116
Fig.5.4 Gas Eilraction well ... ............. .....-... -.."-'.- " 117
Fig.5.5 Combination ofcas Erf'action Well aid Leachate CoUection Well . ........ .... ' 118
Fig.5.6 flare Bumer. -.....""" " i19
Fig.5.7 TwicalAnangementofcaswells...... ... " "' l2O
Fig.5.8 Schematic oflnfta-red CO? Detector .. .. -"-"" "\21
fig.6.1 Rootzone T€atment System . ...... " ,' " "" 146

Fig.6.2 various Routes ofExPosue .. ....- ",' " " "" 149
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Fig,6.3 StagesinlcA
Fig.6.4 Fiow Diagam for Production ofBar Soap
.-..................153
................ 153
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Fig.7.1 T$ical Distributio! ofPru .................
Fig.7.2 LeopoleMatri.(
...................... i66
.................. 168 I
Fig.7.3 Typical Value Function craphs SOr; NO,: Odoi
(a) (r)
Fig.7.4 Parameter lmponance Units ...............
(c) (d) pH .................... 169
....................... 174
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 Chapter

Irutrod.uction
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I Management ofsolid \r,astes is a maj or challenge these days for the administmtors.
engineers and planners. Huge volumes ofsolid $astes are generated and
need to be collecled. tnnsporred and l'inally disposed off. These operaiions

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have to be carried oui speedily and efJlcienrly without incurring excessive
cosl ordamage to environment. Unfortunately in manv deve lopi ng couo!ries,
the system for maraging wasies is primitive and cannol cope with the huge

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volumes ofwas!es being generated.
In developing couniries, it is common to find large heaps of garbage
feslering all over th€ ci!y. The problem gers further complicated due ro

r large populalion and 1be obsoleie techniques emp loyed for s,asre management.
lnsanitary melhods adopled ior disposal of solid rvastes is a serious
health concern. Techniques and rechnologies however are avajlable and
indigenous methods can be deve loped for man aging ihese wastes properl)- .

I Solid Waste is defined as a material ihat is cheaper to throu au,ay

than to store or use. Ir is no longer considered as unlvanted marerial to
be dumped out of the sire. Solid wastes are simply 'material at wrong

I place, *.hich can be segregated, iransformed, recycled and reused

wilh greal financial and environmenlal benefits.

I IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTES ON ENVIRONMENT

I n.e.. Droperl] managed..olid u.ste( l"ve polent,a'ol.erio-s impacr5
on environment, Il can lead to surface and ground water contamination.

I land pollution and air qualiry deierioration_ Fig. t.l sho\Ls the tikely
sources of 'mpdc j on air. udter .nd land en\ tronment.
Water infiltrating through the wasres generates Ieachate, which can

I ultimately mix with the ground water. Dust and Iifier scattered by wind
are responsible for deteriorarion ofair qualit) in !he vicinity ofdisposal
siles- Insanitary method of disposal of wastes also produces odor and

t affects ihe aesthelics ofthe area. Moreover- decomDosition of wasres

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2 ATextbook ol Salid Wastes Managenent
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releases noxious gases posing high risk to human health Some
health hazards dlre to solid wastes are presented in Table 1' l
ofthe environmental and 1
Table r.r I Some Environmenlal Haz ards Due to Solid Wastes
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Air wder and lEnd quali! deterioration, high ]evels ofnoise,

EnvircMental Pollution

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Gastroi estinal disorders, jaundice, dianhe4 respiratory
infection, dermal diseases. etc. Also sometimes may cause

l"ju:r lnjuries to workers by sharPs, gLalses, 4d chemicaltv

aggressive substances presenl in the wasles.

Environmental impacts ofpoorly managed wasteshave been studied alloverthe

world' It I
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diseases spread
is now well known that a large number ofdisease vectors and water borne
due to poor collection and disposal praclices ofsoiid wastes'
Mosi environmental impacts can be minimized by employing aPPropriate techniques

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of solid wastes management.

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_ FodenrE/f es I
J/Z-
rr7'//, 3k"
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Conlam.aled Groond Wale.

Fig.1.1: Typlcalsources ol Environmental mpacis Due to Solld

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SOURCES ANDTYPES OFWASTES
Solid wastes are generated from various sources e g-:
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(i) Residential and Commercial Areas
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 (ii) lnsritutions
(iii) Industries
(rv) Const ucrion and Demo,itiorl Activities
(y) Municipal S€rviaes
(yi) Agriculrural Acriviries
(vii) Treatment Plants
(vrrr) Special Category Sources.
Residential snd Corhmercial Wastesr This caregory ofwastes
includes all organic and
inorganic refuse from res;dentiat areas. The org"ii.
"o.pon.n,
as food wasres. paper, cardboarat,
oftlr.."-;;;;:;;;r;"
:",,]:)-:l.Tij::t"l::Th textile, prasrics, rubber, teather,
I he inorganic c ompo nen r consisrs ofitems
:ll:J11"_"-1..r* such as glass botttes,in cans,
arumr nurn. other mera l. batteries. oil. and Daints. Commercial wasres
a:.e riih in paper card boara,
plastic5. glass. \iood and olher packaging marenals.
Institutional Wast€s: Instjiutionat wasies ioclude wasres froin schools. colleges, govemment
and piiva.e insritutions, prisons e1c. This category ofwastes is
similar
commercialvastes but may also contains hazardous wastes e.g. chemicals
,"'.*li""iiri
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The proporrion ofpaper cardboard and packaging materials ii genera y
mu.f, nt#rir'ifri.
lndustrial Wastes: Soiid wastes generated from various processes in small and larg€
scale indusr.ie( are classlfied as induslrial lyasres. [hese are lighl]
nature and are indus.ry specific. Both hazardous and nonharuriors
h.;*;."r; i.
lound in industrial wastes_ "";;;;;;i;;r"
Constructioh and Demolition Wrstes: Construction and demolition wastes
are the
con:rrirction. demolition and renovation of builJings
:-1.::i:L::T1-f].:lrhese .repairins,
inctude bricks. ptasrer. slones. concrere. di . $ood. prumbints
ano ::"::.:l,l.,r'*
::: etectrrcat parls. cemenr bags etc. fhe demolition wasres also include glasi. plasrius
and reinforcing sreet. Mo(t ofthe conslruction and demolirion *",r.4
i;.i.-"'
Municipal Services WastesiThese are the wastes produced by ope.ation ";.
and maintenance
ofmunicipal facilities e.g. streer sweepjngs. lt atsoinctuaes roaaliae t;tte;t.";
)ard walles from public parl,s and play grounds, dead animals elc.
;;;;;",
Agricultural Wastes: Wastes generated from agricultural acrivhies such as planting
and har!erin€.o. trees. animal farms. poultrl farms etc. Wasres
f; d"lr!;;;,"
rncrudrng teed Iols. animai manure are also included in agricuJtural
wastes,
Treatment Plant Wastes: The treaiment plart waste includes solids
and semisolids
in the form ofsludge from warer, and wastewarer ireatment facilities.
of these lypes ofwaste depend upon the type ofrrearment pi;a. "- - -'*-'""
The characteristics

I Special C.regory wasles: Wastes having special characreristics

are hospiral qastes,
slausht.rhouse wastes. rrlash t,o," ,r,.,iai p";",;;;;,.';;;;;.i;;:';::;1T..
These kinds of wastes require speciat trearment and disposai
t""h.iq;".. --'-" '"
I MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
Municipal Solid Wasres(MSW) includewastes from residential. commercialand

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institutjonsl
areas, construction and demolition wastes, and wastes from
munic;pat serrices. GW

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4 A Textbaok ol Sohd Wastes Managenent

is normally assumedto include all the wastes generated by acommunily excepl the industrial
\\'astes. The !erm n rricipal solid \9dstes .will interchangeably be used as solid wastes itr'''''
this book.

ceneration of Municipal Solid Wasles T

Wastes generalicn is essential due lo discarding of unlranted materials away for disposal.
is a continuous activity which is not very controilable. Huge quantities offiunicipal solid
wastes are genemted in allthe megacilies ofthe world. The volume ofmunicipal solid
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waste generated varies with rhe Iifestyle ofthe people. ll has been estimated that each American
generates wastes about 4000 times his bodyqeigh!; each Wesl European 1000 times; and
each cit;zen ofthe developingcountries Iike lndia about 150 times. The United States alone
generates more than 200 million tons ofwasles ayear-an amounl "enough to fill a convoy
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ofgarbage-trucks stretching eighl times around the globe"-
rDeihi, aboul6000ions ofMSW are generateC everY day. Theaverage per capita generarion
ofMSwinlndiancitiesis0.4-0.6k9/day.Thequanlitiesofwastesgeneratedinsomeoi
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the cities in India and comparison ofwastes Seneralion with other countries are sho$ n in
Table 1.2 and lable l.3respecli\ely.
The population ofthe $orld is steadily increasing, but 90% ofthe yearly;ncrease of I
world population is confined only to seven couniries e.g. Ifldia, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
lndonesia.,China. Nigeria and Brazil- India s population is currently increasing by about
15 millions per year. I
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Table 1.2: Quanlities of

cnv
w?s1es and Per Capila Generation

u aste
in Indian Cities

s Generatrcnttant dar) I
\Kgldar)
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AHMEDABAD
BANGALORE
BHOPAL
1683
2000
546
0.585
0.484
0.514
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BOMBAY 5355 0.436
5. CALCUTTA 3692 0.383
6. DELHI 5700 4.574

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7. LI\DERABAD 1566 0.382
E, JAIPUR 580 0.398
9. XANPUR r200 0.640
10. LUCKNO\} 1010 0.623

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ll. MADR{S 3124 0.657
t2- SLIRAT 900 0 600

So"rce CPCB (2O00d)-

Lopsided planning has contributed 10 the rapid increase ofpopulation ofmegacities in

developing countries. Populatjon of megacities like Delhi is increasing by halfa million
per year. By all accounts therefore the management ofMSW will be a major challenge for a
a
years to come in ail developing countries.

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 Tabl. I.3: Quantities ofwastes in Different Countries

Qu a n 1 i rt ( KE/c ap i t a/dar)

t. India 0..10-0.60
2. USA
3. UK 0.95- i.00
Singapore 0.60-0.90
5. Japan 1.00-1.20

So,/.e: CPCB (2000d).

Composition oI MSW
The composilion.'f ftunicipal solld *astes is .ire term that describes ihe distribution
of each component of wastes by its percent weight of the total. The information is
required for the selection of suitable treatment and disposal methods. For instance,
MSW conlaining high percentage of biodegradable wastes e.g. food wastes and yard
wastes are suitable for cofirposting. Similarly, ifrecyclable materials like paper, plaslic,
cardboards, glass are presented in solid wastes, these materials should be recovered
and rec) c led.
The composition of MSW has been studied extensively. The precise composition
depends upon the Iocalily, season ollhe year, standard ofliving, Ianduse etc. Important
conslituents of MSW generated in Indian cities are food wastes, paper, cardboard.
plastics, rubber, textile, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, tis, aluminium and olher metals,
and silt/di.1and construction and demolition wastes. Typical composition ofMSW geneiated
in Delhi is give, in Table 1.4.
Trble 1.4: Composition ofMunicipal Solid Wastes in Delhi

S No.

20-30
3-5
Card Board 3-4
4-6
Te*ile 0.2-0.5
)-2
0.2-0.5
20-30
t-2
Class 0 -2-a -7
Metals 0.2-0.5
30-40

SDz/.? ISEM (2000).

Seasonal variations are often large in municipal solid wastes. L{anv fruit and vegetable
wastes including bagus from sugarcane! mango peelings, and melon peelings are all
seasonal- Huge volumes ofthese seasonal wastes alter the composition ofMSW significantly.
Composition of wastes also differs from locaiity to locality. People in a particular
locality often have similar background in terms of incomes. lastes, and expenditure.
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A TexlDook of Salicl Wastas Management

Wastes from high income goup localities is usually heavy in pape.and packaging, while in
low income group areas, the predominant constituen! is usually food wastes.
Construction a.d demoliti;n wastes consti te a significanrjroponion ofwasres tn areas
where these activities are in progress.
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Composition ofwastes from commercial ateas depends upon the nature ofactivities.
Around offices and institutions usually paper and packaging are the major components
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while close to vegetable and fruits markets, food wastes are predominanl. Similarly,
wastes near daiD, farms will be high in animal feed and manure while in rhe wastes
from slaughter houses bones, blood and animal body parts will be commonly found.
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Efiicient managemenr of wastes requires an integrated wastes management pian. Techniques
-na r. lhno logier itr_: ;i;----.. "nd the choice depends largely on lhe compoaitions ofwastes.

INTEGRATED SOLIO WASTES MANAGEMENT

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The cardinal principle in wastes management is 3R,s e.g. requction, reuse and recycling.
An inlegrated solid wastes managemeDt system is based on this principle. It requires a
comprehensive approach for each stage of solid wastes management e,g. generation,
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collection, processing and final disposal. Impo(ant components of s-uci a sysrem
include the following:
L \\asies Minimization at Source
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2. Materiai Recovery and Recycling
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3. Uasres lranstormal.on
4. \blume Reducrion before Disposa.
5. \!astes Disposal
O Darabase Vanagemenr

Wastes Minimization:
Wastes should be ideally minimized at rhe sorrrce of irs generarion.
Reducticn can be affected in many ways but the following lechniques are iommonly
employed-
+
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Minimizing the amount ofthe material used in the manufacture of a product
Increasing rhe useful life ofthe producr
Reducing the amount ofmaterialused for packaging and marketing ofconsumer goods.

Materi3l balance studies and environmental audits ofindustries can effectively help in
devising straregies for reducing wastes generation.
Wastesreduction can also beachieved in household and commercial unitsihrough increased
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public awareness ofimproved buying paftem and through reuse ofproducts. For example,
the same carry bag can be used repetitively instead oftaking a new bag forshopping every
time.
Material Recovery and Recycling: Municipal solid wastes consist ofvarious materials
e-g. papet cardboard, plastics. metals, glass, rubber Many ofthese components are suitable
for recycling and reuse. The process involves separation and collection ofthese materials, I
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preparation ofmaterjals for reuse and remanufacture. Significant amount ofmoney can be
earned through selling out ofthese recovered materials. h efficienrly reduces the quantiry
ofq'astes and thus reduces the load on the disposal facilities which in turn reducesthe cosl
ofhandling and disposal. For ,nstance. fusing ofgiass particles to clay for making ceramic

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 :i.-'".TI"Tir':il;:T:1: ::fl:;i:h?':r''"' ftj makins Porlester nber ror manuracturins
.."r r,o," *"pr.a.,"1,-;-';;;il;i;",'.:j,l;:X::,".[
o: these metals from ores
1T;,lXi,i::;fi ::i:l;H#, J;
\lastes Translormation: Wasres rransform?tion
is the physicai. chemicai or biological
.onversion of sasies for an) beneficial Du
",.r u,.o,,po.,;ng.,nu.;dr-;:;.,;r;"'r:3;ji,:f"iffilii",::?;.1l,.T,1il"rp,9::i;
are erFployed lor tl i( purDore. Se\
eral o\ Drodu.r. orii.."e process., in rt ;";;
energ) erc can be recoverea. seJecrion oiaiuitaul" . ;;rr:,
ofwaste translormation as well
,."r,"1'qr" i"p"rar'roii'ffiili*,".
as on the composlrlon ot wastec
lblume Reduction, Volume reduction of\.\astes
is carried our before irs final disDosat.
incrudes It
size redLrcrion rhrorsh .hreddins,
rcduc rion rhrough com pacrion. Volume
s,ze;";;;i;;;;;;;",;;il;[;:r,.; ,,,.
,".i"rrnanr,-a;.po.'ri. "' '-"'_ reduc
'qurtro.. ol $aslesalso redL'es rhe land drea requrJemenl

Wastes Disposal: Wastes thatcan not be recJcled

or lransformed need to be disposed off.
Residues from va.ious u,asres transformarion pro...r.,
"ir;;;";;;;t d;ip"*;,il;;,...
oprion)olu.asresdispos..a-e.dilDo..,nlard.dispo.ardeepbit"",i"'.i"'l,r:f"r,.?."ra
disposal ar rhe ocean botrom
Disposalon land is one ofihe oldest and l
methods' Disposal on scienlificallv
a"signea enginee.eJ tand;;ri;. ;;;::"'"t'""mmon
sar) to prevent groundwater contamination

r for the protection ofenvironmenl. and

Database Managemenl: q.\ailaoil -\nfnreciseand,eliabledataisolutmosr,mporrance

in Ihe planning and de5ign or
"nt.en,i,onnenr,
In records but shoutd be instantaneoustv
,1."..
ff.,. aai.iorii ;;1, ;':r";;,r",.
pr"rr* ";, rrermpon
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a.cessible to,t,"
"-;;" i.'' ' "P''sized' Manv ofthe ""a'j"J;#i"ffi;:"""
o'easlacces,,biJir,.annorbeoreremohasi,"";;j.;;;,;"1::^'::lrB5
data are constantlv c'hanging
-a ,."a. ," i.."girt".i'
Darabase manaeement shourd be an integrai paft
^Precise, ofthe sorid wastes managemen! sysrem.

I relevant and reljable data are necessary for

.disposatrechniques.
Ir atso hetps in devetopjng
selection ofvarjousireatment and
indi!**.
"gi*.iii;;; ;#;"il*".
r
lype of uaste comDosirion. I he tarar.ase.loutoi*rra".on,1foii,;on
""t ""-f
chemica. and biotogrcaJ p.openie. ofq
asres and irf"rn.",l;;r;;;;;."i"r.*"1 iiiI.",.
rnd facilil.ei a! ailable Ior co,leciion. rranspofiaron
with rhe use oF Remole Sensjng. Ceographic
and drspo.a I
of \r a\les. ";i;;:;i'._"
_ lnfo*r,io" Sl.i.r.,C fS , lna t"T purupl.|nrt,"
nos commer(ial) d\aitab,e. i i, no$ D"s.ibte

I to the users instanlaneously.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTES

ro cojtecr atirhi.
"";;.; ;;i.t;i.:;li, "

I Physicai, g-eotechnical, chemicaland biological

rmponant for the design ot an inteerated wz
below _
properties ofmunicipal solid wastes
rstes management system. These
are
are described

I Physical and Geotechnical properties

of MSW
Physical and geotechnjcal properries ofmunicipal
solid lyastes inciude:

t (i) Specific \}tighl

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a A fetrboo^ al Salid wastes Management
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(ii) Moisture Content
(iii) Particle Size and size distribution
(i') Irield Capacity and
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()) Permeabilily.
Specific Weight
I
Speci{ic weighl oi.runicipal solid waste is defined as the weight ofwastes per unit volume
. .- tons/m3. Il ia usualltlpeci;:l as Ioose, uncompacted, or compacted. Specific weights
are requlred rc assess lhe total volume oi was13. tb3t rt!st be managr ' It has both spatial
I
and temporal \ aflanons.
Specific weighl of the municipai solid wastes is required iD the design ofvarious equipment
e.g. fo. processing units, for lransporration and for estimating the required capacity of I
I
disposalsites.
Specific weight ofthe solid wastes is determined by means ofacubical container, usually
o0 c'n r0 cnr ' o0 crn 'n si7e. The conlainer is filled to o\erflow whh the \ asie taking
. _ ;-!t
soecral rare
special care tolo avol0 seaesarlon or comDaclron,
avoid sEde-dation compaction. Loss ofthe
Loss or Ine rlne particulaie material should
fine Danlcura
. .. 2 be a\oioed. The coni;iner is-tamped
+-.--r-,'__ ..,"i)lr-_.
-_:trathr edge FinallriKe-cbnrainer
thricdb! Iiftine it 6 cm above lhe eround and dropping
do$n squarel]. After th* consolidalion, lhe top ofthe contaider is Ievelled with the tielp ofa
is weighed and the speciJic weight is calculated as foll.,ws:
I
Specific Weight = (i/*. - Iri)/,/.
where ,/.. is weight ofcontainer {illed with the wastes (kg);
Ir', is weight ofenpty container (kg); and
( 1.1)

I
t' is volume ofcontainer (mr)
Specific weights ofvarious components ofmunicipal solid$aste are presented in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5: Specific weight ofVarious Components ofMSW

I
narae(ionYml)
Specifc Weiqht
Typical ltonslm3 ) I
Csrdboard
0.2-0-4
0.05-0.10
0.04-0.06
o.29
0.09
0.05 I
I
0.05-0.07 0.06
0.05-0.70 0.06
0.1-0.15 0.13
0.1"0.2 0.16

class
0.05-0.15
0.15-0-3
0.l-0.2
0.r0
0.23
0.15
o.l5
I
I
0.1-0.2
silr/AshIDirr 0.6-l -5 120

So!/cer ISEM (2000).

Moisturc Content
The moisture conteil ofsolid wastes is the weight ofwater in it expressed as a percentage
I
ofits wet or dry weighl. Usually il is lhe wet qeight which is commonly used.

I
I
I
 To dete.mine the moisture content, weigh the entire sample to obtain the wet weight
( tr;). tt is then dried in an oven at I 05oC till its mass becomes constant. ln case combustible
material is presentthe temperature shall not exceed 70 to ?5"C. Afterdryingthe dry weight
(lt'd) is measured. Moistute conteni ofmunicipal solid wastes is then obrained as follows.
M.C.=(fi/"-Ya)/W" (1.2)
Moisture content is an important pammeter affecting various processing opemtions e.g.
composting. Usual values of moisture content in the differeot compooents ofmunicipal
solid wastes are given in Table L6.

T?ble 1.6: Moisrure Contenr ofVadous Componenls ofMSW

Moisturc Cartenl

50-80 60
Paper & Cardboard 4-10 6
Plastics t-4 2
Textiles 5- 15 t0
l-4 2
5-10 8
30-80 60
10-30 20
Glass l-3 2
Metals l-3 2
SilrAsh./Dirt t0-30 t5
Sorr.e, iSEM (2000).

Parlicle Size and Size Disttibution

Particle size distribution ofmunicipal solid wastes is an imponani parameterto be considered
for maierial recovery, composting, incineration, landfilling etc. Since the particle size of
waste materials varies widely its size may be expressed by any ofthe relation given below.
L*= I (1.3)
L"=(l+tt)12 (1.4)
L*= (1+ \t + h\13 (1.5)
L,=(t\\N)tD (1.6)
L-= (t, w, h)ts (i.7)
where, rr, is representative size and r, , and, are respectively iength, width and height of
waste paaticles.
Largerparticles may be measured bythe use of a millimeter scale and for smaller particles
a sieve anaiysis may be carried out. Se.pamtion ofparticles can be cafiied out by use oftstandard
set olsieves. Size distributioD ofvrasaes affects the pglosity and permeabiliry ofwastes in the
landfill. A typical size d;stribution curve ofmunicipal solid wastes is shown in Fig. I.2_

Field Cepacity
The field capacity ofsolid wastes is defined as the total amoBnt ofmoisrure thai can be
held ;n a wastes sample under the gravitational force. It is an importanr parameter, which
t
r
I
10 A Textbook ot Sotid Wastes Management

affects the quantity_ofieachate generation

I
ln excess ofirs field capacity is released
'zt'--St roo
in landfills. Moisrure available in
laleras leachare
solid wastes

I
-lI
lzo
90

m I
E5U
z
E50
g
f.o

10

i0 3o
Mesh siz€ (cm) --__--|
Fig. 1.2: Typicat particle Size Distributjon
of MSW
Field capacity ofsolid wastes vades wirh
the degiee ofcompaction. Typically
capaciry ofuncompacted municiDal the field
j,,", u. .".,i.i
solid v
il;#fi :; ;.:iil::x,HT:iJH:,1?,.,,
percenl A co, umn
" "",
Permeability
The p€rm€abilit) or hydraulic conducriviry
ofwastes is defined as the ease with which
uurd,can flo$ rtuough rhe asreliiliiilironanr a
" pu."r.r". thur gou..n. ii. ,""...r,
lrqulds and gases in the landfill. permeabi
"r
shape and sLe or wast;; ;;;;;;;;,: ;;::g,;'#li::il:llf"}:."fi ::l*HlflJi:
the wastes, Compacted wastes have lower
permeaoltrry.
Sahpling ol MSW for physical Composition
Collecrion of samples is rhe first sren in
esrimariDg rhe composition ofmunicipal
wasles Frequency and timing ofsamires soiid
colection should be carefirrl decided
rrutj.represenlarive sampres. sampre c;Iectionshourd io ensure
ll rs rmpofianl to note thal the larqer the n umber extent or er a tuilri; ril;.il**",
ol samples.
the resu)r( the more representative are
Locarion ofsampring starion is also imporunr
in physicaranarysis of [,rsw. rdea
". sampling are rhe transfer sration localed ali orer the ciry.
lor ocarions
Samples should b€ collecled
:::L-*_T"P
differenr rocarions as possibre and shoutd
enure area. Samples may also be collected
frc
be u"];;;;;;r;i#J;l;;;.
Colecrion of samptes a, ;;.;; ;i;;;;;;:T.Iasle Processins uniB or ar disposal facilities.
,reco,.ct.df,o;;;;,ffi;i;fi;ilI:ill-Jf,,lii.l*,liJi,ill,lil?ll;[;]^T,l'ii
!rastes is not accumle iftrucks collect \yastes from different areas in on€ trip. In gefleral,
one sample each should b€ collected randomly ftom each identified truck (ASTM D 52j t).
Ifmore than one sample are needed these should be collected from ditferenr parts oflhe
load in the.truck.
Sample size ofabout 200 to 300 Ib (i.e. abour 100 ro 150 kg) is considered optimum as
recommended in ASIM (D 5231). Following are some ofrhe common procedures ofsamDle
collecrion. Often combinarion ofthese procedures is also used.
. Oblaining a composire sample from material raken from predetermined Doints in rhe
load e.g. each corner and meddle ofeach sidel;
. Coning and quartering;
. Collecting a grab sample from a randomly selected point using a fronlend loader;
. Manuaily collecting a columE ofwaste from a ranqgqlly selected location.
ln coning and quanering. d large quanlil) ofwasre is rnixed ro make h uniform. the
mixed waste is tben arraDged in a round pile in the form ofa cone (coning), and one quarter
is randomly picked up (quartering). ASTM recommends coning and quartering, beginning
with approximarely 1000 lb of waste, to obrain a sample of200 to 300 lb. This method is
tir.e consuming and requires large space. It may also reduce accuracy as mixing may cause
various waste components totrash and stick together.
A more common method is to coilect grab samples using a front-end Ioader. This is a
relatively quick method. Sampling through the fronlend loade. alsoreduces the chances of
bglassociated \ th manualcollection. Howeveriarge objects e.g. emptv cardboard carons
may faildown while the loader bucket is lifted. Special care needs to betaken to avoid such
conditions.

Chemical Properties oMSW

Chemical properties ofmunicipalsolid wastes arerequired in the design ofvatious processes
sxch as energy recovery or composting. The choice ofcombustion piocesses depends upon
the chemical composition ofsolid wastes. For €nergy recovery considemtions, the follo;ing
are some ofthe important analyses to be caraied out.

Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis ofmunjcipal soiid wastes is canied outto dejermine itsmoisture contenr,
voiatile combustible matter, fixed ca.bon, and ash coitteot. Volatile combustibie matter is
the loss ofweight on ignition ofthe dded waste sample at 95ooc in a covered crucible.
Fixed carbon is the combustible residue that is left afler the volatile matter is removed
from the waste. Ash content is determined as the weight of residue ofwaste aftercombustion
in an open crucible.

Fusing Point ol Ash

The fusing point ofash is the temperature at which the ash resulting fr6m the burning of
wastes forms a solid clinker by fusion or agglomeration. Typical fus;ng temperaturtfor
formation of clinker from solid wastes range from l l00 to l20O'C.

Ultimate Analysis ot MSW

The ultimate analysis ofa componeirt ofwaste consists ofdeaermination ofpercentage of
its various chemical constituents e.g. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ash
 I
I
12 A Textbook of Solid Wastes Managenent
I
and Halogens. Uhimate analysis is an importaft parameter in the selection ofvarious wastes
processes, C N rario I carbon ro nilroBen ratio) is an imporlaDt factor for comDostins
controls biological conversion activity ofthe wasres. Chemicaj composirion ofva-rrous
as it
I
I
components of municipal so lid wastes is presented in Table 1 .7 and i g respectiv€ Iy.
.

Table 1.7: T)pical Chemical Conposition ofVSw

Carbon 50.0-60.0
Petcentage b! seight

50.0
I
Hydrogen
Oxyge,
Nitrogen
Sdfrr
6.0-8.0
30.040.0
2-0-4.0
6.5
32.0
2.5 I
I
0.3-0_4 0.3
5_0-10.0 50
So,/rc€, ISEM (2000).

MSW Componeht
Tabl€ 1.8: Chemical Compositiofl ofVr,rious Componenr! ofMSW

Percentape 6 dn *ei?ht
{ otba4 Hydtogen Orygen | rogen SuAu;
I
a
Ash
20-40

i
45-75 6-12 1-2 0.2-0.4
Paper & Cardboad 30-60 5-10 30-40 0.-0.3 0.i,0.2 5-10
Plaslics 50-E0 E-10 15-20 <0.r <0.1 6- 10
30-40

II
Textiles 40-50 5-8 t-2 0.r-0.2 3-1
Rubber 60-74 8-10 1-2 l5-20
50-60 6'8 10-12 8-r0 4.2-0.4 8-10
45-50 4-6 30-40 3-4 0.3-0.4 6-8
45-50 5-6 <0.1 0.5-1.5
Glars 0.5-0.6 0.1-0.2 a-2-0.1 <0.1 98-99
Metals 4-5 0.4-0.6 3-4 <0.1 90-95
3-4 0.4,0.6

II
Si]rAsh/Dirt 20-30 3-5 0 l-01 60-70
So,rrcer Li! snd Liptak ( 1996).

Preparation of;amples fotvarioustesls and the test rnethods arediscussed in the following
section.

Pr€paratioD of Samplq Municipal solid wastes are oftm heterogmeous in nature. A repress,-1tive

I
sample for laboratory therefore testing requires a large q uantity of samp ies say I O- I 0O kg.
Firsl, the basic operations e-g. drying, gdndinB, and mixing are canied out. From this iromogenized
sample a fraction weighing about 100 to 2OO mg may be extracted for detailed a;lvsis.
Details of methods of preparation of sarDples for chemicai analysis are described i; lSl
9234 - 1919.
The Iarge samples are dried ir) an oven.lnitial mass ofthe sample is \yeighed and then
dried al a temperature between 7O and ?5.C for 24 hours ifthe material i; combustible

I
otherwise it cao be dried at 105 + l.C. However ifrnicrobial tests a,.e also to be ca iedour
drying is carried out at 40 to 50.C. After drying, the material is aliowed to cool down
)

a
tr
Lr
tr
L
tI
preferably in a desiccato.. The sample is again weighed and placed in lhe oven for further
drying. This procedure ofweighing, dryiDg, and cooling is repeated till the difference in
weight ofbetween two successive cycles is less than one percent ofthe total previous loss
illmass.
The dried sample is then placed in a hammer mill, grinding mill or in a pulverizer to
reduce its particle size upto 2 mm. Final mixing and homogenization is accomplished by
using a rotatingmixer. The pulverized material is placed in the mixer and allowed to mix for
at least 2 hours. Finally, ifdesired, the mixed sahple can be sieved to separate it into different
sizes.

tr Carboir and Hydrogeu Analysis: Carbon and hydrogen are partofthe uitimate analysis of

II
municipal solid wastes and can be used for calcdation ofcombustion par:alneters. The detemination
ofcarbon and hydrogen involves burning ofsampies to lonieit carbon to carboil dioxide
and hydrogento water The combustion is caried out in a stream olhigh purity oxygen- The
sEeam passes lhrough the sample and a train ofa water absorber, a carbon dioxide absorber,
and a second water absorber, Carbon dioxide and waterarethus recovered inthe absorytion
train. Typical apparatus rcquired for this test is shown in Fig. I .3.

iI uit

Ir
E,EG,H,l, = cornbusrDn J,K.L=absorptionr€in
B,c,D = oxyg€n puilylng train J: li6r wat€r absoder
B= li6t
waler absorbsr K = ca.bon dioxide absorbe.
C = carbon dioxid€ abso.b€r
D s6c6nd wal6r absodet
=

Fig. 1.3: Ca6on and Hydrogen AnBlysis Apparalus

Oxygen flow is maintained at a rate of 50 to looml/rllin at standard temperature and

pressure through the sample. This sample is then heated at a temperature of850 to 900 "C

I for about 20 min. Oxygen supply is continued forten minutes thereafter. The absorbers are
thea detached and allowed to cool down to room tempeaature.

r
Percentage ofcarbon and hydrogen in the sample is calculated as:
Carbon = (A/B) t 2,t.289 (1.8)
Hydrogen = (C/B) x I1.19 (1.e)

I
I
is increase iD weight ofcarbon dioxide absorber (g);
-Bweight ofsample (g);and

r
C is increase in weight ofwater absorbers G).

Nitrogen Amlysis: NiEogen is also an inportant pa.rameter as it afecs the mte ofbiodegradation
ofthe waste. Percentage ofnitrogen can be determined either by Kjeldahl-Gunning Test
Method (Fig. 1.4) or by the Acid Titration Test Method. Both ofthese tests involve conversion

I ofnitrogen in the solid wasles into ammonium salts by destructive digestion with a hot,

I
I
 I
t
14 A Textbook of Soliel Wastes Management I
catalyzed mixture ofconcenmted sulfuric acid and potassium sulfare. The salrs are subseouentlv
decomposed :n a hol alkaline solurion from which ammonia is reco!ered by disrillarion and
l!s amounr derermined bj rirrarion.
I
T
t
I
t
t
t
I
I
a = dt€ctrtc heaier
B = Kjotdahr dtg€siton fiask
C = KjBtdaht conn.cling bu b
D = cond6nsor
E = connectlng lub€
F = rec€iving flask

Ftg. 1.4: Kje dah-Gunning Tesi Appa.atus

7
Sullur Analysist Sulfur in the solid wastes can be determined b) t\ro melhods e.g. Eschka
Method and Bomb Washing Merhod. Inthe EschkaEethod asample ofwasr€ is mixed with
a standard chemica(Eschta)and the mixture is ignited. Sulfur is precipitated from the resulting
solulion as barium sulfate. The precipitate is filtered, bumt and weighed. In Bomb Washi,:g
meihod also sulrur is precipitaled as barium sulfate from the oxygen-bomb calorirreter
I
washirgs and the precipitate is filtered, bumt and weighed. The sulfur conrent is then computed.
1
Energy Content o, MSW
Energy content ofmunicipalsolid wastes is the netcalorific value ofwastes. It is the heat pro-
I
I
duced by a unit quantity ofwaste, at consiant volume aJrd at a conslart pressure ofone atrnosphere.
It is assumed that all the water in the waste remains in the form ofvapors. The ener$/ conint of
municipal solid wastes can be Cetermined by means ofan oxygen bomb calorimeter under controlled
conditions. The calorific value is computed from temperature observations made before and
after combustion, making proper allowance forthemometer and thermochemical corrections.

1
I
I
tr
L
I
II Modified Dulong formula
iolid sasres e,g.
can also be used ior determination ofener&v content

Energycontent(Btu/lb)=145C+610(H?-Orl8)+40S+l0N
lvhere C is carbon fraction, H2 is hydrogen fraction, O, is oxygen fraction, S is sulfur
fraction, N is nitrogen fraciion-all values being percent by weight-
ofmunicipal

(1-10)

t Typical values ofenergy content various components ofmunicipal solid wasies are

!r
presenred in Table 1.9.

Biological Properties of MSW

Biological properties ofmunicipal solid wastes include water soluble constituents (such
as sugars! starches, amino acids, and many other organic acids); proteins (composed of
chains ofamino acids);fats. oils and \ra1€s; hemicetlulose (a condensation product ofsugars);
cellulose (a condensation product ofglucose); lignin content (a polymeric material); and
lignocellulose (a combination of lignin and cellulose). Out ofthese, lignin content is an

I imponant characteristic as il gives an idea oflhe biodegradability ofthe waste and helps in
the seleclion of appropriare processinB technique.

Trbl€ r.9:'IypicalEnergyContentof MSWComponents

I Eneryy Content \k)tke)

r Paper and Cardboard

Plartics
Ter:tiies
4600
16000
32000
17000

I
Rubb€r 23000
tsrher 17000
6500
18500

I Glass
Melals
SilrAsh
t40
700

r
7000

Sa!,c€r Liu and Liptak ( 1996).

Biodeg@dability ol MSW

I Biodegradability olorganic fraction ofMSW is often described by its volatile solid content
as determined by ignition at550oC. However such criteda of describing the biodegradability
of the organic fraction of MSW can be roisleading, as some of organic components of

I MSW (e.9. newsp nt, tree trimmings)are highly volatile but low in biodegadability. Lignin
content is a better index ofthe biodegradable fraction determined by using Eq.l.l l.
BF = 0.83 - 0.028 LC (1.r1)

I where BF = biodegradable flaction expresses on a volarile solids basis

LC = Lignin content ofthe volatile solids expressed as percent ofdry weight

t
The biodegradability ofvarious componenls ofMSW based on lignin content is presented
in Table Ll0.

t
T
 I
I
16 A Texlbook of Solid Wastes Management I
Tsble 1,10: Biodegradable Fractjon ofCoftponents of MWS
1
(%)

1-r5
(%)

0.4 0.82 I
Paper

r--r i-.
& Cardboard

ISEM/:0001.
92-96
50-90
22.0
4.0
0.21
4.72
t
MSW STATISTICS OF DELHI: CASE STUDY
The Department ofstatistics, Ministr) ofPlanning and Progranme Implementation, Covernment I
of India has launched a program ofDevelopment of Statistics in Environmental Sector.
Quality and quantity ofsolid wastes are ofcritical importance in the design and manageolent
ofSolid Wastes Management Systems. The lndian Society ofEnvironmenlal Management I
i
(ISEM) hascompleted one such project e.g. developmenl ofadatabaseby collecting,analyzing
and updatingthe data pertaining to Solid Wastes in Delhi.
Delhi is spread over an a.ea ofabout 1500 sq. km. The collection and disposal ofsolid
wastes is the responsibility ofMunicipal Corporation ofDelhi (MCD) and New Delhi Municipal
Council (NDMC). MCD has dlvided the entire area under its jurisdiction ir1 l2 zones in
addition 1o the one NDMC zone e.g.:
(l) South Zone (8) Karol Bagh Zone
I
(2) Centrd Zone (9) Najafcarh Zone
(3) Wesi Zone
(4) Shahdra (South) Zone
(10) Sadar Paharganj Zone
( l1) Narela Zone
I
(5) Shahdra (North) Zone ( 12) Rohini Zone
(6) Chy Zone
(7) Civil Lines Zone
( l3) NDMC Zone
I
The Conservancy and Sanitation Engineering (CSE) DepattmentofMCD employs a iarge
staff, both skilled and unskilled, for solid wastes management (Table 1.11). There are about
3E000 safai karamcharis engaged in collection and depositing the solid wastes in receptacles
I
(Dhalaos/dustbins) located all over the city. A briefdescription of machinery and other
miscellaneous equipments employed bythe MCD for solid wastes management is presented

Dornestic wastes from various locations is rransferred to the nearest dhalao/dustbin of

I
the locality by sweepers/safai karamcharis/ residents etc. There are more than25O0 dhalaos
within the municipal limits ofDelhi. From these dhalaos the solid wastes are transporled
for final disposal at various Sanitary Landfill Sites (SLF). Al present only three landfill
I
siles are in operation i.e. at Ghazipu., Okhla and Bhals*a Table l.I3.
Database pertaining to quantiiative and qualitative characieristics ofMSW in Delhi has
been developed. Sampies collected from 205 sampling slations (dhalaos) spread allover
1
the l3 municipal zones ofDelhi were analyzed. Secondary data was collected from various
sources e.g. MCD, NEERI, CPCB and from a large number ofrepofts and publicalions- A
workshop on ",9o1rdard Hazardous Wastes Manogement ik Delhi" 'ras also organized in
1
April 25. 1999 atthe I nd ia I nternational Cenlre, N ew Delhi.
this contexi on

I
1
s
l.
tL
I
Lr Trbl.l.rr: StaIT Engag€d in SolidWalres Managem€nt

,a lo Stalf

ir
I, Di.e.to.-cum-Chief Ergincer 2
:, Jt. Director-cum Suptd. Engineer 5
Additional Depury Commissioner I
i Administrative Ofiicer 1
5. Executiv€ EnsiD.er (Civil, Auro, E&M) 20
6. Astt. Ensineer (CiviLElecrMech./Auio) 48
7. Junior E sineer (CivilEl€cnMech.) t76
E, Sanjtary Suptd. 22
9. Chief Sanitary Inspector 33

I 10. r
11. Astt. Sanitary Inspector
208
666

r
t2- Sanitary Cuid€ 603
13. Safai Karamcharis 38,311
14 Driver 941

Sou..: MCD.

I Tsble 1.12: Machinery and Facilities employed for Sotid Wastes Management

r l.
2.
3.
Machinery and other Facilities
Central Siore
DhalaoandBirs
I
2500

I
11
Workshop (WheelBanow) I
5. Tipp€rTrucks 510
6_ Loader 84

I
7. Bulldozer 26
Som?r MCD.

I s ,\b.
Tablc r.r3: Landfill Sitcs in Delhi

r l.
2.
3.
SLF Ghazipur lEasr Dclhi)
SLF OkhlaPh I (C€n1ral Delhi)
SLF Bhals\ra (North Delhi)
70
32
40

r The quantity ofmunicipal solid wastes generated in Delhi has been consistently rising
overtheyears (Table l.l4).In 1992, the minimum monthly generation ofwaste *ai80226

r
tons (February) andthe maximum was 97224 tons (November). The average dailygeneration
for the ) ear I ao: works out ro be 2933 rons. Hoqever rn 1998. the minimum E!;nerarion
was I23736 lons (February) and the maximum of 167560 tons tDecember). This amounis
ro an average daily generatior}of49l4 tons per day i.e. an increase of l6j .5o/a oyet 1992

r
r
!
 I
1A A Texbook ot Sotd Wastes Management T
Table

1992
I.l4:
1993
Quantiry ofMSW Generared in Delhj(tons)

1991 t995 t996 )997 1998 1999

I
March
85920
80276
82332
100480
965t4
I06196
105462 115332
98926 95116
't04924 96970
t28t66
115064'
1t 1656
155120 154904 r56464
140674 123736 146560
154382 134378 165746
I
I
Api'l 8ts74 98516 105385 97108
Mav
115784 r53624 131986 162804
92594 1a.7204 l0i:-24 105654 1291t4 t66502 t40192 t738?2
86708 108350 88884
July 96096
105806 123338 )61|2 166176 169330
996E0 109592 101441

I
127830 168292 i5608,1
85t50 99730 11102E 93332 129120 t66212 149426
91302 104186 106116 1t2728
'to2384 165406 1496 t4
95586 151044 133974 149254 159336 164614

I
97224 98542
95960 99796
107538 116666 151406 l56t t4 155072
106532 177060 t44112 156228 167500
TOTAL t07072 1219034 1322421 t2\525a 1547416 tx,6x2 1793682 974776

Qry/day

Soutce:MCD.
3340 3673 3574 4239 5222 49t4 5327
I
Anal) sis ofdata reveajs rhar oresenriv 2verage daily generation
in Dethi is abour 5lO0 rons. Ii is obse;!ed ,f,i,,f,.rriSw
dhalaos and then transpo(cd for fina .
ofmunic;pal so.rd wasles
c;r.;.;";;;[,::t];cl* ,,
:sat. physicai aialr.,, .fa"," ,"r.j.,ir, *.
I
I
brodegradabte componenr is abour rll"o of roral.
The recvclrhl. ::^:'..- I2on
ana.iniruaes paper lnJ"",au""J, u.-". pi".,iJi;: "^_.^---; ;" Ebour
i;:i;:ffi::Iionentrrs
Hazaroous wastes are found freouen.h .ommingled
wilh the municipalw^t".. Uiiirur.ty
ir reaches rhe tandfilrs u here ir is leached ro rhe
er"r^a *"i. i
"lii'"!, i;;;:rr:; il,;",
health.
DalasBtistics revealrhat

:."111'11:ll:r:r*
a large fraclion
.ltabte f;r
ofMSW can berecycled and reused. Neighborhood
biodesradabre wasres rrom,estaenrial a,.lr. i,;.,
i""*"i
I
or Dlornedrcai q astes. it is recommended rhat a cenrral
small unirs which cannor afford independent lreatment
A computer program has beeo develoned for database
facility is appropri",.
facilil;es.
managemenr
i*"i"ii, ,*
ofsolid l}asres in
I
I
Delhi. Using $is software Irsu dara for diiferenr
marurcr thus co.stituting a valuable daabase.
.;;";;f D;i;l;:;'b":;o;;";;:;",,"
use of ,u.i"*
Informalion systems (cls) faciritates the operalron """i;i*.hrj;;.. "*oJ"*rr"
ancl monitoring ofrhe sorid wasres
rnanagefient system. It is sugiqested t}at acomputerized
and sharing of information.
Thestatistics and analyses ofthe MSWdata can be
e.g. treatmenl alternarives. technology selection,
network bet".dev.r"p.i

udlized fortaking imporlant decisions

rpi"i.g
I
I
she selectioD.
SOLID WASTES LEGISUITION
Various Acts. Rules and Regulations have
been enacted in India from time to time ro
manage

I
the sotid wasre. rhe MunicipatAcr is trre
nrst tegistati;n in rh; ,i,ii-ii,o'*il'o'.i'lIiio,"
which deals wirh en!ironmenut oolirtion carr.ed
b1 riuntcipatsotia wlr.s.
Corporarion Act. I957 contain; rhe foilowirrgsections
*;;;;i";;;il,
relevant to solid wastes manag€ment
in Delhi

I
I
I
It
It Sefijon 42 (c) O^bligatory

illlt,^:,!o::! llo :".. ;'il;

hhction ofthe CorporatiorF_the s(
ur l|lrD, rubblsh an.i 6rh removaland disposal

r ;iil;;;"il;X"*1,.:::
,:a\enging
Seciion 350
S.ciion 352 ;-Ji:;l ::: :::y:5":,1"c ;;:;""i:i,Jil',oo,.n,n
Secrion 353 lliJll?3,fl "":"t::,:::-". ;;;;1 ffi ;::::l:;',1;f nn.
l3
*",p,;;; i;'";r;
""".p'""r;., ;;5::#::,r,"T;:;

r
Seciion 358 3:::,1::::.-", --o
commissioner,s power,,i g", p."rr.". ."-"r""igllii,::1::T".
","
Recently the Govemrnent oflndia
ha s laid down detailed rules
s'a$e management. and guidelines for solid

r Summary ot ihe Municlpal Sotid

The.centrar covernmen, in

il#**[g{*{#,}i#JiilH"t$ffi
Wasi (M"nagement & Handring)

"*"."i..
or,5
Rures

t RespoDsibility of Municipal
l;?;[*i;lTjf

I Authoritv: I

I rmr.:****u*g[r***$*ffi
I Porrerof thcDistrictMagistrateorthe
or
for the enforcemenl
of,r,. p." iii" r,
Debntua^-_r--:^_-- _,
rft ueputy commissioner orrhe conceS:::l*9:II::1"^1.::
' '5
u rsL snall have
r,'"r".
^.
,n. oisrricr Masisrrale
the o\ erall resDonsibiliT)

I "r'"
"
Stale Boards to MoDitor Enforcemert
:l1I:::',I" :"::
r
as rne.case ma] be. rhe poiturion
conrr", folluuon controt Board or

I fr f,#*[ii.#.1[*tt.,,6::iif ii:,iirif d#*tr1#Jii,],h,l#

ma) be necessar) r"r p.p* irpl"#",1',];r";];:;'fi'.i"'*,
Certral pollutioI Conlrol Board to
.uthorir) ro ral'e sreps as

I ffi
Co.
:Trit"# lff:t r",^Titt:H ;.""r,j].illii!i;"["JJffix',*,ffi[::
itsmanageftenrandhanafirr- " ""-" "' "'tIna[ersotmunicipalsolid trasledisposaland

I MsDagemcnt ofMunicipal Solid

a
Wast€:
to\1n. snali be managed in
I
u".ord",l.e *id, tl?rnuniciPal
sord uasle generated in a cin
llo$lng comPliance crileria or
and the proced'ure
colrecrion ofMunicipar sorid warter:
Line
I ,,, crues. towns. and urb"n
steps shall be raLen: "r.""
--'*nor;n.a
sotid wasreshatJ be prohibiled
r," Illg.:j,hunicipal loProhibrl
rrqw/urEUo\emmenl
Iinering. follo\ ing
fi) Organizing house Io house collectio
I
fl [+i*:":":,,''ffijfifr $i]ltrjj*$,ii*ffi [ff ":ij,.:.;J;
I
 I
I
n A Textbook of Solid Wastes Management I
(ii) Collection ofwaste from shmls and sqilatter areas/localities including hotels/restaurarts/
office complexes and cornmercial areas shall be devised in consultation with municjpal
aulhoriD.
I
(iii)
(iv)
Wastes from slaughterhouses, fruits and vegetable markets, which are biodegradable
in nature, shall be managedto make use ofsuch \yastes.
Bio-medical wastes and i.dustrial wastes shall not be mixed with municipal solid
I
(v)
(ri)
wastes as per rules specified separately forthe Purpose.
Collected waste from residential and other areas shall be transierred to community
bins ordtralaos by hand driven containerized Catts. I
I
Horticul!ural and constructiorrdemolition wastes/debris shall be separately collected
and disposed off following proper norms. Similarly, activities relating to dairies
(milkingofcows brffaloesl.hall beregulaled inaccordarrce \ ithStatela\rs.
(vii)

I
Wasle (garbage, dry leaves) shall not be burnt.
(!iii) Stray animals shall not be allowed to move around waste storage facilities orat any
other place ;n city/town, and shall be managed as per State laws-
Municipal authority shall notify lvasle collectiofl schedule and the likely method to be
adopred for public benefit in a ciry iown.

Segregation of Municipal SolA fi'asles: M]jtr.iclpal authority shall oryaoize awareness prograns
I
for segregation ofwastes and shall encourage recycline/reuse ofseFegated materiais. Muricipal
3lurority shali undenake phaseC pr.r ams !o er,sir.e that the community is fully involved in
waste segregalion.
I
Slorage oJ Municipal Solid Wsstes: MIf.icipa.l arthorities shall eslablish and mainlain storage
facilities in such a manner as not to create unlygienic/insanitary conditions around it. Foilowing
criteria shall be taken into account while esrabiishingand maintaining storage facilities:
I
(i) Storage facilities shall be crealed/established by taking inlo account quantities of
waste generation in a given area and the population density. A storage facility shall
a
(ii)
be so sited such thatthe user finds it easy to approach.
Storage facilities to be set up by Municipal authorities or by any other agency shall
be so designed thaa waste slored is not exposed to open atmosphere and shall be
I
(iii)
aesthetically acceptable and user-friendly.
Storage facilities or bins shall have 'easy to operate' design for handling, transfer
and trafl sportation of waste.
I
(ir) Manual handlingofwaste slrall be prohibited. If unavoidabie dueto constrainls, manual
handling shall be carried out under proper precaution with due care for safety of workers.

Trunspo ation of Manicipal SolU Wasles: yehicles used for tiansporta!;on of wastes
I
shall be covered. Wastes should nol be visible to public, nor exposed toopen environment.
The following criteria shall be met:
(i)
I
I
The storage facilities set up by Municipal authorjties shall be daily attended for
clearing of\Yastes.
(ri) Collection and tmnsportation vehicles shall be so designedthat muliiple handling of
wastes, priorlo final disposal, is avoided.

I
I
I
 .......

Procetsing of Manicipal SoM l/a$es: Mtrnicipal

aurhorities shall bdopr suitable technolory
lor combinarion ofsuch rechnoloqiesl ro mak; ur.
landfill. Fotlo\ring crileria shau bi adopteo:
of*..r.r'.. ,o',ni;;i;:;::1i."
"-, ""
(i) The biodegradable wastes not containingan)
toxic contaminants. shalt be rrnc-.55s6
by composdnB. vermicompo.trg. *".,oui"
processing for srabirizarion. rr shar be ensued
atg.itton;;;]..#;;;;;Il11:i;e,.",
composr shar r be free ftom contarninarion

r
, ) d.uetoheav)metals.pesticidesoran)othercon,"airunra_____-'-'*,,*,,,,,
r,
'h?rr
wasteconrainingrecoverablemalerialshallfollo\rtherouteofrecycling.
Disposal of Municipal Solid Wastes: Landltlling
shali be restricted to n^n-hi^,_tan...r.
inen*asreandorheiwas'.rr,",",.no,r,i,"ii."i,r,".#ffi;il::T:i[:;;t:lir..i::i[iJ!.
Landfill;ng shallalso.be carried out for resroues ot wasre
processing facilities as well as
ror pre-processins reie*s fiom waste nrocsssi.g
shall be avoided unless it is found unsuitabi;r
r".iri,iJ, r"ranit;;;ili:J;"r,.
o. r;rr ins* rarion oiuli;;;;; r;;ffi:' l:;:ffi XffiIif;::i"JHfr:::,ff:HTyffi::
Landfilting sha meei the folowing crireria:
(i) Landfillsiling and construcrion shallbe done afterorooercare
H^'-a., i-.-".
p,oi.i;;ir;;;il"iH;#:*::"j*;
of ciries having popuratio, ou", nr" r".i
shatt.b€co-nducredbyMunicipalaulhorjrlb"irr*..r..1i"r"rii.."t"'"""',
(ir) rro! s ton tor firture Iand fi ll shes
r
shal I be included in the land'use pian ofcity/town.
(iiir Landfiljsiteshallcomptywirhrhenormsforcontrot ofairanjwate;d;.;"jrrd
surface waEr) pollution and otherenvinon tental
norms as laid down in the speciflcatioas/
standards.
(iy) Waste at disposal site shall not be burnt. Sites where
waste is to be burnt shall be
monitored for cornpliance.
A^[.trual Rrports: The State pollution Conrrol Boards
of Union renrrories sha, prepare and submiiro;. -c;;;;i;;ii;ii*
and pollution Conlr^t a^_-id
Annual Reriew Repon wirh r;gard to rhe implern.nt"rion lffiffiIIT:
of ,fr.." .ri"._;; r;il;
before 30lh Jur,e. The Centratpolurion Conrrot
Boara snalt prepare rt e con.;;*i;"_;r"l ".
I revie\r reporr on managemenr of hunicipat sotid was,..
aiong wirh iis recommendarions befor; I5rh Septembe,
Accidenl R€porting: When an) accidenl occurs.lt
ili;;;fi ;;;"';';;Hi6:',1*""r,
er.ry yea.._'

I
any municipal solid wastes collection,
segregation. srorage, processing lrearmenr and ai.p"."f
transportarion of such wasres. rhe Municipat aurt oit,y
f^.iiiif".i"rdfil.ti.';;;;;;"_
to rhe District Magisrrate or rhe Depr-rry Commtssione, "r,"riio,it
*iit,-.ii;;i;;;i;:"r,
ofrt e conc..n;;.j;;,ilr:",..

I EXAMPLES
Exerhplel.l:Aresidentialareaconsislingofl5OOhouseshasanaverageoffourresidenls

I
per house. Forestimaring rhe quantii,
of;lid wasre genemted. rh; f;li;;;;;;r:;J";;r,
r ere made at disposal siLe for a period ofone week.

Specifc Weieht (kl/m3 )

I I
II
III
l0

25
8
l5
2
300
150

I
0.J0 r00

I
I
 I
I
2 A Te,ttbook of Solid Wastes Manegement
I
Determine the unit rate ofsolid wastes generation'

Solutionl
I
Using the numbe. oftdps, volume and specific weigh!
during o{le week may be calculated as:
the totai weight of solid \'aste generat€d

I
I
oJ Nunber of tiPs Specific wtghl
Type (Kg)
(mr) tks/m')

15 300 45,000
I IO
II
III
E

25
2
0.50
,orsl (Kgw.ek)
150
100
2,400
1,250

48;650
I
The unit genetation rate = I;
Total quantity of wastes
of-houses ,
Residents per House
I
I
Exrmolel.2:Eslimatethemoislureconlent,densityandenergycontentofasolidwaste
sample that has folloqing comPonenls Lsesuirabledala I
l4
40 I
Cardboard
Plasrics
9
9
t2 I
I
5
6

Solrtion:
' ' MoisIUre
ti) Conlenl
urir* [" rypi""f a"" moislllre contenl ofmunicipal
"n
io t0O kgofsample ma) be calculaled as:
solid wastes' ttle dry mass corresponding
t
14
Moisturc Content (o/.)
70
Dry Mass

4.20
\kz)
I
Cardboard
40
9
9
t2
6
5
2
60
37.60
8.5s
E.92
4.80
I
Tin cans
5
6
20
3
Totrl
4.00
5.82
7-3.89
I
I
I
t
I Moisrure Contenr =
/ioo - 7la9 r- ^^
l-:m-]100 = 261 l016

iiri Densi!y
Using the typical dataofMSW, lhe volume correspordingto 1000 kg ofsample may be

Twical DensjelKgrl.3)
14 290 0.483
40 85 4.706
Cardboard r9 50 1.E00
Plastics 9 65 1.38J
2 105
5 240 0.20€
6 90 0-667
10.392

o"'.i,r = (ffiJloo=e623E Ks/m3

(iri) Energy Content
U sing the typi cal data on energy conteilt of MSW, the tota] energy correspond ing to 1 00
kg ofsample may be calculated as below:

Energt Canteht(KJlKg) Total Ekerg1lKJ)

14 4,650 65,100
40 t6,750 6,70,000
Cardboard 9 16,300 1,46,700
Plani6 9 32,600 2.93,400
t2 6,500 78,000
5 1E,600 93,000
6 700 4,200
Totd 13,50,400

Uni! Energy Content (as-discarded)

en".gy co,t"nt= (ffffi) = 13504 Kr / Ks

Unit Energy Content (on dry basis)

= r:so+(.ffi) =r 8276K) tKs

Assuming the ash content as 4%, the unit energy content (on ash free dry basis)

=,rro.(mo_H-ruJ = ,322Kr /Ke

I
r
I
l'

I
I
24 A TexlDook al Sottd Wastes Managoment
I
Example 1.3: Derive an approximate moleculai formula for the organic portion ofa solid
wasres sample s irh the following composition:
I
Codponent

15
I
Cardboald 5
5 I
I
l0
5

Using the chemical composition obtained determine th! energy content of this solid

Solution: I
Using the lypical data of moisture conte!1 and ultimale analysis ofthe combustible
components, the chemical composition corresponding to 100 kg oi sample rnay be calculated
r
Conpanent Moist
Mdrs(kg)
Dry
Mass C
C hedical
H
O
Cadponents (kg)
N S Ash
I
Food
Paper
wastes l5
45 12.3
Cardboard 5 4.75
4.50

5 ,1.90 2-940 0.352 LllT

2.160 0.288 1.692
18.400 2.538 18.612
2.090 0.280 2-118
0.117 0.018
0.127 0.084
0.014 0.009
4.225
2.538
4.237 I
t
Piastics 0.490
Yard wastes l0 4.00 t.912 0.240 1.520 0.136 0.012 0.180
wood 5 4.00 1.980 0.210 1.708 0.006 0.004 0.060

Toals 85 6.1.45 29.482 3-9lE 26-161 0.402 A-r27 3-73

The moisture conrenr = 85 64.45 = 20.55 Kg

From moisture content. hydrogen and oxygen fraction is estimated: a
H) drosen
i:.,-
-
= jf(20.ss) = 2.28.] Ke
I
I
o\ycen ;;l20.ss) = 18 260 Ks

The revised chemical composition ofthe waste will be as follows:

C&bon
Hydrogen
Oxfgen
3
,ud$ (kg)
29.482
.938 + 2.283 = 6-221
26.767 + t8-266 = 45.033
34.684
7.318
52.98
I
Nitro8en
SulfiE
0_442
0.127
0.472
0.149 a
t
3-73 4.388

a
a
 The above mass composition ofthe chemicals may be conveftedto the molar composition

Marr (ks) Mole tatios (S = l)

29_482 12.01 619_66
HydJogen 6.22t 1.01 6.159 r554.88
O.rygen 45.033 r6.00 2.815 7to_495
\iEogerl 0.402 14.01 0.029 7.219
sif, 0 127 32.06 0.004 I
Therefdre, the apprcximate moiecular fo.mula for the organic portion ofsolid wastes
may be written asr
c.2oHrrJ507roN,s
Thepnergy content is obtained from the modified Dulong fol.mula, as follows:
Lnerg) ('onrenr-
/.\
lJTC-1121H-:8r-9lS-23N KJ Kg

/ <1oa.
= 117G4.684r- r420l.'.1 l8 - ai::J * 93r0.r40,_ 21r0.4,2r

= 12700.83 KJ/Kg
The above formula is with sulfur. The same may be convened without sulfur as:

I Carbon 2.455 85.82

I
HydJDgen 6.159 2t5.36
Oxygen 2.815 98.40
Ninogen 0.029 1.00
tulfn 0.004

I The appioximate chemical formula ofwaste without sulfur is derived as:

cs6H:,,oqsN

I EXERCISE
L What is rhe 3 R's prircip le ofwasre managemenr.
this principle:
cive examples. What are lhe main advantases of

I 2. For
l.
a residenrialarea ofDelhigive typical composition ofMSW. Commenr on seasonal variarion.
Whar are the hazardous waste constituenls ofMSW in an urban residentiat colony? Cohpare it
with that ofwaste from ruralarea.

I 4. Des cribe briefly the Municipal Solid Was.es (Management& Handling) Rules,2000_
5. A solid vaste landfill has an i,t ritu dry densiry of0.65 ,m3. The fietd capacity is atained at a
moisture conlenlof4oo/o. Determine how mLrch additionatwaler it can hold ifthe inirialmoisture

I
I
I
I
 I
I
I
Chapter I
I
llection arud, Pro cessirog
I
Co
of Soli.d Wastes I
I
Wastes generated need to be collected and transported regularly for its
management. processing and final disposal. processing of r+astes is desirable
I
before irs final disposatfor enrironmental fiiotGiiiin-'. Segregarion-6fi6lii
wastes at the source is necessary for propermanagement o-i[nicipal solid
wastes. [t can have significant impact on the lrearment and disposal methods.
I
Pxocessing techniques in solid \yaste managenient include Seglegation;
Reductjorl Resource Recovery & Recycling: Thermal, Biological and Chemical
Conversion etc. Various techniques and technologies have been developed I
around the world to transform various components ofwastes into useful items
e.g. fuel, mw material for manufacturing useful products. This chapterdeals
with the collection and transportation methods and with the wastes p;ocessing. I
SEGFEGATION OF MSW AT SOURCE
Segregation ofwastes is prcferable atthe source itself. Rgcovery recycling
and reduction all become easy for segegated waste componens. Components
I
such as paper, cardboards, plastics, and metals should be separated out for
recyclin8 orreuse. Biodegadable wasres such as food \rasres ard yard \ya$es
should be separated. as these are suiEble forcomposting. Bags oi66;hiners I
mzy be identified suitab,y through color codes for storing different q?es
ofwastes separately prior to its transportation and disposal.

COLLECTION OF MSW
I
Municipal solid *astes are usually pioked up from a variety ofsources e.g.
households, institutions, colnmercia-liEitrG:litany types of hauling vehiclJs
or carts are employed for tfaDsferring these wastes to the nearest transfer
I
station where the contents ofthesevehicles are emptied. Collection systems
for municipal solid wastes are broadly categorized as:
(i) Collection of ComminglglWastes; and
I
(ii) Collection of Segregated Wastes
I
I
I
 :

Collection aN Prccessing ol Solidwastes 27

Colleclion of Commingled Wastes

Collectionfrom lor, rise detached units includes kerb colleclion, alley collection. and seroul
coilection. In kerb collecii6i'iiiiousehold o*nEp-lac.. rhe contfer r" u".-*pri.a;nf"
gg{lf backstreets oralleys are part of theg: U!/, alley sto.age ofconrainers used forsolid
waste is common. In case ofsetout collecti6-n $;iem, containers are set out from the houses
and set back after being emptied by wo*ers who work in conjunction \rith the collection staff
responsible for loading the cotlecrion vehicle. This s; stem-ii c6ifr6-n in devetoped counrrie5.
Kerbside collection systen is commonly used for low and medium riseipartoeqts. The
mainlenan€e sraff is responsible for lransporting the containers to rhe srreet for kerbside
collection by manuai or mechanical means.
Containers- large or small are used ro collecr wasres from each locatiry. Depending
on the sjze and type ofcontainer, these are emptied mechanically, or hiiiiito an off site
location for emptying manually. Both mechanicaland manualmethods ffiused.ln order
to avoid traffic lqng€jllg! at comme.cial places, wastes should be collected late in the
evening or early in the morning.

Collsction o, S6gregsled Wastes

Municipal solid waste, segregated at the source, should be collected separately. Kerbside
collection of segregated waste in specially designed vehicles is most common for household
units in many countries. Privare haulers orjunk dealers usually aollect the separated material
from households, commercialor inaci-rial uni-iits. In many cases these colledo;s have contacts
forthe main components e.g. papet plastics and metals.
Types ot Collection.nd Hauling Vehictes
Collectioand haulingis carded out in various t,?es ofvehiclese.g. Handca(s, pedal Tricycles,
Motorized Tricycles, Tractors, Trailers.

Flg.2.t: Open Bor Type Handcart Flg. 2.2: Ca wilh Sgparate Bins

Handcarts are used for household and commercial units. Due'to their small size, these
are suitable fo!collection ofwastes froln narrow streets. Open box type ofhandca(s with
two or three wheels are commonly used (Fig.2.1). The usual capacity is about 2OO kg of
MSW and its size is about 0-4 m3. A worker can easily push it provjded the cafi is in g;od
working condition. Segegated municipal solid wastes are transferred in separate bins
iFig.
2.2). The operationai disladce ofahandcart is about one kilometer. Nearby transfer stations
are lherefore required for empr) ing ofhandcans.
 I
t
28 A TexlDook al Solid Wastes Managetnent I
Pedal tricycles are also used for tmnsfer of wastes. This type of vehicle reduces
travelling time and can operale over a Iarger distance. These can also be made single box
the
I
I
type, or with several bins for collection ofsegregated wastes. A tyDical pedal tricycie
used
;n India is shown in Fig. 2.3.

I
I
t
I
I
I
F19.2.3: TypjcalTricycte used lor Wa$es Coleclion

Motorized tricycles are normaliy ofa larger capacity tha, a handcart or pedal tricycle I
and can carry upto 2.0 n3 ofwastes. lts relatively high speed enables it to operate o;er
greater distance i.e. upto about l0 km. But it does not operate well on rough
rnside a sanitary Iandfill-
a
roads e.g.
I
I
Tractor type ofmotor vehicles are almost universaliy available in developing countfles.
These have se\eral advanbges e.g.:
. Mainienance facilities are readily available;
.
.
Its cost is low as compared to other heavy vehicles e.g. trucks:
It is a, ideal vehicle for operating on landfills due to its large tyres and high iorqde.
Despite its low speed ofabout 20 km/hr, jt offerc one ofthe cheapest methods oftransport I
ofsolid lvastes for volumes ofupto 6.0 m3 per trip. Agricultural ;actors and trailers (iig.
2.4) are often used as acoupled unit forcollectjon ofrefuse from households orcommercial
storage points. The trailer is also suitable as a transfer station because ofthe ease
with I
I
which the tractor can be separated from the trailer.

TRANSFER STATIONS

I
Transfer stations are open or closed structures built by civic autho ties atvarious locations
in the city. Wastes collected lrom various sources (e.g_ househoids, comntercial establish_

t
T
I,
 Collecfan and Pbcessing of Solidwasas 29
rn€nts) by hauling vehicles is first transferred to
these staaions. Fromthes€ tmnsfer stations,
uasles are then rransponed ro rhe final
dlsposal ,it",..g. l;;;;.;;;;;
landfills. Various r) pes ofrransfer slarions are discussed "orp".ipiu;.
betos ",

FIg.2.4: Tractor and Trailer Mechanism

A transfer sration ma) be either a metallic container
or a masonr) bin. The masonn brn
covered wirh a RCC roof is also referred to as
a dhrl.". yuri;;;'i;;;;.;;ffi#j;;
dhaiaos are shown in Fig,2.5 (a,b aod c\.

!
!
t
I
I
I Ftg. 2.5 (r): Meialic conlainer
The size ofbin at a ransfer sktion depends
to be received. fhese should be construcred
upon lhe quantiry ofmunicipal solid wasles

!
at sutrable Iocarion so as to minimize the
distance. Setection of sires for rhese rransfer sr^ti"., j. haul
t;.;;; i;;';;;,;;.fi;ll"-

!
I
 I
I
30 A Textbook ot Sotid Wastes Wnagement I
Poo.ly maintained transfer stations are malodorous and harm
wonder the public displays an acure NIMBv sFdrom" (N.t
L
the aesthetics ofthe area. No
Mtil; t;rd;.;;;;;;"Fr. I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Fig.2.5 (D): Masonry Brn
I
I
t
T
I
t
I
Flg. 2.5 (c): Typica, Dhatao

I
T
t
tI
I Collection and prccessing

I
of Sotid Wastes 31
refl ecdng srmilar aritude are
also common e.s.
t.i,-1yii., rt;;,:*.ii]'ii'"li;ElJilNA (Bu;rd AbsoruieivNothinsAn)ryhere
"f.io.
A propertl mainrained tran f.r. iturton

r _.neseshoutdbesited\*i,t,in.".,|..",t,o,,rll1,l-o.tcreareunh)gienicorinsanilar)condirions.
ac-
s

;i..;;;
eouble and useFfriero,,
sio

JJlcn"ers'
I ransier srarions should be aesrheri.ally
that *asres srored are nor open ro ar,.nosphere.

t TRANSPoRTATIoN
-l
oF Msw
ransporlaiion of municipal solid wasre.
ro'drsposat to processing units or
inc ludes carrying wastes from
at ldndfill sites. I ransponation
lransfer statio,s

I
etiecttre and efficienl These are of\arious s).stems should be cosr
types e.g. Hauled Conrainer
statronery Container System aSCS) Sysrem 1HCSl,

Hauled Container Syslem

I Conrainers are hauled to a disDosal

rne rransfer sralions. Trri, ,r"o,
reduces unsighrt) accumr,",io"!
i,
faci
ia..'l'J-l.llre
rrigh. as rarge container;;,.;'";;i;i.;";",
these are empried and returneo
Iocations
]:i]he Iarge conlainer'
'nhere
back ro
$asIe senerarion rare is
decreases handling rime.
-j rr.,T f.tt "l
t conrai;;;;;;i;;;i::
is very flexibie, as
*:anrtaD
upon ir," u,,oun, unJiip;;i;#;i;';:'i"'""0
conditions Hauled container s'vstern
shapes ofvehicles can be used
uled Basicallythese are ofrhree
deDcodins
tlpel:
(ir Hoistrruck. goisrrrucks are r,ic
I (ii)
to 8.0 mr.
lely used with containers ofsize

Tilt-freme CoDtaiDert ?his svsrer

ranging from 1.5

r"'g".",,";*."'ii-;"i;; i'j;,:;:li::" til' r'ame loaded vehicle whrch can carrv

I rrom rocarions uheriih;il;"il'i:I*:J;,ilr"ir-,fl:llj,l"1;{L"jJ}..::.1;fl:l
r/ri) Trash Treiter: The trash rrailer s).srefi
system. However it is more suitabl(
i.1ir;fur,l. ;;;;;"r.::;rr:,".,
: tor carrying hea\} rubbish such
and demolition wastes, as construction

InahauledcontainersJstemonl\ oneD€
needed to drire the vehrcle and ior
and unloading olconia';:;;. ;o-'^J":H:Y-js loading
ae,acrring ani crrarn, o.:;;;;;;;;;;#,ilT;nr",:il::li:1i,':_.X;1".:,,1"r arachins and

Stationary Container System

In this syslem rhe bins are not rran(poned
lrom rheir rocationbur are emptied into a container
on the truck. The size varies accordinp
at*osr
t"
t.
orrte u.tri.te,r*i ," *,. r"":,;.,,ji
tvpe and.quanrirv of uasre ro be
handred.
to carrv"tt with inremal compaction mechanisms
rarge volumes. il";;-;;;";;1::-10'iPped
rnanually Io;ded collect;.r
-- '''
"'" -*"vpes e S rnechanically Ioaded collection and
mechanicall) loaded s) srem conlainr
_ln is not as critical as in a hoist t.uck
vehrcles equipped with since
n1."t rtl,lIe are used. svsremi
wirh manualy
.,,*;il;;;;;;:::l:.s
"o^p""r;on
collecrion veiricles are
wasres rrom residenrial areas
roaded
e+eciotty
;;;; r;:.;:::;;':: "r hanica llv loaded syslems
o he.e a rransrer sr,t;on
For mechanrcdlt) r""a",]
conrainer s5srem. A dr;.'*
*i"-i6. " jli-ro-mecI requirernent rs !ame as lhar of a hauled
Llir.i . i"".i""lne ren1 ror th is svsten, Hosever.
ofmanualy roaded sys,;;""i ;; ;l i,l;;:r':]l'c in rhe case
r\ro Iaborers are also required for
wastes. loading the

/
 I
I
32 A Toxbook ol Solid Wastes Managdnent I
COLLECTION ROUTES
Cost oftransportation fo.ms a substa.tial part ofthe oveiall budget in the wastes management
s)'stem. The transportation route ofvehicles should therefore be carefitlly optimized both
I
from environmenlal and economic point ofview.
Routes may be optimized on the basis ofexperience and intuition or by observing some
simple rules e.g. avoiding repetitious travel ofvehicles, oravoiding peak hours.
I
Alieinatively, a model may be developed utilizing Geographic Inforhation System (GIS)
based on computer analysis oftravel data to obtain aaoptimal route.
A number of possible altematives are first identified and then keeping in view the constraints, I
the best possible environmental and econornic option (BPEEO) may be selected.

Guidelihes for Selection o, Routes I

I
There is no universal set ofrule avaiiable for optimization ofroutes that calt beapplied to
every situation. In general the layout ofcollection routes iDvolves a series oftrials.
The following guidelines shouid be taken into consideralion jn the selection oiroutes:
.
.
.
Existing policies reiated tothe collection points and frequency ofcollection should
be followed.
Equipment and staffshould be commensurata --c the requirements. I
I
Routes should be laid out so that they begin and end Dear anerial srreets, tDing topographical
and physical barriers as route boundaries.
.Inhillyareas,routesshouldstartatthetopofthehillandshouldproceeddownhill
as the vehicle becomes loaded.
.
.
Route should be laid out so that the last t.ansfer station to be emptied is located
nearest to the disposal facility.
Wastes from congested areas should be collected eitherearly in the momingor late
I
.
at night.
Sources at which larger quantity of wastes is generated should be serviced dudng the
Ilrst pan of lhe da). I
. Scattered tansfer stations, where small quantities of solid wastes arecollected should
be serviced during one

MATERIAL SEPARATION
rip.
I
Segregation and separation of reusable/r€cyclable compooents ofsolid wastes is best carried
outatthe source ofits generation. However, special equipment may be installedand facjlities I
I
created at suitable locations e.g. near tl:lnsfer stations. Such facilities are commonly developed
in manycountries. Material sepaEtion can also be caried out at the site of wastes processing
units to separate out commingled MSW into usable components. Waste components such as

t
paper, plastics, glass. and hetals can be recovered from MSW for manufacturingnew products.
The cost ofmanufacturing such products from recovered waste components is usually onty a
fraction ofthe cost incured in manufacturing it from raw materials. The organjc portions of
solid wasles can be recovered as a feedstock forrcomposting for olher biological processes
or as refuse derived fuel for use in thermal processingand forenergy recovery.
Many oflhe segregaled components can be sold off to eam signifr cant revenues substanrially
offsettingthe cost ofwaste management. Some operations commonly employed for material I
I
separation are as follo$si

I
t
T
I
r
r
Collectioh and prcc€ssing ol
Solicl4astes 33
t. Density Separation
2. Ejecrk and Magneric Field Separation
3. rJensttlcation

I Density Separatioh
Marerials are separated by lheir resDecrivr

t ctus'ir:"s ror r#.o-it'.c-t,;'"

ordirrerenl componenLs
;;'*;;::;J: i":sities rJpicai
"r*;;;;;i;ti,i:;'rtli,t;,J:lli..X'",-sravity
Air Classifiers: Air classifiers
apPrications include rrr air
separarion

r
are used t.
mare,iats. th.se a.. gene;",];:;;;;.1-ttoltate our Iighler material from the heavy
sord wasre r. passed th,orgt u ,,ron" flom elass commrngied municipal
cunenr q hire t;e heavie;
.rrr1l-lfa:1lc:
arr' Lishrer mareriar moves wirh rhe air
;;i;;; ;;ii:;il::' "r

r Ineniel Separalion: Marerials are seoarakd hv,n^lw;^^ ,,rL_^.:-

tr,ei,trigr inenrurioii.;];. il;l;i,::.t"lapplvins vibrations Heavv materialdue ro
:he trghter material remains on lop,

t Floatation: ft is generally used to seDarate o

The marerial is piaced in
"l;;;;ffi::::l-t"nstruction
or mareriars senre at difr;;;;?,;;;;;.r;J,t.
narerials or demolition debris.
warer for sedimentarion. Difrerent
rayers

I orJ;'*,t ;;:;
se,rre ro the bonom componenrs
";;,,;:l,iit,fll,l,i,",jlj,iiili;,X,luuier
Electric and Magnetic Field Separation
Matedahare separated b) their electosratic
cha

I
magneric propenies Tlpical applicarions
include separarion offerr;r;;;;:;il; fit-id tommingled wastes Marerialsarigenerally
separared alter shreddint.; ,,;;;"1,#;1,:" based on conve)or belr me-chanism
rs shown in rie. 2 o sepa,^,";:;;i;
;;:.;:;:'Jiraror
,aSneric s)srems r arso known as
,r.a io ,".o,.i;;;;;, ;"i.;r"il'*" scaiping,
I ",. "rro

'r'#r:nT,
.lr
'L':d"
"i f al
€r
d!
Fig.2.6: Nlagneltc Separaror based
on Conveyor Bell Mechanism
 I
I
34 A Texbook of Solict Wastes Managenent

Densitication
I
Densification or compaclion is carried out to increase the
so as to reduce transporration volumes and ro racitirat.
density ofrecovered matedals
storage.'vaii;;; t;;;;iqr*'..g. I
I
baling, cutring, pelletingarc available fordensificurio" ofOotf,
rf,?.orrnLg-f.i i..'"1"1g.,"a
municipal solid wastes.
Typical applicalions include:
(i) ofbaling for card board. paper. plasrics. aluminuft cans;

I
use
(ii) ofcubing and pellerr'ng for the production ofrefr.rse derived
use
fuel (RDF).
Baling is a compaclion process usually canied our under
high pressure e.g. I0O_150
t:ns m?.by using mechanic-at equipmenrs caled balers. Materiats-iik'e
atumrnum caxs are usuall) baled to reduce their volume,

, Cubing and pelleting are used to produce RDF. ln this system,

paper are errruded using an eccentric rorating press-wheel.
ii*i.r. i"*ai"**,
waste components like
j; ;i;;.
r
I
A complere crbir"
mechanism reqtires a shredder. a conveyorfind r'noir;;";";,i;i;;;;;:":::#:iil:
cubes or rhe pellets are bonded together by heat caused
by friction asiheart.rina ,iff"o
are ext.uded. The size ofcubes and Detiers is. approximarely.
.
I i*f, i ir.f, ;"i"rfri
about I sq. inch in cross-section, ""a
I
I
I
I
Size Beduction
Fig.2.7: Cubing and pslteting M6chanism

Size reduction is cairied out to obtain a final product, which

I
I
is uniform and srnaller in size
with respect to irs original form. Waste volumes may notbe reducea
even increase. Size reduction is desirable in marry procissing
bj size;;;;;,1;;"y
e.g. for iniin"r"tion, c;;;;;;ing.
Equipment used for size reduction includes shridaer". gr"i,

Shredders: The ttre€ most commoniv use.l (hreddingmachiDes

hammermiti, flait;lt and shear.h;Ja;r.-A
so^lid wastes are
"irrf,".i. "rJ;;;;;;ffr.
for size reductionofmunicipal
;;;;;rliii#;j'""#""
ofa rotating hammer, which srrikes rhe wasre, and reduces it inro
I
I
remains.in the mill unril il is passed rhrough the bonom grate.
small"r;i;;!. ;;r,"
Inflailmill\hammersofflailsarenro\ided.The*a.riispassedon,)oncerhroughthe
hammer. flail nrill pro\ ides a coarser'shredorng as compared
lo the hammer nills
The shearshredderconsists oftwo rra*Ilel{ha moun,"a
*i f,
*".t"."t".iut ",u.i".liai*,
The^two shafts rotare in oppos ite d irections and th.
shafls.
ii. **lre.
l. Ji.e";Jil;; il;;. I
I
I
I
 Collection and prccessing ot Sotid Wastes 3s

Oisk

r
Shredded sotid

Fig. 2.8: Typicat Cross.section oi a Hammer ililt

r GIass Crushersr These are used to c.ush otass bollies

also be separated by optical sorring. The iquipmenr
expensive.
and other glass products. Ojass can
,.rsed for opiical lor,;ng
"..-1"*"r".

r Wood GriDdersl Wood g nders are used to shred large pieces

The shredded wood may be used as fuel for en*al
ofwood o, yard .wastes.
*.-"r!ri ir.". ;l-.""il;";::r"a
aftergrinding i! into very fine material. A tub grinJ.. i. ",

r $asles. 'l con,isrs of a iarge tub. u.irh a roraring

filted wirh a hammer milt. yard wasre is fed fiom;.
upp", ".""i^",
,"",ion
.p;;;;;;;;;;;;i
rorhrlammer miil. The shredded marerial is segregar.d
oy
"*'iJi*o
una u"qriffi,
,iui,'or;;;;;;r';;.1,""
j;. ffi;Ifi;r..
,;
using rrontme; ;;, t;;:,t"8

r Size Separation
Marerlals are separated by size and shape characteristics,

r
&osl commonly, by the use of
screens. Tt picalll. screeninp is carriert orrt
. to remove oversized materials:
. to remove undersized materials:

I .
.
.
to separaie out paper, piastic and other iight materials
glass and metals:
to seDarare lhe $a5re into li?ht combustible and heav]
from heavv materjals e.g.

non.or_buslible fracti.ns:

r
ro sepdra:e 9,as(. 5ilr and sa.,d .rom combusribie
material; and
. io remove large siones, iocks and other oversized
material from excavated
construcl;on site, soil ar

r
Various 1) pes of screens used commonly for this pu.pose
inclrrde i
(i) reciprocating screens;
(ii) troIxmelst and

I (lii ) disc screens.

I
I
 I
I
36 A Texrbook of Solid Wastes Management I
Recip.ocating Screens: Reciprocatjng screens (also known asvibrating screens) are used
for removal ofundersized materials from the rnunicipal solid wastes. Thise screens can be
designed to vibiate,.vertically or laterally_ tngeneral, inciined reciprocating screens which
I
move venicall, are Used.

Trommels: Trommels or rotatory scteens are used to segregate the municipat solid waste I
I
into various size fractions. The material is direcled to the inclined rorati;g disc screen
which tumbles overthe scrcen. The smaller sized fraction passes through the screen while
'
the oversized material is retained on the screen and is collected separaieiy.

DiscScreeDs:ltconsistsofanumberoipai.;eldiscsinsralledataceftainDitchona
horizontal shaft. Material to be segregated is fed on the rop ofdiscs. The undersiz;d ma.erjal
passes throughthe space between lhe discs and reaches the bottom.
The oversized materials
I
de overthe top ofdiscs and is collected separately. The pitch ofthe discs can
to separate out different sizes.

MATERIAL HANOLING
be adjusted

I
Affer separalion and size reduction, material has to be transferred for storage or to the
different processing/disposai facilities. Maleriai handling is rhe transfer anJstorase of I
I
reco!e.ed componenls and residues. Typical applicarions include:
(i) Conveyors forthe transport recovered materials and residues;and
(ii) rolling stock such as forklifts, frontend loaders, and various types oftrucks for

I
the movement ofrecovered materials and residues.

Various types ofconveyors such as belts, drags, vibratingand pneumalic conveyors

are
used to iransfer the wastes from one iocation to another, pneumatic conveyors are
used to
transfer the lighireight waste components e.g. papet plastics. A typical pneumatic conveyor
includes a set ofpipes in which air is forced at a high velocity to transfe. the wirste components
for slorage or processing. Velocity ofair for !his operation ranges from 25 to 3O m/s. I
I
Fronl-end loaders, forklifts, and other vehicles e.g. trocks are commonly employed for
handlingthe municipal solid wastes. Front-end loaders are used to collectand Iiftihe wastes
and forioading it ontotruck. Fo.klifu are generallyused for transferring the baled materials.

Weighing Mechanism
Weighing facility is requiredat resource recovery facilities to weigh the amount ofmunicipal
solid wastes received, materials recovered. and for w€ighingthe mate.ials soid ordisposed
I
off Various types ofscales are used for weighing different materials. A weigh_bridge is
required for weighing a truck and small-scaleplatform balances are required to weigi
smaller components.
the I
Storage Facilities
Material storage facility is an essential requircment a! aresource recovery centre. Matedals I
are stored a! various stages till the separated materials and residues are finally disposed
off The space required lor such facilities depends upon the amount ofwastestote handied
ard the efficiency ofresource recovery centre. The space requirement is optimized by I
I
synchronizing various operations so that storage time is minimal.

I
t
 Collection anc! ptocessing ol Solid
Wastes 3t
Selection of Equipment and Facilities
Rasre processing and maErial handjing
requires alarge number ofequipmenr
e e. screens. shredders. baler. air ctassir.i.R f^,t _I6: ..^-; and machinerv
are expensive and need," ;;;;;;-,;dft,iJXljli;ji,?r.ill,lj.Xi,Ii::i::il:ffJ.:
necessal tharduecare is hken in the purchase
ard sgbseo uem m";nro,,'"""
setecrion of appropriar..q,;pn'.r, *a phy.t.ur ^;;*^ _:,:l:-l
i;;;;;:;lilffi ff ;$:;ill,Hlii;
rs mosl important. Facrors considered
irI evaluating the processing equipmenr are briefly
Jisc,ssed belowr
. Capabitit) ,nd Retiabititv: The
'b"'" er:Pos:d.eq.uipmenl should be capable ofserving
r

,1" p"rp"". i",. ii"'ii'l'ir ,r,or"O, ,, ,nould have a 16s56n661s 16p1or"aan1

"
overthe conventional te"nn,oo""
. Service: There should be minimal mainrenaDce
a!ailable lhrough rheequipmenr manufacrurer -,-"',.
required and tha!roo should be readily

. operation: The equipminishoutd be reasonabty

o1. tfr. foc"faisrriU,rt".
r*ipr#*,ijii i,", u.
by perjonnel wirh limited traininq or
. sktlls.
Safery: There should be adequale safeguards
"***u
to prevent careless use.
. Efflciency: The energy consumDlro n reiativeio
other equipmentwith similarcapacity
should be ler(
. En-vironmen&l Effects: The equipmenlshould
be envjronment friendl),and should
not emtt e).cessive pollutants,
.li:liT#:::J,*:l,skrorhehealrhofoperatorandstaffworkinsinrhevicinity
. Economicsi Borh initial and runn.
be considered Furure operation
^na.ui,t"n"n"" "oii,;ilHi:ffi ::ji:#sr
RECYCLING OF MSW COMPONENTS
Resource extraction huns fhe environme
of producrs polrures ihe air
-a *al* w*,".1",,ir,.;: ;"ji;#:[:'l--"nuracturing
tenimeni orpublic heahh andenviron'nenl
r.opl. no*.."ri,. ii.t-.;;;;:1,;',::1"-": svs,ems mus,
enuiiJn;;;;"i;;;"d;fli':*:.fi:[,rJ:""T.[1.;*posar

r
ue aesign.a ror
u""pt"a ti u" u, exce,rent straresv
,",:i:i,:?:i;1i::ffil::,:i:ffiiil::r:Y:""ttvlralsoconservesthenarurarresour(es
una tananrrsp-,.e. o,.i;r-n;:;1i,.;;1"':t''*s municipal-Iubbish is recycled' reused
or used ro provide energy. 41Inor, arr.!fl9p€'s

I
has passed la\rs eskorishins recvclins
o. ,"ar"rion ,urg.', uifi.; ;;;;;;"r"*
i#;::'' '' "sAvolume throusr recot er1
:o-;o ". iii,,.;;.;:;;.d'til'j:.1:sres
"i'r,"and rec) cr.. .o..,r,"n ,*o.,,1v,I1;l:::::::,:i::,i::]:iisration 'ecvcling
bv
m-anasemenr on wiste
ofpaperandplastics.Thecove.nm.nr.ri ''' 'avov!I JcPa'r I(c)€res more than half

I uuniring, n,jr".. ioo0 ,.orrr.. ,rri.'Jrillll ]:de

s.g,.gar-on of, ustes
irs Mun:cipai wasles I Manager'enr

t"'.;;;;;;;; :.:;;ir::'i:J;::1,,:.:::;:l::::;:Tess
&
prograrns ror

I Recyclable Compohents ih MSW

Se!eral components ofMSW e,g. aluminum
steel are usua *.'.r.a. wh?* ii'i.'r''
l
can':paper' cardboard plastics glass' iron
and

I
out orficialr)' Private raspickers are
acrivery engag; in thi;
*,
;;;.;. ;;;r;;;::]rred
via'""i ipi'"i"p'r,",;::;;:, r'1"ff #:Ti[J:ff i"T:';:i[::Til:i.:,f li:i::
r
I
 I
I
38
I
I
ATexbook of Solid Wastes Matagenent

jtems can be converted into..olyester fibers, which can be usedto manufacture carpets etc,
Japan probably is the leader;ir such techn;ques. Glass bottles are pulverized into fragments
or powder and then mixed wirh clay. The mixture isthen used for manufacturing of various
household items. Kitchen scraps are converted inlo fertilizers for farmers. Waste paper is
used for making various de.orative items. Waste cooking oil is used for making soaps.
I
It is a general percepiion thatrecycled means that the end product is inferior in quality.
However products are made from recycled materials are less costly and ofgood quality
provided ihe manufacturing methods are sujtably selected. The Negoro Sangyo Co. Ltd., I
one ofthe companies in Japan deaiing with recycled products, follows a 'cradie lo grav€
approachto p.oducts. It staned making its own.aw material from old plastics, and uses this
malerialto make new products e.g. carpettiles. I
I
Recycling ofglass metals is carried out in many ways. It can be cleansed and reused, or
it can becrushed and melted to make newproducts. Glass mustoften be separated by coloi
fcr reuse.
Crystal Clay Co. ofTokyo has developed a process to fuse glass particles to clay. The
company manufactures a newtype ofceramic tile blockthat can be used to pave sidewalks
and as sidings on buildings. These 'Crystal Clay Blocks' (naned after the compa.y) offer
numerous beirefils. They contain fragments ofwaste glass ofdifierent colom. The blocks
I
contain 709i, glass, reducingthe amounlofclay used, theteby protecting avaluable natural
resource. Under a I]ew manufacturing process, the blocks are fired al i000'C, which is
200 'C lower than the earlier system. Apa.! ftom saving energy it also reduces the carbon I
dioxide emission by 26%.
Tlre recyclable components of MSW in Delhi conslituies to about 120% oftotal volume
(Fig.2.9). The marketvalue ofrecyclable haterials ftcovered from municipalsolid wastes I
I
runs into millions of rupees, lt makes economic sense to recoverthese materials for reuse.
Such recovery wili also result in safeguarding the environment, saving the energy, conservation
ofnatural resources, and reduction in the final residuals for landfills.

I
I
THEFMAL CONVERSION
Fig. 2.9: componenls oi MSW in Oeihi
I
Thermal conversion ofsolid'rraste includes transformation ofwastes into gasedus, liiluid,
and soijd conversion products. The process also generates energy due to burning oiwaste
Co bustion or IncineBtion,
maierials, Thermal processing also results in *rste volume reduction,
I
Pyrolysis, and Casificalionare theiechniques commonly employbd forthermal conversions.

Combustion or lncineralion Syslema I

Combustion oi incineration is a process based on thermal processing ofsolid \yaste by
oxidation. Various combustion gases e.g. N2, CO', SO2, water vapors and non-combustible
I
I
I
I
Ir
I Collecton and Prccessino ol Soliclwastes 39

I residues in lhe form ofash are obtained. Energy can be recoveaed by heat exchange from
ihe combustion gases. The buining ofsolid wastes is usually accomplistled in incinerators.
Diferenttypes oiincinerato* are Mass Fired, RDF Fired, Fluidized Bed type. The lnciflerator

I insriture ofAmerica (llA) classifies incinerable wastes into seven types (Table 2.1).
The Institute (llA) also sepa.ates incinerators inlo nine classes accolding to ahejr use and size

r
iTable 2.2). Minimum consnuction and perfomance standards for each class arc also prescrjbed.

Dlass Fired Incineration: Mass fired combustion systems are designed to incinerate
rhe municipal solid wastes as coliecied without oi with very liltle prior processing. The
energy produced by mass fired combustion system depends upon the composition ofmunicipal

I solid waste. A typical mass fired incinerator is shown on Fig. 2.10.

Olscharge
lo Ouench or A

I
Heat ,ecovery
|

I 1207.-2007"

I Our ,.r r*=f*

I Wasle \, €xcess ai!

( zooo"r)

t
r I

I Flg.2.'10: Mass Fired lncineratol

RDF Based tDcineration: In RDF fired co$bustion syslem. processed soiid waste refuse

I derived fuel (RDF) is burnt. Various components e.g. metals, glass and other noncombustibie
materials are removed to produce RDF. Since RDF is more homogeneous the system is
better conrolled for combustion and more energy is recoved.

r Fluidized Bed Incineration: A flLidized bed type combustion system includes a steel
verlical cylinder, lined inside with refractory bricks, and has a sand bed. Air nozzles called
tuyeres are provided to injecl air at high pressure. Fig. 2.11 shows a typical fluidized bed

I incinerator Solid fuel (or RDF) is injected into the cylinder. Auxiliary fuels such as natural
gas or oils may be used initially to increase the temperature ofthe bed uplo operational
Ievel which is about 14501o 1750"F. This system can also be used for burning ofsewage

I sludge and other chemica, wastes.

I
I
 I
I
40 ATe\tbook of Sotid Wastes Managemant
I
I
Trble 2.1: Clalsifi cation of Incinerable Wastes

Type Majot Conpohents Approx. Noa- Btu R";;"^*, R"**

Cohpotition cambusttbte tb lor AuritiaD end?d
Value
(o/o br \|t.t Solids Fret tBtl per yiaiaun
tb ol\|asle) Input
I
0 Tmsh
Hiehv combustible
*ood. cardboard
Trash 100 5 85OO 0 0 I
I
(Paper, Moisrl€
canons, and upto l0 % contenr l0
trealed papers, plasrics

I
S@rces: Commercial and

Rubt,sh Rubbish 80 10 6500 0 ;

I
Combustible waste,
caltons, m8s, wood
paper,
scmps,
cqt*xrstibleflmrsuEepingi Co ent25
carb€e 20
Moislue
I
2
conrn€rcial ard industriel

Refire
garbage
Rubbish and
Rubbish5o743OO0rr00 I
I
Garbage 50
Sorrresr Dorhestic Moislure
Content 50
3 9+"c. Ca*age65 5 2s00 t5o0
Anirnal ard vegeEble

Srrner:Hotels,
Rubbish 35

Moistu E
3000

I
I
r€s&uants, mai(ets, Content 70
inst'Etional, commercial
and clubs

a AdrElsoleedoEali5 Anirnatrd 5
Carcasses. organs, solid
;;;J;X;:--** ffifl,*
sorE r Hospitars,
hrlEl

Moist!,e
1000 3000 8000
(sooo,rimar,)
(3000 secondarv) I
5
laboralories,abattoirs,

Gasmus, Liquid, or
Content85

vadable Depend.nt variabte raran ---G"lr"

I
6
Semiliquid
Industrial p.ocess *as&s

S€mi-solidnnd Solid vadabte

on major

Dep€nd€nr vanable \€nabte

I
I
varirbte
( omDuslbres rEqumng on mjor
h€ani. rElon. or gEre componenls

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Collectian ancl ptocassing ot Solid Wastes 41
Trbl€ 2.2: Standards ofConsrrucrion and performance
for Different Ctasses oitncinerators

t Ponable. pa.i,aged comptelejy arrernbted.

capa.q or25
d iB!-feed incinenron ha,ing
lb 1r buming mte. suilabte for ype war.
2
nor over S cu ft stol

I Portable. packaged orjob assemurea,

"rs
b
rs
",
n

rnc'n€Btorr)' €
"''."
i.'",,g
a irecr-rJ ino
*;;;;;;;;,ffi
rrue-ted. srngle chaftber incinemtoE ryirh
se
havinga primar] chamber !orumc
J'iJ:Tj*
more than: cu fl buming are, forrlpe:
b] one veftical flue
wasre. Ihis

I
is ed
tun.ridr
".,,, d;ffi;;;#;:il';T#HI:J,t:f; i :ffi I$ l"$#:jl":frj.,,T:
IIA Chure.fed. s ingle chamber incineHor for apanrnem
buitdings uirh moE har 2cu ft buminsaE
sui,jble rorqpe Ior2 sa!re.
repdte ^-orrecomn;nded
fo,ndu;"J,",,r1,r";;;.;;;";;";;:ffi;
flue for cnrq ing deemissions o aEnospheE sprc!ide!.
T III
Iv
ufecr.teed wirh a bu]njng rare of r00 Ib ] ano suitabje
Direct-feed with a bumins rzte of75 lb,4\ more
ior buming rype O. r , or 2 wask *"
suirable for b"_dG t;;;;
I
vunicrpal incinerdo^ s,i,bre for r,,e 0. l . 2. or J wasre or a c.mbinaiior of .,e... Rared in tons
perhouror rons per da!.
VI CremaoD and parlmtogcal incineBtors ruirabje
for q?e 4 wasre.
vIl Lresrgred torspecifrc b) -produfl *aste. iwe
5 or6

I
t 1

Uquid

Fig.2.1t: A Typical Ftuldized Bed incineraror

Factors Afrecting Elficiency o, lncinerators
The efficiency ofincinerators is measured in

"'i,"o.*. t;".i,,,,", ;;i;;;ff ;: wasri.".t*,iUiii+.

rn th_e design of an incinerarion
;:$:l*i#3:ff '$lff ,"i*lT#.#:
"rp"ri*; ;ffi:;...,
sysrem are
an0 restdence time required for combustion
-
I
I
42 A1extbook of Solid Was@s Managehent
I
Combustibiiity; k is the ease with which the waste can be oxidized. It is measured in
terms oflhe calorific value or the heat produced during iflcineration. In general, a value of
I
about 2500 kcal/kgor greater ii prefe ed for incineration. This limit however increases as
the excess air required forproper contact with the waste increases. Warste with lower calodJic
value.equire addition ofauxiiiary fuel to maintain adequate temperature. Wastes with high I
I
moislure content also requirc additional fuel.

Temperature: Tempemture ill the incinerator is maintained such that all the components in
lhe waste decompose to releasethe volatile fraction andto oxidize the fixed carbon fraction
ofwastes. All contaminants such as pathogens, volatile hydrocarbons, smoke and gases
(e.g. CO) should be complerely oxidized.
I
I
Tu rbu len.€t ProDer mixing of air wirh the solid wastes is necessary for complete combustion_
Turbulence is iherefoie created b],applying a high cu.rent ofair in the form ofswirling
motion. In rotary kiln type incinerators lhe movement ofkiln itselfprovides th€ mixing
effect. ln smai I static incinerators, raking is required at regular intervals for creating tu6ulence.

Residence Time: Residence time is cnrcial in combustion processes to ensure complete

oxidation ofcombustible matters. It can be maintained by adjusting the frequency ofash I
removal. ln some incil)erators such as ro1ary kiln type, the speed ofthe kiin is adjusted to
allo$ sLfficienl residence iime for combustion.
Probl4ms Associated wilh lncineralor Operalions
I
Some problems associaled witir the operation of incineralcrs include excessive stackemissions
smoke leakage lhrough charging doot excessive auxiliary fitel consumption, and incomplete
burning of wastes. These problems can be minimized by a systernatic operational approach
I
and propermaintenance of incinerators.

Excessive Stack Ernission s: Excessive emission iales are caused dueto avaaiety ofreasons
I
e-9. excessiveinflltration air, overcharging ofwaste, excessive negative draf! in lhe primary
chamber, low temperature in secondary chamber. Proper maintenance oftemperature in
both Frimary and secondar, chambers and controlled aii infiltration can help reducethe I
I
emission rates.

Black Smoke: Black smoke generally indicates the presence ofunburnt carbon, as a result
ofincomplete combustion ofwaste rnaterials. This could be due to overcharging olwaste
or poor temperature conditions in the chambers ordue to less amount ofair available than
is required for complete combustion. Large quantities ofhighly combustible materials e.g.
plastics, rubber in the waste may also genemte excessive blacksmoke. Genelally such materials
I
musi consiitute less than l0 percent ofthe total charge.

White Smoke: Aerosols present in the emission may rcsult i, white smoke. Excess air I
I
entering the incineralor may cause micron sized particle to move out through the stack.
Proper air and temperature cont.ol intlre chambers may reduce this problem. White smoke
is also formed due lo finely divided noncombustible minemls present in the waste stream.
Paper bags, pigments or other metallic oxides, and minerals such as calcium chloride also
generate fine inorganic particulate formingwhite smoke-
I
I
I
 Collsclion anal Processing of Sotid Wastes 4
Leakage ofSmoke from Charging Door: Leakage ofsmoke thrcugh charging doors or
orher openings in lhe combustion chamber is usually due to excessive air pressure inside
the primary chambe!. Overcharging ofwasles orexcessive amountofhighly volatile matters
presenl in the waste stream also conlribute to such problens.

Excessive Auxilisry Fuel Consumption: Overcharging, excessive air infiitration, improper

flame distribuiion are some ofthe reasons ofexcess consumption ofauxiliary fuel. Proper
control of air and charging of waste iD batches ( I 0 to I 5 percent of the .ated capacity) may
help control this problem. Damaged seals ofcharging doors may also result in heat loss and
therefore, ifneeded, should be repaired or replaced.
Incomplete Burdng and Poor Ash Quality: This is due to overcharging ofwastes, nonuniform
air distribution alongwith other prcblems including partial blockage of primary bumer, leakage
offuel etc. Clogged air inlets obstruct air distribution inside the chamber rsulting in incomplete
combustion. Proper maintenance of bumers, ah inlets etc. is requiredto aontrol this probiem.

Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a chemical change due to partial combustion ofsolid wastes in the absence of
oxygen.It is also kno\ n as thermal decomposition \yherc extemal soutce ofheat is employed.
Pyrolysis is an endothermic process andrequires heat from a, extemal source. Therefore it
is also termed as dest.uctive distillation. It yields gaseous, liquid and solid fractions as follows:

. Gas f.action includes hydrogen, methane, carbon rnonoxide and carbon dioxide.
. Liquid fraction includes tar or oil stream containing acetic acld, acetone, and methanol.
. Solid fract;on includes char, consisting ofcarbon and other inert materials originallv
present in MSW

Fig. 2.12: Typical Pyrolysis Process

t"

I
t
44 ATextbook ot Satid Wastis Management
T
Ihe proponion ot gases. liquid and
p)rol.rsis is carried our.
increases. rhe arnounr
char obtained depends upon the
T\pical p\roivsis r --!Jr
ofg;;or, .Jrr;;;rl
temperature at whrch
' Br Ycrr 11t r 18. z' t 2' As lemDerarure
0..,.ur", th..n",g1 .o"ni.,,"irr,,,i,iiil'il'""""'es$hilefiequanlioofliouidandchar
I
lar or oils is :1240 LJ

Gasification
Lo -,..sisabout26l00KJ m andlhaiofpyrol\ric
I
Casificalion is a process in which
o\J gen buI in Iesser amornr rhon
Dartiat , is carrted oul in the presence of
thar i. stoi.h!ombrstion required
rne 5eJr-suslaini-e p"niail;;il,;;;,r'::;;:':'eEicall) rorcomplete combu:rion I
and carbon monoiide *h;;;:;
6 0 vJ m . !\ hen p..rre
;;il.: #
oti;;';r*;X,:t
roaoour129r.r1e^/,_:T._j-,,
":|o
oblain combusrible
sases e's hvdrosen
Iheenerg)conrenrisintherangeof5.iro
anl,nslead ofair. the en..g1co:t.ni
. , "u,k.r!. compo-srtron of combu.tible gas. inc.ea"., I
i.a'rlrcatron
process conrarn: C O- r tOio obraineo from
r Cu r:u,.0,. H? I t5oo r. and C Ha r20o), and
r\t an0 other Lrace gase). Fig.2 tlsho$as\hemaricd;agrarnofagasifi";,;;;,;;-, some
I
I
I
I
I
A F€celv'ng E preh€ater
b usrntegErof F Fetoft
i:#?Xfl,
Nilc'tonaPp.'",6b' I
!:,ro
u Lnarcrng
G Gas ouriorlrom,ai.d
H Clrargrnq M |i€at
o conr;re*or
exchanger p Gas tank rorstarl-u.
O Stag sito I
Pelletizatior
FIg. 2.13: Typicat casj,ication proc€ss

I
Pelletization is a process

"*'i*' in Ms'\
of converunp d.
generar] abour I inche( in r""-,a
^-, ; ,--::"i:
",;.;o;il:i:'r';.;;1T
to]id wasle inlo small pellers of
j; :#J,:;J,."H[:::
size

lX1fi :::T[::::r:
I
I,rnotng rngredients e.g. Jime
rhes. a,e al.o.arreo
is mixed ro rhr
.e"r.,".;.,1;"i;;;;ilXj:':9ded
mareriar
and ruer perets are made.
robet5-20rons,OO,""r"iVli.,-,,,,\r}). lheaverageRDFproductionrateisfound I
I
T
t
 Coltection anct ptocessing
ot Solid Wastes 45
AIOLOGICAL PNOCESSING

*$si[##****t*na+,**ffi
r:s,rl*#**[l**s*-:,
Organic Fraction ofMSW
+ O, + Nutrients +
Microorganisms

Co*po.r * lt.* c"I. * D"u*c" .

r g;rn6$$r*N**-#*,*rffi
r ,ll11T,,T:,r"
paremeters
in corhpostihe

r il;fi'Jl rr,ffi :fllnf rr,:;:#i*:il"rl;ff fnx *i*:::l:;

r trk*ff :H*,55H{*H"t"ffi[*:,,,,,.*[ii,*:,:,]!ffi
I
t
***,rrxrll*i[u**u*rrrll+
t
: .'##'i";".s{fffl ?:: ::}Hfi :'#:ff
,ffil ffiH.J::T*.,,Tj,s
I li:T',ffiH

I
i
 I
I
46 A Textbcok of Solid Wastes Management I
value being 25 : i. in general, the niirogen present in lhe organic fraction ofwaste wjll be
available for biodegradation. but all the carbon available may not be biode$adable. Cn{
ratios for some ofthe organic fraclions ofmunicipal solid wastes are shown in Table 2.4.
I
C/N mtio can be adj usted by blending ofwastes ofhigh C/N ratio (e.g. saw dust, paper) with
the wastes of iow CN ratio (e.g. yard wasxes raw activated sludge).

Table2.J: Conrrol Parameters in Composling

I
Panic,e Size 25-75mm
I
Moisture Contefi
C/N
pH
25-50

50-550C
I
Blending and Seeding Conrolled by CN clio
AirSupply Frcquent ruming of compost T
Mixing and Tuhing Fi6t nr.n on the ihird day then on altemative days
Pathogen Control

Odor
Maintain a tempe€tu'E of final compost @ 70 cC for
to 2 hours
Coftrolled by air supply
1

t
pH Control: The pH duringthe composting process varies with lime. Initialiy when organic
components ofwastes are broken down biologically they convefi inio organic acids and r
bring down the pH level to less than 5. The desirable value ofpH for composling is between
? and 7.5. IfpH value decreases lo less than 4.5 it reduces the rate ofbioiogical conve.sion.
lf it rises to more than 8.5, some nitrogen is Iost as ammonia, I
Trble 2.4: Carbon-Nit.ogen Ratio ofVa.ious MSW Componenrs

1.0 - 1.5 30-35

I
Paper
Brown Paper
0.) - 0.1
0.01 - 0.02
500-r000
4000 - 4500
T
I
l
1.0 - 2.0 40-80
Sawdust 0.1 - 0.2 200 - 500
0.2 - 0.3 100 - 150
Sewaee Sludge 2.0 - 5.0 l0-t5
Temp€rature: Temperature control is required !n the composting process as ;t affecis the
growh ofcells and the rate ofcomposting. Initially the tempe.alure is maintained between
I
50 and 55'C. After a day or rwo. it is increased !o between 55 and 60.C. When remperatur€s
increase above 60'C, the microorgarisms die out and biologicai activities reduce significantly.

Blending snd Seeding: Blending is carried out ro achieve the required moisture content
I
and C,rN ralio. Laboratory tests ate carried out in order to determine the proporlions of
wastes for blending. Seeding is the process ofadding microorganism culture to the wastes
to be composted. This is required to accelerate the biological decomposition ofwastes.
I
I
I
I
 :

Colhtction and Pocassing ol Solid Wastes 47

GeDerally a small quantity ofactivated sewage sludge is blended with the wastes for increasing
the rate ofcomposting process.

Air Requirement: Aeration is an important requirement for aerobic composting. Air is

supplied to the compostirg system lhrough frequent tuming dfwastes orthrough airnozzles.
In a highly control led composting system, pure oxygen is supplied for oxidizing the biological
fraction ofsoiid wastes. The quanaia, ofoxygen or air required for composring depends
uponthe composition ofsolid wastes (i.e. the percentage ofcarbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen avaiiabie in sblid \yastes).

Mixing and Turning: Mixing and tuming are two important operations ofcomposting process.
Mixing is carried out to obtain a homogeneous mixture ofbiodegradable components. lt
also helps in uniform distribution ofnutrients and microorganisfis in the wasles, so as to
accelerate the biologjcal tiarrsforination of wastes.
Turning ofsolid wastes is earriedout at regular interval. This p.ovides suflicient amount
ofair required for aerobic conversion ofsolid waste. It is also carried out to maintain the
moisture content unifoim through the mass ofcomposting material. Regular, periodic tuming
aDd moisture control prevenls drying, caking, and air channeling in the composting material.

Pathogens Control: The control ofpathogens is important in the design ofany composting
system as their presence is a health hazard. The most important pardirete. in pathogen control
is the ambient Iemperature in the compostiog system. Most ofthe pathogens die off at a
lemperature of55 degree Celsius, though some may survive even at lemperature nore than
60oC. Pathogens can be completely removed from the composting material by maintaining
its tenperature at about 70'C for I lo 2 hours.

Odor Control: Odor control in the composting is necessar), as otherwise it will create

I nuisance in the neighborhood. Odor is produced due to insufficien! supply ofoxygen to the
wastes dudng their biodegradation. Lack ofoxygen in the wastes rcsults ir anaerobic conditions

r Benerating various malodorous o.ganic acids and gases such as arnmonia, and hydrogen sulfide.
Large sized panicles present in the wastes also prcvent flow ofair. Waste should therefore
be properly shredded, and converted into small sized particles, before these are composted.

r Types o, Composting Systemg

Depending upon the staius ofwasles du.ing the process! composting systerns can be broadly
classified as Agitated and Static. inan agitated system, the wa$e to be composted is agitated

I
to supply the oxyBen. Iurning is usually caried out for this purpose. In a static system
wastes are kepi static while the air is supplied by mechanical means such as blowers. Three
main methods ofcomposting are:

I (i)
(ii)
(iii)
windrow method,
sratic pile melhod, and

r
in-vessel method.

WiDdrov Metbod: Windrows of\rastes ofabour 1.5 to 2m heighr and 4 to 5 m w idlh are
prepared. Waste materials are shredded before haking windrows. The size ofwindro\rs
also depend upon the size ofequipnent available for tuming. A typical equipment used for

I turning of municipal solid wasle at a compost plant in New Delhi is shown in Fig. 2.14.

r
r
 I
I
48 A Tenboak of Solid Wastes Managehen!
I
Turning is carried out at regurar intervars. The rnoisture content is
to 60 percent This sysrem takes about fourto six weeks to convert
compost. The composled material obtained isthen cured (i.e. allowed
mainrained between 50
rrre
to stana
w".t. ,r
"j.ln,o
"t..i ir.rrn;ng)
*ttrort
I
for a period oftwo to th.ee weeks for complete stabilization.
T

I
I
I
I
I
Fi9.2.14: Equipmenr used torTurning ot Wastes n Windrows
I
Static Pile Method: In static pile melhod the waste is kept in sratrc piles.
Ihese piles are
provided wirh ag dofperforaredpipes,whichareusedtosupplltheiir.airmarU'efreatea
to the desired temperature. This method is faster and provide bener
I
method. The wasle malerials are composted in a perjod oftwo to four
controf tla, tfie *ina..*
*eets.. It is ttren
cured for a further period oftwo to three weeks T

I
In-vessel Method: As the name suggest in-vessel compostjng is carried
out in a ciosed
container. Various types ofvessels or containers e.g. vertical cylinders.
ho.izontat cylinJ"r",
reclanguiar or ciiculartanks can be used for composting. Mechanicalagit"tora
foa
mixing of composting marerials. Air can be supplied throigh nozzles coni"o"a "ae'ua"d
*irt tfoi*r.
The advantage ofthis system is a high degree of conrrol &er temperatur.,
This system is therefore popuiar, especjally in developed counrries.
one to t\\,o weeks for converting waste into compost but a
uir, pU, Jo, .r".
The sysrem tafes aUout
I
longer curing ieriod, about four
to ten weeks. lor complete stabilization.

Properties ot Compost
I
Compost,the finalend product of composting, is be$erthan a chemicalfenilizer
purposes. It is also ecofriendly and economically atractive.
forasriculture
Good qual;r) composr;h;u be
blackish brown in color uith an earthy odor It should be slightly moist
wiih pH;"rg;;;;;;""
I
I
6.5 and 7.5. Il should atso not conGin excessive amounr ofheavGerais. The Mini it.y oii".ri.r_"nt

I
I
 Collection and prccessjog of Sotid
Wastes 49
and Foresls. Govemment oflndia vide
irr Municipal-Wastesj Managemenr
_uuu has lard do* n St:rndards tor ComDost and Hardling, Rules,
,,",.
for il. safe applicaLio; ( table _2 S;.-.-....",

Table 2.S: Srandards for Compost

Pemitsible Linits (ds/t)

C:&run 20
C1rrcmium 20
Copper 300
Lean 500
500
Nickel l0
ZE 100
2500

-\eiglllrhood
especratl)
Compor,,n, O. u ,iu61.,offi
""n location an
tn resjdential areas. The
0 capaclt)
-r_' 'r oi
vr composl
wrxPUstPlants
plants is
accordingto!ieamounrofbiodegradabiecor
accordmp ro rhp 2n^,,Dr rs Desl
best determined
delermined
^
socieries and orher \ otunrary
generared in rhe area Residenrs
welfare
sasres trom households can
d*:;;;"';,'p"l:lt in this lasks Tle enrire biodegmdable
be colle.ted a_Pclpate ren ed to the nearb) .ompos'i-ng
Tlris * ittm,nimize the Ean.p";";";:;,;;;:T."jns un ir.
orparks. gardens and ro-;,";;;il;;? ;;:; iffi li::j|i:'.'n'"To:" *"'^o toiaevero-pnenr

I Anaerobic Co.lversion

lli:';:'"""ff#ff:'i#lili#ilil?I-:l:'::n'Ied in rhe absence or air Dependins

I "ig."r"" r,igi.,"i;; ;l;:il;,il;::i;[;1,:il,;::,?:r::,;::ffi

.,a
Drogas irom wastes such as cow_manure
*u',.. ;. o;;"";##;;LtJ::'rtural
:,,;iXl,:: :i
,^asres Anaerobic fermenraiion
or

r 'ori-a "".4"i
(j) preparation ofthe organic fraction o-fsoijd
incluoes receir ing. soning. separatron

"" l jl, li:,""?:!:ii'#jJll'jiTl;i':"''g

wastes.foranaerobic djgesrion.
and srze reductjon.
Usually

Fr-^dj"#*'' oo,,' 6 ?, heari ns or

I
o

disesrion in a reactor' A continuous

n"*
"i'"r;J
*"""j. ,*tJ;#:d',i':l!':iT'"b"
reprng the contents well
mired for about 5 to
days. I0
liiir
I Collection. storage ano ifnecessarv, ieparation
the digesrion process
BangaloreMethod isacommonanaerobic,
ofthe gas componenls evolved
durinB

I componerrol'municipalsolidqaste)rFip:elhod!sedforbiologicalconversionoforganic
and soii ,re fiired in a'pi ; i;;1,:ij;;;:"',']')

"o
t.o,",u,.o
rnrhi'melhod ahernat'laler.otiusr.
p,.,J,ir;;;.r;r:;";,:lJiiji,:'ffj":;i'.HJ:::;:l:l,i;Ji::Jl:
! ln lrall) stabilized aerobicall)
ox)genpresenrinhepore.airi"como:sreir some arr in rhF r^,". ^r .,
as rhe.e exisl
"qru'hd5tcanosol"l'he
.,,,.i.",a,r,.","";,'.,,;;1" tj,lr;illl,lli,iili#j,T::["JilX.j:il:i;:::T:1,;:

I oependrng upon th€ tlpe of wasre.

I
I
 I
I
5o ATextbook of Solid wastes Managenent I
I
I
I
t
vermiculture
Fig.2.'15: Bangalore Method ol Composlin!
I
Itis asimple, lowcost and appropriate biotechnology used for the stabilization of drganic
municipalsolid wasles usingearthworms or othel microorganisms. Eafthworms, particularlll
burrowing fpe consurne biodeg:adable organic matter and produce malerial termed as vermicasting'
I
which mainly consists ofea(hworm excreta. This process includes:
(i)
(li)
separatio, of biodegradable fraction of MSw
maintenance ofp.oper moisture and lemperature;
t
(iii)addilion ofminerals and selecled burro*ingtype ofearth worms;and
(;v) sieving !he vermicasling. The vemicasting p.oduction is formed at the rate of75 kg
per 1000 kg ofMSW.
I
CHEMICAL PROCESSING
Chemical transformalion is the process of convers;on of organic fraclion of wasles into
I
various useful compounds such as glucose. synlhetic oils, gases etc. Glucose is recovered
fiom wastes containing cellulose e.g. paper. in lhis system hydrolysis ofwaste with a weak
acid is carried out. The suspension thus obtained is heated al tempe.atures rairging belween
180 to 230'C, under a small pressure. Cellulose is converled to glucose and sugars.
I
(C6Hr0O5), (Cellulose) + H,O + acid -+ nC6Hr206 (glucose)
Methanol, often used as an alternative fuel, can also be obtained from wastes through I
I
chemical processing. Methane gas can be converted into methanol by cataiysis.
CHl + H?O - Catalyst -+ CO + 3Hr
co + 2H2 + Catalyst -+ CHroH
Ihe process involves conversion ofmethane by reacting with steam in the presence ofa
catalystto form carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Both carbon monoxide and hydrogen react
io form methanol. The syslem oitransformation ofwasles chemically is expensive- I
E xa m p
provided
EXAMPLES
le 2. I : For separation and co llection of iteds, thtee recyc I ing coniainers have been
10 each residenl ofa communily. Residents separate newspapers & cardboard,
t
I
I
I
 Collection an.l Ptocsssing ot Solielwastes 51

plastics & glass, and aluminum &tin cans, and place

these segregated malerials in seDarare
conrarners. The containers are empried once per week for co'ile;ion.
The municipal solid waste has the following iomposition:

% by eeighl Specifrc lYeight (ks/ni )

E.0 288.34
35.8 89_7
Cardboard 6.4 49.66
6.9 65.68
Te*i16 1.8 65.68
0.4 t29.7s
0.4 160.20
17.3 100.92
1,E 237.10
Glars 9.1 r95.43
T'u ca$ 5.8 89.70
0.6 160.20
Odrerftetals 3.0 320.38
Silt and ash 2.7 480.60
'Newspaper co$titutes 20% ofatl paper by *eight.

,",T:Hy.t:l:,:],:l-,eist.132-kg.czp;tatday.'ftietotatnumberofhousesinthecommuniry
rs r zUU (4, J .5 residents per house.
60010 of houses. are expected to participate program.
in th is
Assuming 80% material separation rate, determlne:
(i) the proportion ofthe space required fo. each group of materials
in the collection
vehicle, and
(ii) the number oft.i ps per week rcquired ifthe size olthe collection
vehicle is 11.5 m3
Solution:
(/) Dererminarion ofthe propo(ion ofspace required
Each 100 kgof MSWhasthefollowingcomponen!
Recyclable Co panents Total Weight (kg) Seporuble Weight (kg)

35_8 35.8x0.8x02=5.728 0.0638

Cardboard 6.4 6.4x0.8=5.12 0.1031
6.9 6.9x0.8=5.52 0.0840
Glass 9.1 9.1 !
0.8 = 7.28 0_0372
Tm cans 5.8 5.8 x 0.E = 4.64 0.05t7
0.6 0.6x0.E=0.48 0.0029
The volume of each group of recyclablecomponents in l0O
kgof MSW:
(a) Newspaper+ cardboard = 0.0638+O.l03t =0.1669mj
(6) Plastics + class = 0.0840 +.0372 =0.1212 m]
(c) Aluminum + Tin Cans = 0.0517+0.0029=0.0546m3
Therefore, the proportion olspace required in vehicle is
0.0546:0.12t2:0.1669
or. Aluminum & Tin : plast jcs & Glass : Newspaper & Cardboard
= I | 2-21 | 3.06
 I
I
52 ATextbooK ot Sohdwastas Management r
(ii) Determination ofNumberoftrips
Total generation ofMSW
per week

= 0.60 x 1200houses x 3.5 residentsperhouse x L732 generation rate .

I
I
7 days
Per week = 30552.48 Kg,/week
Generation of paperwasle
= i0552.48,0.358 = 1093?.78 Kg/week
' Generationofrecyclablenewspaper

Generation of
= 10937.78 x 0.80 ,0.20 = 1750.04 Ks/week
cdrdboard -
= i0552.48 : 0.064 = 1955.358 Kg/week
I
Generation of rec),clable cardboard
= 1955.38 x 0.80 = 1564.28 Kg/week
Genera!ion of recyclable (newspaper + cardboardj
I
= 1750.04 + 1564.28 = 3314.32 Kg/week
Total space required for (volume of) ne\yspaperand cardboard
lil4.32
I
- _.r.,610
(5.728+5.12)
= 50.99 m3/week
"'
Space required fornewspaper and cardboard in one
I
I
tiip
3.05
=il:-,)-3!o'Il5
Number oftrips
= 5.6 t2 mr

=
so oo
I
ffi=e.08
Say 9 llips,,week.
Example 2.2: Solid wanes is collected from a locality using a hauled_container
I
ll sysrem. r he dala perl.ining to the collection actirities, are

Time taken by the vehicle to reach to garage from last

as followsl
Time taken by lhe vehicle o reach to first container location from garage _
io-catiJn
collection

I 5 mrn I
I
"ontainer
Average time required to drive the vehicle betlr,een consecutjve
=jOrnin
containers = i ,i,
Round trip haul disiance
Time required to pick up loaded container and to unload empty
confain", : ;: :1
Arsire time (per trip)
Haulconstant coefficients
= 8 mrn
a = 0.016 h/trip I
I
Determine the numberoftips of.he collection vehicle per aay, assum'ing
, tr;r?;'r"1j.lff
and off.t oure facror equal to 0.1S.

Solution:
The pick up time per rrip is given

where
Ph,,=pc+uc+dbc
pc
as:

= time required io pick up loaded container

I
I
I
I
 ColJeclion and Prccessing ot SolicJwastes 53

ac = tine required to unload empty container

dbc = average time required for drivingvehicle between consecutive contaifler
iocations
pc-uc = 21f:.in. = 0.4 h
dbc=6min= 0.1h
Pr., = 0.40 +
0.10 0.50 h/trip
Time required pertrip is given as
4,,= P,", rs+a+bx

r = at'site time = 8 min/trip = 0.133 h/rrip

a = 0.016 h/trip,
,= 0.011 h/Km
r = round trip haul distance = 50 Krh
4,..= 0.50+ 0.133 + 0.016 + 0.01i x50
= 1.2 h/trip
The numberof ips thatcan be made perda) isgi\en as:

_l(t-w)tt -(t, *t,)]

Tr,"

If= Off-route factor = 0.15

11= Working hours per day = 8 h
lr = time from garage to first contaiDer locatioo
= 15 min = 0.25 h
,? = time from last container Iocation to garage
- 20 min - 0.13 h

,. = -k r- o.r s)8 - r0.25 + 0.J3,

", tr0-
= 5.I E trips/day; say 5 trips per day
Example 2,3: Deterrnine the distance at which a Materials Recovery Facility should be
located from the source ofMSW, such thar the \yeekiy costs ofthe hauled syster remains
same as thatofthe stationar), container system. The data penaining to boih systems are as

(;) Hauled Container Sysrem

Quantity of MSW generated = 300 m3/week

I
Capacity ofcontainer = 8 mrlrrip
Container utilization factor = 0.67 .
Container pickup time = 2 min/rrip
Container unloading time = 2 minlrrip

I Haul time constants: a = 0.0022

At.site time
Operational cost
hr/trip; D=0.014hrikm
= 3.2 min/trip
=Rs.600/per hour

I Overhead cost = Rs. 16,00o/week

I
r
54 ATextbook ol Solicl Wasles Managerna

(il) Stationary Container System

Quantity ofMsw gene.ated = 300 m3/week
ofcontaine.
Capacity
factor
Container uti lization
capacity
Collection vehicle
= 8 m3
= 0.67
= 30 m3/trip
I
tatio
Coltection vehicle compaction =2
time
Container unloading
bhtipi
Haul time constants: a = 0.022
= 3 min/contalner
I = 0.014 h/km I
At-site time = 6 min/trip
operation costs
Overhead costs
= Rs. 800/- pe. hour
= Rs. 30,000/- per week t
The average distance betr*een conlainer locations is 0.16 kn and the time constants a
and b for estimating lime belween container locations, are 0.060 h/lrip and 0.042 h/km
respectively for both the systems.
I
Solution:
weekly Cost ofCollection using HCS
The number oftrips per week,,{|f, can be calculated as:
I
"" -
Volume of waste geneGied per week
Container caoacit\ , container ulilizalion factor I
300
sfr= ss o; sa) 56 (riPS Per week

The time required to drive between container locations:

t
=ai + blxl
dbc
where I stands for container location characteristics
dbc = 0.060 + 0.042 x 0.i6 = 0.0667 h/trip I
I
The pickup lime pertrip can be calculated as
Ph",=pc+uc+dbc
= *60- 1- o.oeoz -. ot:: t t.ip

t
6tr
(pc=!c=2miqgiven)
Let MRF to be located al a distance of, Km away from lhe source of MSW.
The tim erequired per trip, 1r., is
Th,.=Ph,.+s+a+bl
1,)
- 0.131- 6-0.022 -r2\)0.014
I
= (0.2082 + 0.028x) h/lrip
The time required per week
= Ir,- N" = 56 (0.2083 + 0.02E x) h/\,/eek
I
Assuming 8 hours of working day and an off-route factor
week can be calculated as:
as 0.15, the time required per

I
." =
"-m
=
r -fl6
(o 2oE3+ 0.028')
I
T

I
 Collecion anc! Pbcessing ol Solkl Wasles 55

= 8 235 (0.2083 + 0.028 x)

= (1.? 15 + 0.23 x) days/week
-
Weeklv cosl
'-16,000-600'8(1 715-0.21 x)
- (t l04 x + 24212) Rs./weel
(The operational cost giveo as Rs 600 perhour = 600 8 Rs /day) '
Weekly Cost ofCollection using SCS:
fhe number ofcontainers which may be emPtied pet trip can be calculated as:
Vehicle Capacity x ComPaction Ratio
ct =
a6;Ei;;i3l6-;-e6;Ai;E;-utilizaiion Factor
j9j rr"re say I I container per triP
= E r. 0.6 / =
The pickup time pertrip can be obtained as:
P",,= clc + (nP- l')dbc
uc= 3min = 0.05 h Per container
np= \1, dbc= 0.0661 hhriq
p... = 1l x O.O5 + ( l1 - 1) 0.0667 = 1.2t7 hlttip
The number oftrips required per week,
Volume of wasles Der week
x' = l;lm;oi rai;;
"-"rli"-r.--:6.Pffo,
Time required Per triP,
f.."=P...+J+a+Dr
= 1.211 + O.t + 0.022 0.014 (2.t)
= tl.33o - 0.028x1 h/lriP
Time required Per week,
= 5 ( 1.339 + 0.028 x) = (6.695 + 0.14 r) h/week
Assuming8hoursworkingalayandanoff-routefactorequaltto015'thetimerequired

-l- = 6695+O14x daYs Per week

(t -ol5),8

= (0.984 + 0.0205 x) days Per week

weeklv Cost.
- 3O,OO0 8 rO sE4 - 0 0205
- 800 r'
= (131.164, + 36294 6) Rs /week
SCS' asfollows:
Thevalue ofx can be calculated by equating ttte weekly costs ofHCS and
1 t 04 r + 24232 = 131.'7 64 r + 36297.6

Thus r= 12.41 Km
Therefore. the MRF should be located within 12 41 Km ofthe source ofMsw
rlxamDle 2.4: A commingled MSW havingparticles of average size 3Oo mm'
is to be reduced

,"-" iiiuf ti* so .,

in a planl having a capacity of 80 ton h Determin€ the.energv
"f
required by the plant ifa specific energy of20 hp-h/ton is required to reduce Mb \rr' ot srTe

150- mm to 50 mm.
 56 ATexbook of Solid Wastes Manegamant

Solution:
The energy consumption can be calculated by using Kick,s Law.
as foll-o\,rs: I
E= crnl+i

t=
'k

Energy consumption rate, hp_h/ton

I
C = Calibration constant, hp-h/to,
/r = Initiat size
/. = Final size
I
The cai ibration constant, C, can be calculated by using the given yalue

:o=cr,l]I)
ofspecific eners/,
I
i.e.,
C= 18.204 hp-h/ron
Therefore, the energy consumption mte,
I
/in^\
t = 182041(:::50.1 = 12618 hp ton T
The energy required by pianr
= E0:32.61
= 2609 hp
= 4.146 \ 2609 = 1947 KW say about 2 N{egawatt
I
Example 2.5: Glass is separated from a comrningled MSW (having g%
w^ith_a irommel screen, capacity l0o lons,/hour. Dere.mine the rec6ve"
efficiency of the.screen, if the weighr of underilow ana weigtu
ofglass conten!)
."[. ,".;i".
I
irir.;;;;;fff
""a
olgtass
have been experimentally found ro be lo tons/hour and ?.2-tons/h'ouirer;;;;,".i.--"'

Solution:
"" I
Le1, Xrepresents the MSW. and
Frepresents rhe Class to be separaled from MSW
The fracrion of$eighr of MS\\ and Glass. Xo and fo will
be a) follows:
I
Xo= 100-8=92ton,/h
fo = 8 ton/h
The total overflow ofthe screen.
= i00 - l0
I
= 90 ton/h
Fracrion ofGlass in the screen
l,r =8
orerflo\
7.2=0.8ron/h
Fraction ofMSW in the screen overflow,
,
I
X, = 90-0.8 = 89.2 ton/h
Total uoderflow ofthe screen = l0ton/h (given)
Tolal fraction ofglass in the screen underfloq
I
f: = 7.2 ton/h (given)
The fraction ofMSW in the screen underflow.
X. =
l0 -7.2 = 2.8 ton/h
I
I
I
I
 Co action and Pt*essing of Sotid Wastes S?

The recovery rate ofglass is,

=(4f .,oo
",
=(f),roo=eox
The purity ofMSW is given as:

,,*=(J+\.'oo
=(rffi) ',oo=,,,,*
The purity ofMSW is given as:
/v\
P= '2 l.rn6
'E \ Xr+ytl --
/ ,, \
=lzE;L)' 100 = 12%

The efficiency ofthe trommel screen is given as:

f w vl
E=11!-iIl,roo
llo
rol

.lg-!4^6 l. roo = 66ssyo

19,! l
Exampl€ 2.6: Determine the quantity ofoxygen required to oxidize completely I OOO kg of
MSW through composting. The chemical composition ofwastes is C6oHe5Oa0N.
Solutionl
The oxygen requircment can be determined by usingthe following equation:

,,r,o"*, ,(9tff)o, --; oco, + (!-!4,

)H,o
+ aru,

For the given wastes conposition,

a=60, b=95, c= 40, and d=l
C5qHerO..N + 63Q -+ 60CO2 +46H2O + NHr
(r46e) (2010 (2640) (828) (r7)
The oxygen required to oxidize ammonia can be calculated by usingthe following equation,
NH3 + 2O2 -+ H2O+HNO3
07) (54) 08) (63)
Oxygen req uired to oxidize the amm on ia generated from 1 000 Kg of wastes,

r-fto.ii'r000=4ls6K8
 I
I
58 Alextbook of Solid Wastes Managenanl
I
Total oxygen required.
= 1372.36 + 43.56 =
1415.92 Kg T
Assumingthat air contains
The amount ofair required,
23.015olo

0.2i15 " '-'

ofoxygen by weight

I
Assuming the density ofair as ].2928 Kg/m3, the vollrne ofair required to oxidize
1000 Kg ofwastes,
6 t 16..28 --^. ^^ .
I
-IIII8=a/:r.u.r m-

Exrmple 2.7: Residential yard waste is to be composted mixed with some activated sludge I
I
from a wastewater lreatment plant. The compositions ofyard waste and that ofthe sludge
are as follows:

C,4..I ratio

Nitrogen Content
50%
0.8%
50 6.5
75o/o
60/.
I
Determine the proportions ofyard waste and sludgelo achieve
Solution:
a blended C,N ralio of25.
I
The percentage conposition ofyard wastes and sludge, I Kg each, can be determined as:
(i) For 1 Kg ofyard wastes
\\'arerconrenr. w- 0.50 . I = 0.50 Kg
I
Dry matter = I
Nirroeen conrenr- N =
- -::
luo
0.50 = 0.50 KC
. 050= 0001 Kg I
(,i) For I Kg ofSludge
/.\
Cdrbon corrent. C =i :lN
\ N/

water content,11,= 0.75 " I = 0.75 Kg

=50' 0004 = 0: Kg
I
Dry matter = 1 0.75 = 0.25 Kg

Carbon contenl. C
/.\
=\N/
ilN=65.0.015=0.0975Kg
I
Nitroeen conrenr. N =
-
A
+^
IUU
,025 = 0015 Kg t
Let, i. Kg ofsludge is to be blended with I Kg ofyard wastes to achieve a C,N ratio of25
c
N
-
_ C in I Kgofyard$asles
- Nin lKgolyard*asres -
x{Cin I Kgofsludge,_r<
x(Nin I K8ofsludge)'-
t
= o
0.2 + 0.0975.!
oo4+o.ot5r
x = 0.36 Kg
-'- I
Therefore, yard waste and sludge have to be blended in the rBtio of 1 : 0.16
I
I
I
 Collection and Processing al Solid Wastes 59

Exsmple 2.8: D€termine the amounl ofair required for complete combustion of 1000 kg
ofa waste having chemical composition as C60HejoaoN.
Solutions:
The molecular weight oforganic component ofwaste is,
= (60 x 12) +(9s * l) + (40 ' 16) + (lx i 4)
= 1469
Percentage disribution ofC, H, O, and N in the waste is as belotyl
Che ical Co ponent
C [(60x i2)11469] x 100 = 49.01
H [(95 r lr]4691x
100 = 6.47
o [(40x 1611469] : 100 = 43.57
N [(l x 14y1469]: 100 = 0.95
Netavailable hydrogen not bound as water,
,tl <,
= 6.41 - 5:* = 1.024%
Oxygen required for oxidali on of carbon in 1 0 00 Kg of waste can be dete rm ined by
using the following equation:
C+Or-+CO2
(12') (32) (44)

O: required - /l\1000
--- 4901\,i;=
ffi.]
12
l306.ql Kg

Oxygen required for oxidizing hydrogen in 1000 Kg of wastes can be delermined by

using the following equation:
2Hr +02 J 2H2O
(4) (32) (36)
Toral Or required = 1306.91 - 81.c2 = I188.85 Kg
Assuming that air contains 23.25% ofoxygen,
Ifthe density ofair is 1.2928 Kg/m3, then volume ofair required

r -:i--i= = 44058 mr 1000 Kg of wastes

It Example2.9: Delerminethe heat energy available in the exhauslgases Seneraled from the
combustion of 150lons/day ofa MSW with energy content of 11,000 KJ,4g and the follo\ying
chemical composition
Elemmi
Percent by weight
C
28
HONSMoisturelnen
522412020
Assumethatlhe incinerator residue contains 5% carbon. The tempemtures ofthe entering

t air is 25'C . The residue from the grate is at 425'C.

Solution:
Carbon in the residue can be calculated as:

r Inerts' 150' ifi =l0 ron. du)

T
T
 60 A Textbook ot Sotid Wastes Menagenent

lotai residue = =3 i.57 ren5r4u,

1 -a=65
Carbon in residue = 31.57-30 = 1.579 tons/day

:
=s-(.2.2s".
Percentage of net available h!drosen
H) drogen in bound war = izta I z ts"
^
Bornd \yalet = 22 +2.7 5",= 24 .j 5
Amount ofwater produced from combustion ofhydrogen

=
}ftff toozs' rso) = 303?s ronyday

Gross heal energy availabie = 150 l lOl)0 x 11000 = 1.65 x 109 KJid
Loss ofheat energy can be determined as:

s..\b.
I, Dle !o unbumt carbon 0.01579 x 1.5 105 \ 32789 = 7.j66
2. Duelo inieren!moisturr
a_2v15\to :420=726
0.2a75 x 1.5 \ .Jj :2420 = 8.98
3_ Due to moisrrre in bound warer

0.2025 x 1.5 : tO5 ,2420 = 7.3s

Due to mois&e from oxidarion
5. Radidion loss
6
l5rlorx0.005=
Heai available in lEsidue
0.2104 x 1.5 x l0r ! 1.047 KJre K
: (698K- 29EK) = I 321
Totai Loss = 0.32677 x t\e K)td
Net hearenergy available in the exhaust gases
= 1.65\10e -0.32677 t t0e = 1.32i rlOeKJ,,d
EXERCISE
l. Describe various m erhods ofco ection ofmrrnicipal solid wastes. what are
vehictes used in coitectjon ofMSw. the comoon rypes of
2 . S olid wasle is co llecled from a tocal
ity u sinS a srationary conrainer sysrem, provid€d
with lwo
conraiaers (each orsize 4 m3 and utirilajon-ractor
oro.rslli.l.il"l.i.,lir,.;il:"*,"ja
minuftsroreachrofirsrcon*inerr,omga,ase sr_,r,*.,".,p.",i",""i;;;;;;,fi".:T,ii,.,
Inro tne rruct and avcraee time rakel bv ,he vuct ro
corer rhc drstance betqe?; ;;r*;;;t,.
conrainer tocarions is ajso 6 minules. Th;round.uip h*j
I
mrnures to reach rhegarage from lasl conrarner
di"**. ir;;;;;;;;:;;;;;:; ,,
tocatior.
Estimate th€ required capaciry ofthe tuck jfth€

"orkday).
Dumbcr oftrips to disposatsireper d.y is 2 (8 hours
The speed timn of rrlck is 40 knrA. ard cotre"r"";.r,r.r"
L,r"iiiJ","rri i, i.r.
.'", I
J. Discuss lheissues rn!ojved in setectin8 a,ir€ forasoUa
wastes t.ansrer rac;t,,r. r"" *rO *.
cj\ ic aurhorilles deatwirh rle \iMBy s)ndrome.
4. Dcscribe various lypes ofvehicles used tor r ranspo'tation
disadvantages. ofMsw' Give their advantagcs and
I
5 . What are the main mnsiderar;on iD rhe optimizarion
of routes for transponation of MSW?
6 . What are the comnoo techn iques for Materiat Separarion? What
are its adv"ri";";;
T
7. cive suitab le techn iques for sepamrion ofpaper, gla"",rn.t"ls_a
tn"rtInar.ri"tiZ

I
I
I
 Colectbn and Prccessing of €oliclwastes 61

8. Propose a recy.ling strategy for wastes ftom institutional area. Estimate the financial implications.
9. Ioran ideal recycling an d .ecovery program ofsolid uaste from a residential area, estimatethe
residuals thal willneed 10 be ultimately dispos€d offin landfill.
I0. Whar are the various wast€s processing systcms? Givetheir suitabil;1y for Processing ofdiffercnt
ryPes of wastes cod1ponen!s.
I I Describe various rypes of inciners.ors ard th€ factors affecting their efficiency.
i : . s,har are the common problems associated wilh incinerators? Suggest suilable precautions to prevent

lj. what is the basic difference between pyolysis and gasification? Give suhability ofthese techniques

14. what technique would you suggest for processing ofyard wastes? Give reasons
i5. Whar are the significant cortrol parameters in composling? C;ve lheir optimum values and the
methods for controlling the same.
16. Write shod notes or:

(,i) Chemicalcodversion
(iii) Bangalore Merhod ofComposting
(,v) Neigiborhood Composting
I 7. Exanline the solid uaste management system in you cily zone. D€sig, an inteerated lraste maragement
system forthe same.
 I
I
I
Chapter I
I
Disposal of Wastes on Land,fitt I
I
i
a
j
I
Wastes that can not be processed together iyith the residues need to
be
I
safely dkposed off. The long-term options ofwastes disposal include disposal
on land, disposai deep below earth,s surface and dispoial in ocean bottoms.
Land disposal is the most widelyused pmctice alloterthe world. Howeve. I
I
dumping ol solid wastes on lafld has serious environmenlal impacrs. Mosr
important, the leachate thrcugh the waste infillrates the soi] contaminating
the ground\ ater. Frequenr outbreaks of\rater borne diseases esoecialli
during rhe rain) season have been reponed in developing counrriis. Lani
disposal should therefore be caried our in a properly deslgned Iandfill
an engineered landfill.
An eDgineered landfill h not a dump but is
i.e.
I
I
a \r.aste disposal facility designed
on scientific principles to protect the environjrent and public h;alth. ihis
chapter discusses various types oflandfilis, its main components and
the

I
various operations involved in its construction and maintenance. Desigl
of
a.suitable eachate management systen and ofa gas control systeri are
.l
discussed in subsequent chapters.

DECOMPOSITION OF SOLIO WASTES IN LANDFILLS

Solid wastes that h disposed offin a landfill decomposes by physical, chemical
and bioiogical processes. physical decomposition of so]ij rraste"
occrrr-
mainly due to flushing or rinsing action caused by rhe movemen! of wzt..r
I
within rhe wasres. wasres panicles are degraded is a ,esult ofpressu.e
concen!?tron gmdienrs. Chemical decomposirion ofwasles includes hldrolysis.
sorprion. desorplion. precipita!ion. dissolution. and ion exchange ofwisre
and

I
I
cornponents. Biological decomposition ofwastes occu$ due to bacleria
present in the waste or in the cover material. It slarts immediately
afler th;
disposalofwastes inthe landfill. As aresult ofihe combination oiphysical,
chemical and bioiogical processes, the landfi ll can be consjdered as a

I
naturai
biachemical reactor.
There are basically three stages ofwastes decomposition in a Iandfill i.e.
(i) aerobic decomposition;

a
I
I
I
I
F Landfill 63

I
Disposal ofwastes on

(ii) facultative or nonmethanogenic

(iii) anaerobic decomPosition

L Aeroblc OecomPosltion
Aerobic decompositiot of wastes is caused by lhe acetogenic-aerob;c
microorganisms_

L This is lhe fiISt;tage ofdecomposition which stans soon afler

ihe wastes are cleposrted rn
i*iirl.
ttr.." a"-ui" o"composition occurs in lhe presence ofoxygen and is domi'anl near
as more oxygen is available lhere Deep inside a landfill
lhe only
if,r" tr.i"l"
"if""anff, disposal This tt"gt:o':: *

L
source ofoxygen is the initially entrapPed air during waste
l:
*ft"" i" *rif"tleoxyien is exhausted Aerobic decomposition ofwastes in a Iandfill
i.llrii.Ji""ii
".i .."f1 depth'aear the surface.lhe reactioo that takes placeduring aerobic
".lyis" as under.
decomposition

Ir Biodegradable fractioo + oxgen

J microorganisms

tr -
CzO + H2O + biomass (microorganisns) + heat
+ Panially biodegraded maierial

This process Produces carbon dioxide and the temperalure

wi$inlhe landlill,"].t: il:"T"t

tr
Highlevelsof
fr,",*"it" i"f"i."a inthe process cont butes tothe formation ofleachateenvironment'
alo*ia" a."."l""sed *hich form carbonic acids creating an acidic
"uiUon

L Facultative OecomPosition
Once the oxygen content is alepleted in the landfill, facultative microorganisms
Oo.in"nt iniiiu'ting tt aecond phase i.e. the facultative (or nonmethanogenic)
become
d€composition'

tr il;;il;." hig; "

""""entrat'ions
carbon dioxide are Produced.
ofvolatite fattv acids (vFA), ammonia' hvdrogen and

Degradable fi action of wastes

L CO2 + H2O -+{fA

+ Facultalive
+ biomass (new
Microorganisms
microo€anisms) +
PartiallY biodegraded material

L The Droduction ofcarbon dioxide continues inthis phase and the

is furttr'er aecreased (s.5 ' 6.5) resulting in the genemlion ofhighly
pH level ofthe landfill
acidic leachate'

L
tt
Anaeroblc DecomPositlon
and produce methane'
In ihis phase the anaerobic (methanogenic) bacteria become active
carboo dioxide and water. This p.ocess is relativeiy slow but continues
for many years'
votatite faty acias tormed earlierbecome substmte for methanogenic bacteria Consumpt;on
oith"r" o.ionic increases the pH level to 7-s Therefore the leachate become less
""1a. phase'
chemically aggressive. The followingare the general reaclions in this

t
H2 + CO2+ CH4 + H?O
Volatile Fatly Acids , CHa + CO?
gases produced in this phase
The dominantgas Produced inthis phase is methane Other
action results
in"tra. n;t.og"n i',a tydrogensulfide. Denitrification caused by the microbial

F
 U A Texlbook ol Solid WasEs Managenent

in the production ofnitrogen, while the hydrogen sulfide is produced by sulfate reducing
bacteria.
The methane generated during this phase has high calo fic value and is therefore suitzble
forenergy recovery The commencement ofthjsphase may take six months to seveml yeam
afterdisposal ofwastes on landfill site dependingupon seveft parameters e.g. pH, temperature,
level ofcompaction etc. For maximum gas production the optimal range for pH should be
between 6.7 and 7.5, andtemperature between 30 - 35.C

TYPES OF LANDFILLS
Depending upon the area of land available and the method ofdisposal employed, iandlills
can be classified as trench landfills. area tandfills, and slope landfills.

Trench Landfills: Trench landfilt is the mosr widely used merhod oftandfilling (Fig. 3.1
a). In this system solid waste is disposed off in trenches or depressions below the njtural
ground leve1. These landfills are suitable for a.eas where natural or man-made deprcssions
are avaiiab le and water lable is very deep. Earth is excavated where suitable natuml depressions
are notavailable. The s,desand base oftrench landfill are lined with impermeable materjals
to protect the groundwater

Flg. 3.1 (r): Trench Landtitt

Area Landlills:Area Iandfills are on-ground landfills (Fig.3.l ,). These are provided where
natuml or man-made depressions are not available and excavatjon is difficult. Waste ftaterials
are disposed ofron the ground sutface. Waste is covered with asuitable material! usually a
1a) er of soil. The cover malerial'soil is borrosed from some other locarion.

FIg. 3.1 (D): Ar6a Landfill

Slope Landfills: Slope landfills are provjded in hilly areas (Fig 3.1 c). Solid wasres are
disposed off on local foothills after providing a suiiable liner and a leachate collection
system. The stability ofslopes ofthe deposited waste is an important facto. in the design
ofthese Iandfilis. In general, a wastes slope of3O to 35 degrees is considered to be safe
for solid wastes disposal, depending upon the characteristics ofsolid wastes.
 Disposal ofwases on Landfill 65

Fig. 3.1 (c): SloPs Landiill

COMPONENTS OF A LANDFILL
Various components ofa landfill site are defined in this section. A cross_section ofa landfill
site is given in Fig. 3.2.

Cell: The volume ofwaste deposiied in a landfill site during one operational period forms
a 'cell'. The operational period is usually one day Size ofthe celi therefore depends uPon
the daily volume ofwastes received at the landfill site. The cell systen is convenient as the
rvastes deposited in the landfill each day needs to be covered the same day.

Daily cover: waste material is provided wilh a'daily cover' with usualiy a 15 to 30 cm
thici layer ofsoil. other materials, suchas yald wastes afld composts' can also be used Lr
cover mate.ial. The cover material Prevents surface runoff from entering into the wastes so
as to reduce the leachate formation. lt helPs coltrol lhe blowing offoflitter from landfills'

+.Liit

+uft

+
Flg. 3.2: Cross"seclion ol a Landlill
 6 ATexbook of Solid Wastes Managenent

Microorganisms present inthe dailysoil coverhelp biodegadation oftheorganic fraction

ofwastes. ln the event offires, the area becohes confined and the resulting-heat kills the
insects and microorganisms. lt also helps inthe levelingand compaction op;ation. Further
ithelps control the disease vectors, odors, birdmenace etc. The aesthetics a;ealso improved.

Lift: A 'lift'
is the heighr ofcells. Usually lifts are provided in a landlill. Height ofeach Iift
varies from 2 to 4m, depending upon the cell volume.

Behch: A 'Bench' is provided in the abovegound landfills uhen rhe height of wasres deposfued
is more than I 0 to 20m. lt is provided after each li ft or after every alt; rnate Iift. It in;reas€s
the stability ofthe landfill slope. Benches aiso facilitate surface drainage.

Leach.te Collection System: .Leachate' is produced when surface water infiltrates inro a
landfill. The water squeezed out fiom the wastes during its compaction and consolidatron
also mixes with the leachate. It carries numerous contaminants in it. Leachate should
be
carefully collected through a suitably designed leachate collection system. It should be
treated before its release on the ground oi :r, , sewerage syslem,

Liner: A 'liner'is a Iayer of impermeable material (e_g. clay, geomernbrane) provided at

la.dfiils 10 prevent inliltation of leachate into the grouDdwaie; protection
the base and sides of
ofground waterhas to be ensured, bythe provision ofimpermeable Iayers or by consructing
barrier walls.

Gas Collectiol System: A numberofgases are generated during biological degradation of

wastes in the landfills. These gases may migmte to the adjacent areas a;d have-potential
of
causingfire hazards and creating odor problems. Landfill gases should be collected utilized
for energy recovery This is desirable from economic as well as environmental considerations.
These gases are collected through a network ofpipes and wells provided in the landfllls.

Finrl Cover: The'final cover'is provided afte.the landfill site is filled to its fullcapacity.
A well designed final cover includes a gas collection layer, a impbrmeable liner. a surface
water drainage layer, and a layeroftopsoit for horticu lture. Finalcoveralso helps maintain
the aesthetics ofthe area.

REOUIBEMENTS OF AN ENGINEERED LANDFILL

Location: The landfill sites must be located away from cotumuDity areas e.g. residential
areas, hospitals, schools. It should be easily accessibleto transportation vehicies. Landfills
should be located at sites where water table is deep. It should also be away from airports.

Capacity: The site should have sufficient capacity to absorb waste volumes produced in
the area for a long period. Low-lying areas are suitable for reclamation by tandfi .
I_arge
depressio.s and quarrying sites are ideal sites for developing a sanitary Ia;dfill.

Separation and Shr€dding: Separation and shredding ofwaste components are important
operations in developing an engineered landfill. These operations reduce the vol;me of
wastes and make it more homogeneous. Sepamtion and shredding reducethe load on a landfill
site and increase its Iife. Many ofthe separated components can be recycled or reused.
 Disposal of Wastes on Landfrn 6Z

CoEpaction atrd Levelling: Compaction decreases penneability

and increases bulkdensity
aDd shear strength olwastes. It also minimizes the wasle volumethus
increases the la;dfill
rra!6ciO: Levelinghelps in easy operation and movement oftrailers
and equipmentaDd results
in a 'and surface good for irs inlended use.

EEvirotrmentel MonitoriDg Syst€m: Envjronmentai monitoring system is a mandatory

requirement. Monitoiing is carried out to control pollution ofthe air, witei and
iand envircnment
due to aDy ofthe landfilloperations. Monitoringcan be carried out by collectingair,
water
and soil sampies a, regular intervals fiom locations in and around t;e
landfill sie. Insitu or
c{ ine monitoring probes may also be installed on a pemanent bas;s.

Rodent Control: Rodents and other burrow animals multiply on landfills.

A surface finish
*ith proper soil cover allo.ws derection ofburrovrs. Regulirinspection.
a baiting program,
and careful use of pesricides are some ofthe measures thar help check ttris
men-ace.
"
Aesthetics: Many landfill operations (e.g. moving of vehicles, compaction) blow
offdust
and reduce visibiliry Birds and animals thrivingoverthe wastes also disturb the aesthetics
ofthe area. Use of proper equipment and provision ofsuitable dailycoverheips in maintainrng
the aesthetics. Good horticultural practjces also improve the aisthetics
oi.the area.
MaDsgement: Efficient administration is an important requiremenl oflandfill disposal.
A
proper-vigil overvarious landfill operations inc Iuding maintenance
ofequipment,iraining
ofstaffand systematic monitoring are is necessary,
.lmplnantconsiderationsinrheplanninganddesignofanengineeredlandfillarepresented
in Table l.i

SITE SELECTION
Public resistance to localing a landfill near their res idential area is well known.
Thegeneral
perception isthat a landfil I deteriorates the environment and is a
threat to health and p;perty.
This perception is reinforced ifcare is not taken to ensure good aesthetics
and pioper
maintenance ofthe landfrli site.
Important considerations in the selection ofa landfill site are as follows:
. t andfili should be located away from the community arcas but should be easily approachable.
There should be sufficient road netwo.k available to avoid traffic c;gestion.
the
haul distance ofwastes should be optimal.
. Land area available should be suflcjenl forat least fi\e years. Additiorally.
adeouare
area should also be available to provide various necessary faciliries e.g.
a sire oifice,
a workshop, leachate treatmeDt facility.
. Grolndwater table should be deep in the area. Desirabl e depth of water table
be low
the bottom of landfill varies with the type of subsoil and the ctimate
ofrhe reeion.
However. i! should not be Iess than 5m. Areas prone ro waler ioggjng or flo;ding
should be avoided for landfill siting.
o Soil to be used for daily cover should be available nearbv.
. Local climate e.g. temperature. wind velocity. and winj direclion should be
taken
intoaccounl in the site selecrion. Landfillshould be located in the predominanl
downwind
ofthe wind in the area
 8 A Textbook of Sotid Wastes Managenent

T.ble 3.t: imponant Consideralions in the Design

ofa Landfitl
(, Exi{irg
{i,
Envim.menrat irnpa.t (, $lection of ditrerent possibl€ sites
(r') vircTe.nrar tnpa.1 {ssessmmr ( ELA
(", IellloTfEl
;ere4ron ot one besr sire based on FtA
, Repon

Dejgn offilling ar€a (, Seiaion oflardfitting meood b3s€d on sire opogmphy. subsurfr.a stra:a-
elc.
(,, l€IEdL iR fitr depdl daily colg.fiiao,€ss!
hg^g:y-",r.r,-*a
rlermedIate co^r er rh ickless. rhrctness of tiner
and finat cover/
lii4 sDc.rrrarion o toperd.ionat feanEs , m,-$od jevetin&
ot compa.rioD. ao
8/adrn& t'-arsponaEon of co! er marenal. equ ipmenr rc4unemeni
$afi
Desisn oft-andfiil (,
(ii)
(.iii)
{D) Surfac€ water diversions
(, Sp€cial workire area
(,i) SilE Offce
(ui) Ub*shop for equipme.irt
('r, Equipment Pa*ing
(a) Ltttils
(r) Fq]cinS
(.r,
Monirodng f a.ilitjes!rcb.s
Planrrdon and ladscapms
D€sign Documenrt (, De\ eiopmenr ofprclimLlary sir! ptan offi arEas
1'r)
::,:yTli1llyll,
cornpterldtrthtarr. firE pre!
-,.ur pra,L€xcavdion pran. sequenriar nrr prans.
-ior1 r,n ,. , oooi ,no noi.. r,
surlac€ waEr d,ve6ion "..ori "onro
, l,rl Compulation!fsolid wasre slor.ge votumes. qu?nriry
ofcover material,
andlifeofl d6ll
rn) D€! elopment of fnal sire ptan mc luding
nomat fiI arEas. special wod,ing
area5 dur,ng rains.,leachak conrot systern. gas
conrot iysrem, accesi
roa.s. snE ofic€ and orhersrrustu
-'*upa'dsarage monitorine
t
Es e.e, wo*shoi
p,"b"s,ido*.;;;-**''"
rrr ".,1,
prcparation ofete!arion pians lljri cross-sections ofe\cn\ared fiij,
complered f II ard phare devetopmenl
fili at various nages
rrr prepara,onofcoflsurGion
colledjon aId disposaj slsBm-
daarts for fencinp ac.6s roads- jin€rt

lacrlrues. surfa.e w?der dit crsion

ctranncts. u
l€a.Ia!
8as cotjeflio,;d enelE/ r€ravffy offlariig
ortshop. garae. sire omJ
I
(v,, PrEparaion offinal jardus. pjan afEr cjo,ure
lviii) rrcp€Eron o, e vnlnmEnralmonibrinsDla
(E) PrEparation of con efi irnals
oftandfifl
I
(r) PrepBnrion of design report
(:, Applicarion zlonguirl EIA Epon for ohzining
appro|"l of&e Egu taring
I
T

I
I
 Disposatofwastes on Landtit 69
. A cornprehensive Environmenral trnnrcr Assessment (EIA,
should be carried our betore
finalizinsa sire
for a tandfil. The meihodolo$.and,l,.
the scope of rhe study shouid conform tJthe
_rnp"r_"
CpCB ;; ;;E;"iii.'ii.r,yiiiiui"g ;;;"1]r:::"t"S""
ChapterT).

Use of IT Toots in the Site S6tection

IT (Information Technology) toois such as_Geographical
inforrl1ation Sysrem (GlS)and
GeoDosiiioning s)stem rcps) are now werl recognrzed
technioues Lsed f^r.^rr.-,i,
srorase. manrpurarion. browsins. anarlsis and pr".;";;;;;;;;;;,,;;id;;:^i"",n;:ffil,",:;
arealreadyusingsuihrcotsi.lplanninearddesim6rr,;",^.^.,,:^l_^-1-lll::'"i:'1"'j
*''' or\aious environmenral projecs i'c)uding
rhe sirins'or;;"sr;;;;;;-", i;;;;;;:i.'-

G PS-a small and generall) handheld

insuuinent gives instant geographical position
location in the field with the heip ofdiftereor ofany
satellres arouio r-t ';.::.:;"."1.:
ha\e the racirir\ ro create aaatabise in rhe "'".;;
freiJa;;lj;;;;;;,,;,::'il,JiJ#:iil;
about various attributes. The data can be transferrea
to rle coriputers for re;;;;;;;r",r.".
G-ls-is exrensiver) used for pranning and deveropment. Inpurs
from Gps and orher soar.ar
datasourcese.g.remoresensinqsareliireimaperi"._,.r"'r-,-^,-,^,-^1"_l:"i^',p:l
d"oi","g,",i;;;;;;;;b;.il"ffi;;;: j,.,T:::il::.tj;:Ji,g':J:1,,o;:;Tro;;:1rr:::
Trbtel.2: cIS Operations in Landfill Site Setection

. Map Transformation To bring the dala layers inro a srngJe maD

Droiedio.
To$ea€bufferarohd certain fentures ;.e tand aren qrr,n 200 mof a
. E)daction To select differcntclassesofaje3 from tle map (uch as avartabteopen
land arca or densety poputated aea
. Overlay To compare variousrnaps and locate areas
conforming ro a panicular

To pres€nt the mrps witl arhoiaiions for easy and clear vjew.

Th€ first stage inthe selection ofsite is to incorr,orate

data ioto GIs from various sources
including toposheets. soil map.. masrer
D|ans. road.mups. .e*.rag. and *"r..,rppfi
remote sensing imageries. These data are .rp"
dataon one characteristi c or criteria, oncet:
t,v;.-
srored in rhe form of_'-r__ !q!'r ro.)st_,";r".
-::i:.^l'-',
lu'trdrrrlng
rs stored in Gls- five maior
are carried out as descriuea in raute:.2. ]a oPeraiions
rrrllo
".;t".i","u*r.ir," ",ullil;;;:;;.:iio*'r'1ff'fl:["r::iL:l "* anarvzins differenr
LAYOUT OF A LANOFILL SITE
The general layout ofa landfill facilitv vaiies from site to site. A r,vpical layour plan
Iandfllifacitiq Fis.l.j. A rnicauandfirrrh"rtd
is show,n in
i;;i,;;;; i.li;ffir_"r::,iit:ofa
I. Approach roads: to the movement oftraffic in the Iandfill area
ease
2. Cales.,Fenc;ng,and a Security sysrem: ro conrrol
enrry of unaulhorized people te.B.
ragp'cker5l and also to pre\ ent thefrs and enrry
,
r. wergn Drrdge. ro\Leigh thedait) \oJumesof !lasres
of stra) animals.
recei\ed arthe sile
 I
70 ATenbook ot Solid Wastes Management I
I
t
*'/
(
I
I
I
]L:o,l s"r" I
4.
Fig.3.3: Typical Layoui Plan oi a Landfitt
Sile Office:with propercommunication facilities: Required for slaffworking at landfiil
aite.
r
5.
6.
7.
Area for wastes processing: required for material separalion etc,
Area forwastesdisposal: acrr"l landfllling area.
Area for cover materiai: to slore the cover material.
r
8. Area fortemporaiJ storage ofwastes: required specially during rainy season to avoid
exposure ofwastes to rainwater,
9. Drainage facilitiesr required to diverl surface runoff.
I
10. Parking: required for parking ofequipments and vehicles
11. Workhopr required for maintenance and.epair ofeqEipmenls as \vellas for machinery
andmaterial storage. A typical Iist of equipment required foroperation and maintenance
r
ofa landfill sile is given in Table 3.3.
12. Leachaae coilection and trealment facilities: required for colleclion. recirculation.
lreatment and disposal of leachate. I
I
13. Gas storage facilities: required for energy recovery or flaring
14. Planting oftrees on tbe periphery: to reduce noise, odor and to improve aestheiics.
15. Environment monitoiing facilities: including an environmental Iaboratory dalabase

I
managemenl system,

Table3.3: Common Equ ipmenrs Req uired forLandfilling Operarjons

. Colle.tio! Handcais, Pedal Trjc_vcies, Motor Tricycles, TmctoB ud T.aile6 etc .

I
I
Hoist Trucks. Tilt-frane cotuainels, Trash railels. Tralrols and Tlailers etc.
. Marerial Sepalalion Air classifiers, inenial separators, electric ard mag.eric separators eic.
. Size Reduction Shreddels, Glass crusheN, wood grinders, Balers. etc.

I
.Ladfilling Excavalois, Bulldozers, Dump Truck, ConpacloE, Poad gzde6, Wd€l ltI*els, d..

I
I
 Dbposal al Wastes on Landfill 71

LANDFILL OPERATIONS
L3ndfil] should ope.ate 24 hours all the yearround.lt should be readyto receivethe waste
as and when it afiives at the site. Landfill operations include construction ofcells,lelelling
and compaction ofwasles, providing daily coveretc. These operations are discussed beio$'.

\*'eighing of Waste: Wastes received at the landfill site should be weighed over a weigh
bridge. It is nec€ssary to maintain a database ofthe quant:ty ofwastes received at the landfill
site.

Waste Deposition in Cells: Layout ofcells is an important part oflandfili oPerations.

waslas disposal in landJllls is carried out iD a phased manner. The entire iandfill area is
divided into a oumber of cells. Du.ing the filling of wasles in one cell, anolher cell is
p.epared. The layout ofcells dePends upon the type oflandfill and methods adopted for
disposal ofwastes. Various types ofceil layouts for area landfiil, trench landfill and slope
landfills are shown in Fig. 1.4.

Flg. 3.4: vaious Types ol Cell LayoLrts

The dimensions ofa celi depend upon the volume ofwastes to be deposited in it, taking
into account the daily volumes. To providing operating area for unloading ofwasles, it is
preferable to constrlct long and narrow cells. The longer face redules the waitingtime of
trucks for emptying. Narrow widths are desirable for controlled and orderly operations
including compaction and covering ofwastes. Height ofcells is usualiykept upto 3m which
is considered safe against any excessive settlement or sloPe failure. Cells oflarger heights
may require less amount of covering material but will increase danger ofsettlement and
slope failure. The side slope ofcell can vary between l0 to 30 percent

Spreading, Leveling 5nd Compsctior: Waste deposited in cells is spread in the cell area
with the help ofbulldozers or any other suitable machinery. Th€ wastes is then levelled and
compacted. Usually waste is compacted in layers of30 to 50 cm thickness The compaclion
72 A Texlbook of Solid Wastes Management

of waste should be continoed so as to obtain optimum density. In general, three to five

passes ofa compactor are sufficienlto achieve desirable results. Subsequent compactiod
can also be achieved through pjying thetrucks overcompleted cells.

Providing Daily Cover: Wasles deposilgd in the cell should be covered at the end ofeach
day. Locally available soil or soil borrowed ftom nearby areas should be kepl rcady for this
purpose. In general, a layer of l5 cm thick soil is sufficient fordaily cover. Altematively
other cover materials e-g. tree leaves, yard wastes, geotextiles oaplastic sheets can also be
used for covering ofwastes.

Ssf€ty and Security: Landfill must be provided with a suitable fencing for security and
safety. To avoid health hazards to workers orusers due atiention must be paid to thetype of
wastes received. Hazardous wastes received, ifany, should be properly handl ed to avoid any
'tUorkers
exposu.e to human beings or environment. engaBed in unloading, spreading, or
compaction ofwastes should be provided with special uniform including protective shoes
and gloves etc.

Record Keeping: It is necessart to maintain 4 proper record of wastes received at the

iandfill. This willbe needed frequentlye.g. to make paymen!aswell as toensure compliance
oflegal requirements. It shoujd include both the quantitative and qualitative data, locations
from wherewasre is received, weigh! and number oftruck which bring solid wastes, collection
routes oftrucks etc.

MANAGEMENT OF A LANDFILL SITE

Management oflandfill site inciudes the following steps:

. Conslruction ofapproach roads, inlemal roads and ramps for lhe free flow ofvehicle
and equipment.
. Proper surface drainage system to the groundwater ftom leachale contamination-
. Wind barriers e.g. large trees may be planted io prevent scattering oflitter.
. Leachate must. be collected and disposed off after suitable treatmenl. A leachate
lreatment facility should be provided for this pu.pose.
. Gas collection system should be monitored to check its elT:ciency. It should be
regularly maintained such that collection pipes and gas wells operate properly.
. Health checkup olworkers at sanitary landfill site should be carried ort regularly.
Proper arrangements shall be made for the supply ofdrinking water to workers.
. Any chance ofpollution due to landfill operations should be prevented by taking
suitable measures. Pollutio, likely due to some landfill operations and suitable preventive
measures are presented in Table 3.4.

FINAL COVER
After a landfill has been filled !o its full capacity it is necessary to close the landfill with a
finai cover. The final cover is provided to minimize the infiltratior) ofsurface runoff, to
prevent the release of landfill gases. lo prevent animals, birds and rodents from thriving
over landfill and to serve as a suitable layer forplanting oftrees. A landfili finalcover must
be designed 1o fulfi1l the following requirements:
 Dispsal ofwast3s on Landlll 73

shouldbe durable and able to withstand climatic extremes e.g, hot/cold, dry/wet, and
freezelthaw conditions;
should be resislantto \yater and wind erosion;
shouid adjustto differential settlemenl inthe landfill;
shoutd be resistant to disruptions caused by plants, burrowing animals, worms and
insects;and
should help in landfill site reclamation at a later stage.

Tsbl.3.4: Pollution Prevention in Landfill Operations

Prewntie Medsutes
S'ie preparation, disposal of wa,ter spraying on access roads,
wastes, u"affic dust, spreading landfilling afta, ard c.va material

\oise Mov€ment of h€a\y vetrcles Peripher.l iree plartation and poper

and ma.hinery e.g. cofipactoE maintlnanc€ of machinef .
Odor D€.omposition of uncovered Etrective daily cover, and gas ..ntrol.
wanes, lardfill g?s etc.
Efie.live daily c.ver

Litlr Uooovered wsie, poor Proper compaction and c.vedng ofwasles

Trffic krgE number of\rastes Suitable routing of \€hicl6

carryinevehicles
Mud on the roads Caried by transportalion vehicles Wheel clearing of vehicles

components ol a Final Cover

A typical cover for municipal solid wastes landfill site is shown ;n Fig. 3.5. It consists ola
gas coltection layer followed by a barder iayer, a surface drainage layer and a top soil
layer. Various components ofthe final cover and their primary functions are described in
Table 3.5.

Tabl.3,5: various Components ofa Final Cover

Periodic Soil Layer Daily coverto cells

Sand Layer Facili@tes gas collectioD'
BanierLayer Prevents infiitratio4lhioughthe cover
DrainageLayer For easy lateral drainage of surface rurof
Top SoilCover For growrh oftrees and plants,reduce wind erosion

soil Layer: This is the layer ofdaily soii cover placed over lhe waste.

Sand Lryer: It is a gas collection layer and is provided overthe daily soil cover ofthe final
Iayer ofthe wastes. Ii is usually a i 50 to 200 mm thick layer ofuniformly graded sand. A
network of perforated pipes is provided withinthe gas collection layer to help in the collection
ofgas migrating towards the top of landfill.
74 A Textbook of Solid Wastes Manaoement

Barrier Leyert Above the gas coliection iayer a barrier laver is provided. Barrier layer
consists ofa 200to 300 mm thick layer ofclay or a soii-bentorfite mix overlain by an HDPE
membrane. A barder layer servestwo main purposes. Fi6tly, it prgvents.the upward flory of
landfill gases tc lhe ambient atmosphere. Secondiy, it prevents the infiltration ofwater into
the landfill from external source e.g. surface runoffor rainwater falling over the landfill. A
s lope of 5 to i 0 percent is pro\'id ed i n the baftier layer, from centre towards the boundarr-

ofthe landfill in both the directions. The barrier laver minimizes the volume of leachate
and also the cos! involved in pumping, treatmentand disposal ofleachate.

Top soiL ior vegelalion

Sand lay6r (gas colrecljon)

Soli cove' (daiiy cover)

Fig. 3.5: Typical Cross-sec|on of Landtilt Cover

Drainage Layer: A surface dminage iayer overlies the barier Iayer. lt faciljtates the flow
ofsurface water. Surface drainage layer is a sand la],er, about I O0 to 150 mm thick. Surface
water diversion channels are also provided at the periphery oflandfill, which receive water
from the drainape layer and to diver! the runoffsafely (Fig. 3.6).

Top Soil Layer: The topmost layer is ofsoil containing humus. ft supports the vegetation
over the landfill and helps in landscaping ofthe area. The thickness ofthis layer varies from
40 to IOO cm depending upon the root zone ofrhe planls selected for rhi; sire. Regular
monitoring ofthe Iandfill cover is required to check erosion due to wind or water and ro
observe the settlemenr ofthe landfi1l.

Ma;n Elements in Design ol Finat Cover

important el€ments in the design offinal cover includematerial selection, compaction, rhickress,
setllement, surface slope, dminage andvegeration. These are briefly described below.
 Disposalafwastes an Landfill 75

(Soe Fig' 3'5)

Final cover

Flg. 3.6: Sudac€ Waier Drainage Channel

Sel€ction of Material: Selection of various material used in different layers of covel

the vicinity
i".""i. uron i t fo""f uvaitabilit. For inslance, ifthe clayis easily available in
"ii""Jnii;t
.^ u. *.d iD the barrier layer' othetwise othei alternatives such as locally
be
u.ended soil (with bentonite or any other material)' orflyash can
*ll,
"r"if"ti..",r*f
,r"J a.p"naing upon the cost involved. Factots such as strenglh and durability are also
considered while selecting a material
good strength' ll reduces
ComDaction: Compaction ofdifferent layers is necessa'ry to achieve
*e oirm"aUitity aoa controls infillration ofsurface runoff Poor comPaction resuhs in
due to wind and trater actions, and results in storage ofmore water in Pores'
"nit'..osion
rel ief Relief is defined
Thickness r Thickness of cover shou ld be about more lhan twice lhe
as the vertical distance from the high point to the low
point of irregularities on the top
of cover
,rri*e oittt" . ot i a *u.!e within a tto 1 5 m spati al region The actual thickness
penerallv oror ided in landfills depends on several factors e'g infiltration gas migration'
i.."r"lriaii"*. u"m*uiliry, vegeiation root zo:re The thickness offinal cover may therefore

.ange from i.0 m to 2-0 m.

 ?6 A Textbook ol Sotid Wastes Management

DilTerenti.l Setdehcnt: Volume changes due to biological decomposition

ofrrastes. reduction
of void space and compression of loose materiuti*.. .lrr"
-uy
cove...An.average settlement of lO to 1l pe.cent ofthe over;ll
i"nr"rl",
"i]""anrr
depth ha. U.", oU*.rii
many landfills_ Mostofthis sett,ement occurs in the firstyear
Covers mrri ia a"rl*.0," ""
accommodare differential sefllements as well as Iong_lerm
subsidence. p,"p"..".i""i_
* *''
of$asres and uniform deposition ofwastes redr." i;n r.n,i"i.",,r-.r;;r'_'-

Surface Slope: Sritable surface slope is provided to allow

removal of surface water as
soon as possible. Suiface slope of 5 percent lowards the edge
of IandfiX i" ,;i-;i.;;.
surfec€ Dr'ainage: Drainage rires or pipes within the cover are provided
to rernove any
water thar infilrrares the cover. lr aiso diverrs the surface
runoff frim thl;dj";;;;; ;;;",
Vegetatioh: Vegetation maintains rhe integriiy ofrhe cover.
Selecrion ofan aDDroDriare
vegetation species is based on its srj.vjval facrors e.g.
ofroors to withstand landfill gas in the rooa zone.
ctimate, soit fpe;;;;l;i;r,-Jtitiry

I
I
Sol

I
Fig.3.7: Typical Monitoring tnstr!m€ntation at Landfil
Sits
I
ENVIBONMENTAL I{ONITORING OF LANDFILL SITE
Monitoring of,landfill sire is req!ired lo pre!ent-the migratioo
envr ro nmenr. Mon iroring is main t) carried
ofpollutants into the sunounding
I
out for cheik ing air q uatiry. gro;;;;;;;p;-l t"""r,
and \ado7e zone conraminarion. Moniroring srations
at th€ periphery oflandliit as well as within ie ianaAff.
at a Iandfitlsire lor the co ection of data for various
are esrablishej aid probes are. ins;;iled
ftg.:.2 sfrows rypi'caii".or."*ii""
envi.inmental pari;;;;;;i;;;i",
I
ofsuirabte instrumentarion or probes depends upon rhe
characle;isil;.
well as legat requiremenrs. Special care is required for,,o,iito,in;;i "i;"it;;;;r;. ."
landfillsJe.
h;;;;;;;t"s I
t
I
I
 Disposal ofwastes an Landfill 77

(i) monitoring
Air Quelity Monitoring: Monitoring of air quality at a landfill site involves
(ii) monitoring of landfill gas'
-'a.ii"" air qualiry and
ofambient
.onitoring is carried out to detect any gas migrating from the landfill
ir"f ity
"ft
* ii"-""ri....'"" intothe s;soil. various types ofsampling devices and-monitorinB
".
inr*i"nta ttu"" U""n A"veloPeal for this purpose A commoniy used grab samPler for collecting
,^. *."i.. it .r,"*" i" rig. :. A. ,Air q,aiiq is also monirored for suspended paniculate
for
;;; i'srM;. Hish volum-e sampleriare commonlv used to grab rhe sample of air
monito.ing ofSPM.

,7
(glaairool)
,/,probe

Vacuum oumD

Fig 3 8: Glab Sampler

Monitoring oflandfill gas is carried out io determine its composition Thisisusefulin

a""iai"c ;i;"ih* tt l"nd-fill gas is suitable for ene'gy recovery or it should be flared off
"
to detect any conlamination
Ground\f,ater Monitoring: Groundwatermoniloring is carried out
aretollecled lrom
of sroundwaler due lo leakage ofleachale or ga< from landfill Samples
a n-umber of boreholes (Fig. 1.9)locatedall around lhe
peripher) ofthe landllll lhese
samoles are then anallzed in the laboratory lor various water
quality parameters SamPles
.^'^1."i" hand pumps, tube wells, dug well' springs, ifany near the landfill
site.
"oif*"a'f.om
water within the pore spaces
Vaaloze Zone Monitoring: Vadoze zone conlains bolh air and
oi*ir. rf,"."fo." **itJring is carried out for quality of the air and ofthe liquid in the

oualilv of air in vadoze zone is monilored by usiDg a moniioring probe as sho\rn in Fig'
f. ri. iurpi., ut.o a! Yarious depths in the vadoze zon; Th's helps in detecting
^." "olleckd
any lateral migratiofl oflandfill gas
---'f-iquiJ
f". -. )
lected-by using a suction lys imeter (Fig 3 1 l lt cons ists of
a
""r*p cup "ol rc anonporous PvC tube Soil moisture is drawn into the cuP
po.ous
"".u.i"
ii."rgi i,.p"r". ty "ttuched a negative pressure collected sample isthen analyzed in the
"pplying
laboratory.
 78 ATextbook ol Solid Wast$ Management

Ciear"nce lo. samp €r (15 cm)

r-1--
*7SN

+sand I ter r ]s cmr

_
Bentonire sea (1oocm) .
Sand lilter (60.m)
-----T
Grav€ pack (150 cm)
above s orted PiPe

I
Centenng plug

Fig. 3.9: Groundwarer Monitoring We

Monitoring-ofiandfill site requires a large nurrlber ofequipment. It req!ires collection
and analysis ofa large numberofsamples at regular intervais. An environmental
laboratory
should therefore be an jntegral part ofdevelopment of a landfill. CpCB has provided
a
comprehensive lis! ofequipment for setting up an environmental laboratory
lTable 3.0y.
The midmum equipment required (Class C Iaboratory) rnaybeprocured in ttre
first instaace.
Laterlhis laboratory may be upgraded io Class B or further to alass A levet ty adaing more
and more equipmenl as and when the funds become availabie.
T, bl. 3.6: Typical List of Eq uipments for Setring up Environmenlat Laborarory
Nane o.f I nstrune nt./ Equiphe
A
nt Class Class B Cr,rs C
Itrstmments
Automatic Atomic Absorpdon Spectrophorometer
Corductivity Meter
Dissolved Oxygen Mete.
FlamePhotoderer
Gas Liquid Chromatograph

pH Meler wirh combined classcalomel etectrodes

Table 3 -6 (contd. ot p. 80)

 Disposalolwastes on Landlll 79

15 cm dla aruminium cssin!

sample po4 (ontrguEiion

I 16-l+
( /5 ch
6tun
25mm PVC probe scH 4a -J l
| 10.tr1o
) ( 1o!h
t_]
TYPkardla

lregEEl
Flg. 3.10: Probe toI Air Quality Moniioring in vadoze zon€

Fig. 3.11: TyPical LYsimeter

a

A A Texbook ot Sotid Wastes Management

Table 3.6 (con d. lrom p. 7E)

Ponable Anatysis Kit, D.o.
!pectrocotorim€rer
T.rp;;;:;it;;;;G;
sP.ctr-ophotometer I L v visibteand IR
specrrrc Ion Meter with Microoocessor
wilh flow throuShc.I) l
Specific Ion M€rer tordinarv I
Tolal Organic Carbon Arar;?.r
TurbidityMeter
-
EquipDeDts i ;
Aqlarium for bjoassay& aerators +
Balance (upto O.0t ihs)
Balance (upto0.l0m;i
BOD Incubaror +
Bact€dologicat In.ubator +
Borom Sampler
Centrifuge
I
Colon) Counter (Etecnonic)
Color Colnparator
I
Depth Sampter
Filtratjon Pumps (vacuum)
Floccularor (Jar Te$ Appararus) + I
I
Flask Shaker
Funing Cllamber +
Cas Analysis Apparatus +
Hot PIare lDifferenl sizel
HeatinAmanttes
Inocularion chamber
;
I
Magnetic Stiner with hot Dtare
l
Muffle Fuha..
Oven (hot air)
Refrigerator (bis size)
Rotary Shaker
+
+
+ I
Srop watch
Thermom eter (differen r rarees
water disrilarion assembi\
iordinai
Water Bath ( Therm osra!ic Conx6l I '
I
I
t
Microscope (ordina^ I
ttlicroscope r researci, r
Microscope (ptarkronic invefted +
+

+
I
I
I
Filtration Assembty (mi,liDorer +
;
COD Disesrion Assemht.
Additional lnstruments tor Air euality
l
Monitorlng
Beta-Ra) Panicutare Maner ADaivzer
High volulne Sampjer wirh caseo;s
Moniroring Sysrem
fi and, sampler for gaseous monirorins
I
I
I
I
 Dis6elof Wastes on Lahdfill 61

Noldispersive Ambient CO Analyzer

Slack Moritodrg Kit + ++

Pulse Fluorescence A-rdbient SO, Aralyzer
CheoihrmirescenceBared NOx Alalyzer
SEoke DeDsity Meter
Exlausl CO/HC A.oalyzer
Exhaust NOx Alalyzer
Whd Speed & Wind Directior Recorder
Sodar System +

SozlaPr CPCB (1494).

SPECIFICATIONS FOR LANDFILL SITES

SpecilicatioDs for the deveiopnreDt of a landfill are coDtaired in the Municipal Wastes
(management & Handling) Rules, 2000 laid doun by the Ministry ofEovirolmetrt and Forcsts,
Govemment oflndia vide its notification of 25th September, 2000- These are comprehensive
guideliDes and should be followed squpulously for ensuring eDvironmental proteclion as well as
for compliance with the rules and regulations. these are summmized below.
1 The municipal authority ofthe concemed district and town shall identify, develop
aDd mailtain oDe ormore landfill sites asthe case maybeforthe disposal of municipal
solid wastes. Prior to commencemeDt ofla[dfiIling, the laDdfill site shall be planned
and design€d with proper documenlation ofa phased construction plan as well as a
closure plan.
2. The Mudcipal aurhority shall ideDtiry the disposal site aftel environment impact
asses$nen1 in a city/lor,m having populatiotr more thaD five lacs and Uldng into consideration
oflh€ competent authority. The idetrtified sites shailbe brought into public
the views
notice for their views.
3. The landfill sites shall be selectedto make use oftrearby wastes processing facility.
Otherwise wastes processhg facility shall be planned as ad integral part ofthe landfill
site.
4. The existhg laDdfill sitesthat cotrthue to be used fotmore than {ive years, shall be
improved in accordance of these specilicatiotrs.
5. The landfill sites in muDicipal bodies haviag more tha[ 5 lakh populatioD shall be
us€d ody forthose municipal solid wastes &at are not suitable for bio-c ompo sting
orrecycling.
6. Biomedical waste, slaughter house waste (includiDg fish, meat, poultry proc€ssilg),
iidustrial wastes, sludge and otherhazardous wastes shall not be dumped at landfill
site meant for disposal ofDoD-hazardous and Dod-biodegradable wastes. Biomedical
wastes shall be disposed ofas per the Bio-medical Wastes (Managemetrt and Handling)
Rules, 1998. Ilazardous wastes shall be ma.naged as per the llazardous Wastes O4anagemeDt
and Handling)Rules. I 989.
7. The lardfill siie shali be large enough to last for 20-25 y€ars a,d preferably withir
5 km from present city limits.
8. The sile shall be at least 0.5 km away from habitarioo clusters, forest areas, monuments,
national parks, wetlands ard places ofimpotant cultural, historical or religious interest.
r
I

e A Tenbook ot Solid Wasles Management

9. Landfill siteshall be at least 20 km awa) froln airport including

airbase. Municipal
aurhorities shal obrain approvai ofairpo&airbasi
ofthe landfill sire_
10. A 500 m wide buffer zone ofno-development be maintained
aurt oriries piior ioitr;.";;;; rp I
aiound landfill site and
shall be incorporared in rhe To\rn planning Dep".rn.n,.. " "'
tuna_ri" oti".-""
li. Landfitisite shalt be tenced4redged and proiia.a *i,f, p."p., g"" i" i""iio, incoming
vehicles or other modes o.transponation.
!
I: The landfill sie shali be!reilprorectedloprevenrentr] ofslra! animals.
rr. Approacn and other inlernal roads for free floq ofvehicles and
shall exist at the landfill sire.
orher machinery I
I4 The Iandfill srie shall have t"astes inspection facijit) to monitor wasres brousht
.
for landlill, office faciliry for record keeping ana ,f,.ir",

- machinery
15.
including pol lution monitonng equrpmeDt.
Pro\isionstikeueigh bridgeto meas.urequiniiryof*asre
i". f,.+i"C .qr;pr".ri'j"A
in
I
broughtat laDdfill sire,
ltre prorecrion equ;pments and orher facilities as reqrLired.
ciries \ ith more than 5 ldkh popularion.
I6. Utiliries suchas orinlinEt \.rarer {preferabl} barhing faciliries
shall
-be
provideJ ioi all
I
ro workerst end liohri
. *r,ln.J.i#;il;:ili,
I
a,ransemenls foreasy r-inrr op"*,;on.
7. Safeq Drovisions inctudineheairh insnecrion
made.
ffi ,:t"ij.X:
or."*"""ii-inrl rl.'J;;ilff;]":],"
,a/r EP<n(,(lrcar . I
18. Wastes subjected to
landfilling sha be compacted in thin layers using landfill
to achieve high density ofwastes.
19. Wastes shall be covered immediately or at the
compactors

end ofeach workins d5v wirh ? <_ro

I
cm of soil/sweer earrh. In oino'n_u,";ruliri;;;;; ;#,;i "o#i,I"ll".
construction material shall"ur.
20. Priorto
be used.
the cohmencement ofmonsoon season, an intermediate
thickness of soit shall be placed on the Iandfill
*,th p.op;;
cover of40-65 cm
I
to preveBt infiltrarjon during monsoon. proper
to divert runoffaway from the active cell oithe
";;;;;;;il;;;*
aruinug. U.r^.
landfill.
21. After completion of,andfill. a final c6ver shail be designed
ihutii" ;;;;;.,
to minimize
I
""""'""
'- infiltration
and erosion. The final cover shall meel the follo*ing

soil r
i!h permeabi.ir) less rhan I0-_ cm sec.
,i.";t""tion.,
(a) The final cover shal I have a barriersoil layer comprising
of60 cm ofclay/amendecl
I
f b) On rop otrhe barrier soil la)er. rhere shall be
a drainase laver of I s.m
rc) Onlopofthedrainagela)er.lhereshall eau.g",u,ir.i"y.iof+S.r'ioruppon
narural plant growth and to minimize Erosron.
I
22.

(a)
In orderto preventpollution problems from landfill
shall be made:
operations, the following provisions

Diversion ofstorm water drains tominimjze leachale

I
I
genemtion and prelent pollution

,r, . :f^.-Tl1::y]:'r"d
,
atso for avoidine floodi,e
r_onsrrucrron 0t a non_permeabre,;ning
r"d;r;";;;;;;;;;ffiiil:
s) srem ar ihe base aDd uariof".rt. aiioorrr
4,c.. ! rii ro$ permeaDrrrN ttnrng sysrem musr have barrier soil Iayer

I
Lclay ame;ded
soil) of minimum 60 cm thickness lvirh permeability
nor;a;;;;;;;,0 :'^'^
if waste reaching rhe tandfiI is non-biod;gradabf"
residues of waste processing facitities o; mi\ea ,u",,.
"ira
i",i.,. f". f"rltli..*]"*
i,""ir* .""i"ii""i;.i
",
I
I
I
 Oisposal ofwastes on Landfill A3

ofhazardous maierials(such as aercsols, bleaches, polishes, batteries, waste oils,

paint produc!s and pesticides) minimum liner specifications shall be a composite
Larie; having 1.5 mln high density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembrane (or equivalent)
overlyingg0 cm ofsoil (clay/amended soil) haviflg permeability not geater than
10_7 cm/;c. The highest lev€l of \Yater table shall be at least 2 0 m below the base
of clay/amended soil barrier.
(c) Provisions of management of leachale collection and treatment. The treated leachate
shall nreet Ihe standards laid down
(d) Prevention ofrunofffrom landfili area entering any stream, rive', lake or pond'
23. Monitoring ofgrcund waterquality shall be done in cities having populati on of ntore
than ten lakis during pre-landfill opemtions, filiing and also during operationai and
posl operalional period at such Iocations preferably, to cove. one upgradient and
two downgradient monitoring welis.
24. The monitoring schedule for cities having population less than ten lakhs, shall be
worked out by Pollution Control Boards in States and Pollution Control Committees
in Union Terriloties in consultation with municipal bodies.
25. Ground waler in and around landfill site shall not be used for drinking purposes o'
otherwise, untess il meets sPecified staldaids for thal particular use The ground
water quality shallconform to followinB maximum acceptable limits.

S. No

0-02Ir.el
Cadnium 0.01mgfl
Clmlnilun Oexa\alent) 0.02lx.gll
L5 mg,a
Lran 0.05 mgn
Mercury 0.001me,4
Ni@e 10.0me,4
pH 6.5-7.5
Condudnity 100-200mmhoYcm
Toial dissolved solids 500 mg,
Cl orid€s 250 mgn
SulfiLs l000mgl
Color 5 Hazon units
Biochenical oryg€n Demand 30 men
Chedic2l Orygen demand 250 mg/l

26_ Where gound water is deep below the landfill, vadoze zone (vadoze water) monitoring
shall bi undertaken usingporeJiquid samplers (lysimeters) and pore-gas samplers'
21. Installation oflandfill gas control system including 8as collection system shall be
made at landfill sitetominimize odorgeneration, prcvenioff-site migration ofgases
and ro protect vegetation planted on the rehabililaied lardfili suriace.
28. The conceDtration ofmelhane gas generated at landfill site shall not exceed 25 percent
ofthe tower expiosive limit (LEL).
29. The iandfill gas from the collection facility at a landfill site shall be utilized for
eitherdirect thermalapplications or power generation, as per viability Otherwise'
4 A Tedbook of Soli.l Wastes Managenent

landfill gas shall be bumt (flared) and shall not be allowed to di.ectly escape ro the
atmosphere or for illegal tapping.
30. Ambient air quality atthe landfill site and at the vicinity shall be monilored to meet
the following.prescribed standards.

1. Sultur dioxide 120 ms/m3 (24 hour!)

2. Suspended Paniculate Matter 500 pym3 (24 hours)
3. M€thane Nol to cxceed 25 percent ofthe lower
explo.iv€ limit (equivalentto 650 pymr)
4. 400 pyft3 (24 hours)

3 L The ambient air quality monitoring shall be carried out by the concemed authority as
per the following schedule:
(a) Sixtimes in a year for cities having population ofmorethan fifty lakh.
(r) Four times in a year forcities having population between ten and fifty lakh.
(c) Two times in a year for cities having population between one and ten lakh.
32. A vegetative cover shall be provided over the completed sile following guidelines
shall be followed:
(a) Selection of locally adopted percnnial plants tha! are r.sistant to drought and extreme
temperatules;
(r) Root ofthe plant shall nor disrupts the low-permeability Iayer;
(c) Selected plants shall have ability to th ve on low-nutrient soil with minimum
nutrieDt addition;
(d) Pianialion to be made in sufficient density to miniinize soit erosion
33. The posFclosure care of land{ill site shall be conducted for at least fifteen years
and longterm monitoring/care plan shall consists ofthe followingl
(a) Mainaining the integrity and efectiveness offinal covet making rcpaiN arld preventing
run-on and rud-offfrom eroding or otherwise damagingthe final cover.
(6) Monitoring leachate collection system in accordance with the requirernent.
(c) Monitoring of gound water in accordance with requircrients and maintaining gound
waterquality.
(d) Mairtaining and operating the landfill gas collection system to meet the standards.
34. Use ofclosed landfill sites for human settlement or otherwise shall be considered
after ensuing that gaseous and leachate analysis complied with the laid do$,n standards.
35. Cities and towns located on hills, shall have location-specific methods evolved for
final disposal ofsoiid wastes by the Municipal authority and ihe concerned State
Pollution Control Board. As Iandfilling in hilly areas is not an environmentally safe
option, the Municipal authority shall set up processing facilities for utilization of
biodegradable wastes. The inert and non-biodegradable *aste shall be used for building,
roads or filling up ofappropriate areas on hills.
 Oispasal ofwestes on Lahdfrll 85

EXAlllPLES

lErcmple3.l:Acolonyhavingapopulationof65,000geoeratessolidwastesattherateof
2 ks/c;piu/day. The compacted specific weight ofsolid wastes in landfill is 650 kgm3 and
Itheaveiaeedepthofcompactedsolidwastesinlandfillis5m.Determinetherequiredlandfill
-gea
Solutions:
Totalsolid wastes generated from tbe colony,
=65000x2= 130,000 Kg/d
Volume ofsolid wastes
l39{o - :oo o,- , a
= 65U
Area requhed.
= 200/5 = 40 m:id
A.ea required annuallY,
= 40 x 365 = 14.600 m2lyear
= L46halYear
Example 3.2
A community generates solid wastes at a mte of75 tons/day. The soiid wastes has to be
disposedoffinlandfillcellsof5mwidthand3mlifthavingasloPeof3:linitsworking
face. Thickness ofdaily soil cover is 150 mm. Determine the ratios ofvolume ofwastes to
cover soil. Assume average specific weight ofwastes asl i) 350 kg/m3, ii) 500 kg/m3, and
iii) 600 kg/m3.
Solution:
(a) The volume ofwaste to be placed can be calcuiated as:
(i) For waste with sP. wt. of350 kg/mr
,, 75,1000- 21428 Kg ml
I'*' = .-35L ",,",
(ii) For waste with sp. wt. of500 kglml
(iir) Forwaste with sp. \Yt. of600 kg/m3

(r) The cross-sectional area ofcell,

=3mx.5m=15m2'
The len$h ofcell required per day is,

4 = --13- = *
'*".o
, t50 .^
' 15
The surface area oftop, face, and side ofthe ceil can be calculated as:
Top surface area,

4=ff=ulm
 I
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6
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I
ATextbook of Solid Wastes ManagBment

Aft = Ltx ht= 14.28x5=71-4ft12

An= Lrx W= 10 x 5 =50 m7
AD= L1\ W = 8.33 x5 = 41.66 m2
Face surface area.
A = Llx
9.486 = 14.28 x 9.486 = 135.46 m?
I
Ap= L2 x 9.486 = 10 x 9.486 = 94.86 m'?
A B = L\, 9.486 = 8 33 x 9.486 = 79.05 m2
Side surface area,
,4sr =,{s2 = ,,lsr = 5 x 9.4E6 = 47.43 rn2
I
Volume ofdaily soil cover,
I/s, = Cove. thickness (lt+ Ar+ As) T
I
Cover thickness = 150 mm = 0. i5 m
VsLt = O.t5 x ('7 t.4 + 135.46 + 41.43) = 38.143 m3
I/&? = O.15 x (50 + 94.86 + 47.43) = 28.843 ml
Vsti = O.l5 x (41.66 + 19 05 + 41 43) = 25 221rt3
The ratio ofvolume ofwaste to the volume ofcover soil ,/sry'Fs are,
V,q/ V,t j = 21 4.28138.143 = 5.617
[snlVsLz= 150!28.843 = 5.20
I
i'
EXERCISE
Y"B/ Ve 1 = 125125.221= 4.956

I
2.
l. cive
L
a neat sketoh ofatypical layout ofa landfill. Stlowvarious facilities provided at a landfill site.
ist sali€nt ciiteria foe selecting a landfill siie. which ofthese criteria you lhi.k is qitical for city
zone? Give.easons- I
3. Describe the physicaland chemical changes that take place in a,andfill during ils lif"..
4. Draw

--,,;-5.
why
a
is a
neal sketch ofacross-section of an engineered iandfill. Label its compotrents.
landfill final cover provided? Give details ofvarious layars in the cover describingtheir I
. 6
function.
. Estimate the laodfill area required for a city of one million p€ople. Use typical data for a large cig.
Assume compacred density of wasle with in the sile as 0.6lons/m3. the average deplh ofwaste is I
I
l0m. The ]andfillshould be designed for 20 years.
7. Design a suitable environmental monitoring system for a san;tary landfill site in your city zone.
S kerch the main moniloring componenls.

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Chapter

Leochate Maruagevruevrt

Water enters into a landfill site ftom vadous sources e.g rainfall, underground
watea, surface runoff water is also squeezed out ofthe wasies duting
compaction and consolidation. The leachale so fomed is highly contaminated
and carries many suspended and dissolved impurities in it. It is necessary
ro contiol this leachale flow and to prevent it from mixing wilh the
ground water- Characteristics of leachate, its controi, collection, and
treatment, are discussed in this chapter'

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEACHATE
The characte stics ol leachale vary with the type of waste deposited
in the landfill. It also changes with time depending on the physical,
chemical and biollgical reaction that take place in theland{ill A generalized
variation in the conaentration ofleachate constituents with tin:le is shown
in Fig. 4.1. The curve is th€oretical but indicates temporal variation of
leachate characteristics. The concefltration level of a constituent first
increases to rcach a peak value and lalea over a period of time it starts
decreasing. Depeodingonthe age oflandfill, theleachate can be categorized
as fresh or old leachate.

q:6

Flg. 4.1: Typical Concentralion Prolile ot LeaChate Conslituents

Fresh Leachate: Fresh leachate is generated in the {irst few yea$ oflandfill
waste deposition i.e. malnly during the aerobic decomposition phase. Primarily
 88 A Textbook of Sotid Waites Managem€nt

itcqntains biodegradable organic mafter Table

4. i shows chaEcteristics ofa fiesh
leachare
generared ar a tandfilt she- Fresh teachate
chemrcai oxygen demand (CODr. These RODina
has high bi""h;;i;;;;;;il:ililff;.
j,-.-olii.;;.;;;ffi,
30000 mg/l and 3000-600OO mg:l respectively
COO ,"lr.i
Tsbl€.r.1: Typical Characteristics of Fresh Lcachate

pH
BODs 2,00&30,m0
COD 10,000
3.00G60,000
ToC (Toral organic Carbon) 20,000
1,00G20,000
volatile Fatty Acids 5,0m
I,000 - 25,000
Suspended Solids 3,0@
20G2,m0
Total Nitrogen 5m'
2Gt,000 4$
Total Piosphorous
5- 100 40
Total Hardness as CaCOi 30G10,000
Calcrum 3,500
20G3,000
Magncsium 1,000
5&1,m0
Sodium 250
20G2,m0
Chlorid€ sm
20G3,m0
Total Iron 500

.All l"lues
5G1,000
a
except pH sre in iner.
Old Le.chste: As the landfill matures. c.
r",.r,u," a.","".., ii. H;i; :iffiL;::::H:*1",1#::il h."",:l:f:li";l,i",l:
Afrer abour 25 to 3o years ofclosure of a landfiu, ", "ii-r.".i"" irl# ffiffJ: ,
rises ro 7-8. Typicai concenrration of conramin;r, t"
_. ttre waste islim;;;;;li; r"bt;*d
The concentration of po uranr iD the leachare
rnay not be very harrnful.
is ttren sign;ncaniiy t;;. ;i;j;#"r.
Tabl.4.2: TypicatChamcteristics of OldLeachare

pH
7.0 8.0
T!pi.al
7
I
BODJ
50 - 200
t50
COD
TOC
Voldil€ Fatly Acids
500 - 3000
i00 - 1000
50 - 100
500
250
I
50
+All l.lues exclpr pH
are in mgr.

LEACHATE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

I
It is necessaryto collect all leachate for its r!
oru r"u"r,utJ,"n"g"'""-n;;;ffi;,.:j:"".?il,i1,1j,,t"1,i!XX1i;]l#:::li"Xlil: I
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 Lea&ale Management 89

deteclion These are briefly described

recirculation. treatment, disposal, and moflitoring afid leak
as follows:
LescbateMinimization:ltisthecontlo]ofsudacerunoffandgloundwate'per.olation
bv using a small cell size'
;nil d;,ii,;iil;tion of exposure of wastes to rainfall
use of a tow permeabilitv cap' proper sradins of final surlace of
;;;;G;q;l.i;.tes,
landfill cover.
contailrmetrt:Containmentofleachatewithiothelandfillisacbievedbyprovidingsuilable
i;";:u;;;;;";.;;in"iic materials in the liner svstem can effe'tivelv help in controllins
the escape ofleachate from the landfill
collectiol:Leachatecol]ectioniscarfie.loulthroughasumPwellsandaneiworkofPipes
ofleachate
cou"i"J*itt inu"n"d filter ofsand and gravel lt prevents excessive build up
"n
heaJand reduces ttre ctrances ofleachate flowingout ofthe
landfill'
content of the wastes
Recirculation: Recirculation of ieachale increases the moisture
the load on the
*iii, tr" i"ranrr. rtt imProves biodegradation ofwastes ll aiso reduces
;";;;;J;;;."r;"ntrition of a larie number of contaminants is reduced significantlv
after each rccirculaiion.
Tr€stmeit:Leachateco,lectedfromthelaldfiIlcontainsalargeamountofcontaminants
before its final disposal Tteatment
*iii*"ilr. """4 a U,reated to the prescribed standads
upon the rature and concentration of
il;;;;;;, Jemical or tiolojicat depen'iing
contaminants.
DisDosrl:Theresidualleachale,aftersevem'cyclesofreciiculation'isfinallydisposed
;;I;;'n; i;;;,-;..nihe disposal could be on iand' in a final surface water bodv or into the
leachate'
iuni"lp"t a."in, a.p"nding upon the characteristics ofthe
leakage ofleachate Thisis
Monitoring atrd LeakDetection: It is necessaD todetecran) orsoil
;;;;k"d ;;;;tr;il ofleachate head, groundvr'ater monitorinS-' and monitoring
ura U*. landfill. probe;nd sensors arc insralled duling tie construction
"i*,I".ii", "fthe
phase oflandfill for lhis Purpose'

LEACHATE OUANTITIES
be considered inthe design of
The quantity of leachate to be handled is an impofiant factor
lrnanttr. La.s" quuntities ofleachaie generated will exett a significant hydrostatic.pressure
Iiner
;;;";;;;"";;;"* ofthe landfiliThereforc, in order to design a suiiable landfill
the quantity of lea€hate
uni ui r"""t u" collection system, it is necessary to estimate
iiut witt ue eenerateo in lhe landfill Two common methods used for estimation ofquantit_Y
"*aariu.
(,') *",.;balance method lwBM);and (ii) hvdrologic evaluation
oflandfill
;il;;;",;;;
performance (HELP)

waler Balance Method (wBM)

The leachate generation latedepends upon:
sources includingrainfall
(i) the amolnt ofwater flowing intothe landfill from extemal
and surface flow;
(ii) the field capacity ofsolid wastes;
 SO ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managament

(iil) rhe \aater released ;n rhe bjological decomposirion;

and
(,1,) an\ other ingress ofr,,ater. A water balance
study can be caried out to determine lhe
amount ofieachate generated in a landfill. Wate,
Uut"n"" stray in"frrO", rp
atl these quantities ofwater and subtracting th" quuruty
of iu"t", iirii-"ii,
"aairrg
process or other Iosses. The following expression "ry
can be used for lanJnit ,ur".
balance computations.

Quantity of Leachare (F/z) = Wi+ WR + Wc _ W.D_ Wrv_ Wsc _ Wsy

we'water alread! in the parre.r.' water aireaary p.esent in
ofwaste deposhed in rhe Iandfill site. This canie aetermineA '- *
the wastes is the moisturc content
in ttre iaUo.l_r.
w_R,,-Watet entering through sutface oJ landlillt Water enrering through surface
r!(ruucswarerenterrnglromropc_.;desofra',dfiri.wheregroundr.rirertabreisnearrhe of landfill
base of Iandfill. \.!aler can also enrer from belou

Wc ,W'ater in the covq mate al: \Naler in the cover lnalerjal js

the moisture
the cover If the moisture conlenr of cover material is higher, l, ,"y iriiu""content of
wastes and may form leachate. on the other hana, if
ira ,fr"
h is io-w, rtre cove'r ."i".r"'i*ii]i"ia
rp"" it; ;;t;;;;;;il. "- "'
the warer enrering from the rop oflandfiu dependi"g -

WD Water utilize.t ih decompositiofi: Water vtilized

in the decompositioD
- ' ' can be cletgmined
sloichimet:icall). iflhe chemical composirion of*"st..
i, lnorln.
CaHrOcN,/+ rH2O + CH4 + CO2 + NH3
where, C,HrOcN,/ is the chemical composition
ofsolid wastes in the Iandfill.
,, ,r." f?.r, Water vapors are escaped out of landfiI
Y:Y:n-l!rt,
ranor ll i"pg!
r gas. -Assumjng ihat rhe landnll gas is fully saturated with wareryuporr, with the
gaslawcanbeaPpliedtodelerminerhe$alerloitinrhetormofva|ors ,t . ,"rr..,
pf = nRT
where. p is vapor pressure ar terhperature
f in degree Kelvin. ,/ is volume ofgas,17 is
number ofmole( and R is universal gas conslant.

,/sc,Water stored in cover: Water stored in the cover is

increase in the moisture content
ofin the cover. The maximum water that can be stored depends
by.rb;;;;;i;; ;rnoi*",iiil'i;.r,*
th€ €over mareriat. water stored can be
upon rhe n"iJi"ra"rV
determi".d
ofthe cover,(rrlc ) from its field capacity (,/Fc).
Wy.=WR-Wc
,tr. Water stored in landfill wastes: Water stored
in the wastes is increase in water
contert of wasres. This can also be derermined Uy,utt.""ting
th" iniiii;;;il1",
wastes (r/,,,) from its fi etd capactty (tyF;.

HELP MODEL
Hydrologic Evalualion ofLandfill performance (HELP)
is a popular model developed by
schroeder (1984) for estimation ofreachate gen"-ri*.
it i.!"ir*"..
as a three layer system j.e. vertical percolatio-n "i*rr"r"* rliln,r
layer, lateral arainage-la;;;:;;;;.",,
 LeachateManagenent 91

layer (Fig. 4.2). Soffrrares based on this model are commercially availabie. Various input
data is required for this model as foliows:

Climatic Data Daily p.ecipitatioB, Mean monthly solar radiation, Mean monthly
tempgrature
Geotechnical Data Hydraulic Conductivity or pmeability, Soil porosit, Field Capaciry,
EvaporationCoefficient, Wiltidg Point, Minimum infihration
Rate, SCS RunoffCu e Number, Initial Soil Moisture Content
Vegetation Data Vegetation type, vegetation cover, LeafArea Indices, Winter covel
faclor, Evaporative Zone Depth
Design Data Number orLayers, Thickness of differcnt layers, Slope of layers,
Lateral flow distance, Surface layer oflandfill, Leakagefactor
(required for geonembBnes, mges between 0 - 1 ), Runofffractjon

1, top vagelalion laye.

T I
Land,illtinal
2. DBinage lay6r

I
3.
E3ner ervclay rayer

It I

T
Soil/clay lin6r

I I

l lillralion tom bas€

Fis. 4.2: Landfiil as Simulated in HELP Modet

 92 ATelbook of SoId Wastes Management
t
:
The above methods are most commonly used to estirnate quantities oileachate. Since it
is difficultto assign precise input values ofsome pa.ameters, uncertainty always exists
rn
such estimates. I

LANDFILL LINEFS
Landfill iiners are provjded to prevent the flow ofleachate into the goundwarer. Liners are
provided botb at the bonom as well as at the sides ofa landfill. Usrjally ciay and,/or geomembrane
layers are used in the liners. The primary concern about liners is their perm;ability. The
design of a liner depends upon the characteristics ofleachale and its r;te ofgeneration.
Some liDer systems provided in the landfill sites include lhe following:

. Single Liner System

. Single Composire Liner Slsrem
. Doubie Composite Liner System
Single Liner Systeml Only one layer of impermeable material is provided to control thc
flow of leachate [Fig- 4.3 (a)]. This rype ofliners can be used for noniaza.dous. nonreactive. I
and nonbiodegradable wasre. and !r.here warer table is deep. Lining marerial is usualh
clav or
amended soil. Ho\rever. geomembrane are also used as a Iining material.
I
I
T

-r I
L"*. I
Flg. 4.3 (d)r Singl€ Linsr
L ///<\\ Ee ///it///: /// \ 70r{ I
Flg. 4.3 (t): Singie Composite Liner
Single Composite Liner: A single composite Iiner system comprises oftwo or more T
lalers
ofimpermeable maleriais [Fig.4.3 (6)]. cenerally geomembran; underlain by a layer
of'clay
or amended soil is provided in this system_ The thickness oflayers depends uion the leachate
head expected to build up at the bottom oflandfill. This type oflin;r syst€m is suitable
municipal solid wastes landfill sites.
for I
DoEble Composite Liner: This system is provided for a hazardous wastes landfill sites.
lD
this system two different liners are provided one overthe other \vith a sand layersandwiched
in between [Fig. 4.3(e)]. Each liner coniisrs ofa iayer ofclay or amended soil and a layer
I
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 LeachaleManagEnent *
ofgeomembrane. The sand layer is provided with a natwork ofpipes to collect any stray
leachate infiltrating into it from the upper liner.

20-30 cm

t'n*ro
I
30.60 cm

t L

20-30 cm

?""'
30.60

//A\ //ts,,. //4\ rr> //4\ lt]!.\

L
1

Flg, 4.3 (c): Dolble Composite Liner

Requirehents of Landlill Liner

The liner system in a landfill should be designed to salisfythe following requirements:
. It should prevent migration of leachate orlandfill gastothe subsurface soil or$ound

. Liner material should have adequate resistance to darnage due to vehicular moveBenl,
climatic conditions, or chemical reactions with the wastes or leachate.
. lt should be inslalled boih at the base and around sides ofthe iandfill 1o soiis on all sides.

Materialg used in Liners

Liners are generally conslrucled with natumlly avaiiable material. Soil containing a high
fraction ofclay are commonly used. Synthetic liners made from plastics are also effective
due to their low permeability and high durability. Various materials usedfor liners andtheir
characteristics are discussed below.

SoilClay
Among the soil liners, clay Iiner\ are considered to be effective for landfills. Clay is soil
which has grain size smaller than 0.002 mm and exhibjts cohesion. It is suitable not only
 I
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94 ATextboak of Sold Wastes Management
: I
!
due to its low permeability but also for its potential ofattenuating the contaBinants rn
leachate. Clay liners. i.om thick usually, have permeability as low as 10-r cm/s Typical
value ofpermeability ofvarious types ofsoils is presented in Table 4.3 At sites where cla)
I
I
is not locally available it may not be economically feasibletoborow it from distant locations.
In such cases, amended soil is generally used in landfill liners. Bentonite is a common
additive. which is mixedwith the localsoilto reduce its pelrneabi litv and lo provide strength
I
Both the soil and bentonite are thoroughly mixed to obtain auniform mixture
Table4.3: Typicalvahe ofPerm€abiliB fol various Soilsand Aquifers T
Pemeabttq (. sec)
Cround-sudale Clay
Deep Clay Beds
10-5 to l0r
I0-u ao loj
I
SiM-oanr l0r to 1o-r
Fine Sands
coarse Sands
Grav€l
lo r to
tol
loj
!o tor
to 1.0
loj
I
CIay Sand a.d Grav€l mixes to{ to 1or
sandstone toj to 1ol T
l0+ to loJ
Shal€ lorr 1o lo-?
Less than
l0-{ io l0
l0r ro 1.0
10r
'?
I
Sou.e: adapled from Bouwer, I 978; Driscol, I 986
Construction of Soil Liners: A common problems in the construction ofclay or amended
I
soil liners is the formation ofc.acks. The soil should no! be allowed to dry out during its
placement. Such Iiners should be laid in thin layers, aboul 10 !o 15 cm thick. Each layer/lift
should be properly compactedusing aheaw rollerthrough several passes. Rollerfeet should
I
be sufficie tly longlo penetrate through the working Iayer right uPto rhe underlying Iayer.
This will ensure proper bonding between the successive lifts.
Problems arise when non-uniform mixture ofsoil is used. Cracks are formed as a result I
ofdifferential swelling. The quality ofthe amended soil should therefore be monitored by
carrying ou! various tests e.g. moisture content, Atterberg's limits. laboratory compaction
tests, permeabilitytests. Strict control ofmoisture content is required during compaction
as it affects the level otcompaction and permeability ofliner'
I
Geosynthetic Mate als
Use ofgeosyn!hetic materials is common in iandfills. Geotextiles, geomembranes, geonets,
I
and geogids are common types o.l geosynthetic materials. Ofthese Seotexi les and geomembmne
are important in case oflandfills.
T
ceotextiles: These are used as filters in landfills in order to prevent the movelnent ofsoil
parric les inlo dra inage syste m, The) also ac t as a cushion to protect the geome mbrane l iners.
bue ro their high permeabili$ ( I0r lo I Or cm/s), they aliow the movement of liquid while
preventing fhe movemeni ofadjacent soil particles and thus help in Preventing the clogging I
ofdrainage system-

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 LeachaleManagenent 95

Geomembrane: A geornembrafle is aflexible sheet ofpolymeric nderial and is vinually

;;#.ul,;.; ;;;;; oiaiff."n' polv*"' oith a wide range of chemical formulations
areusedtomanufacturethegeomemDrane.ihemostcommonlyusedgeomembraneismade
n,"i a""t* r",r"f,yle;(HDPE) Cenerallv30to60mils(1mil=1/1000inch)thick
;il"#b.*JtJH;;tanafitl tiners. trope'ties of at)?ical geomembrane nsed as landfill
"-f
iiner are presenled in Table 4.4.
Trble 4'4: Properties of Geomcmbranes
Typicol Vallles

Tensile Strength
167 Kd$nt
Tensile Streugth al leld
Tensiie Strength at bre.k
28oKlcnl
t50/.
Eloog?dion alyield
10o"/o
Elongation ar bre?k
Toughness
20 Kg
Te,I resistance initialion
104K9
Prlnc$re resisrarce
Llr temPemture bdnt€ness
',4.C
Durabilitt
2%
Carbon black Percent
Negligibte stengh change after
Accelerared hear agiflg
lmonthatll0'C
Chemical Resislance
mixtrr6 I 0ol" rlnsile srEngft chmgE over
Resistanc€ ro chemical rvaste
120 daYS 7 days
l0% tensile sE€ngth change over
R€sist to Pur€ chcmical r€agents
ce

Stre s s C r acking re si s lanc e

ca.k resistance 1500 h
Environmenial sir€ss

some: adapten fiomBagchi (1990)'

Geomembrane liners are generally provided

along with the clay or amended soil laycrs'
installation'
rh;;;'f;;;;;;ila sJit t"v"i'tloula t" proPerlv prepared before its
available inthe forrn ofrolls
Contttuctio ofGeoaembrane Linersi Georlembranes are proPerly seamed while laving
o.l * irarr] l5o m length Tlese rolls should be
"i"'i;,i
i; ffi;dil.;, i;i
"ti
ilge tusior1 exiusion welding' or bv using solvent adhesive.as Prescribed
i'ln.-r.ri"iru."r' s.u.ing should be avoided at locationswhere aleachale head ofmore
:,il i #;,.;.:;;; *m.i.,iro"a"p 'r'o'ra u' provided arjoints' rhe followins Preca utions
must be taken while installing a geomembrane liner'
dutibg strong winds (24 km'4rr
. Laying ofsynthetic geomembrane should be avoided
or more)
that tfiere are no heaps
. if,e .uUjUur. .lrouta Ue properly compacted and dressed such
or deoressions.
the
. i"r*,i tir" p"i,.t"t tgreater that O 5 in) should be removed before installing
geomembrane.
96 ATexbook ol sold westes Managomenl

. Movement ofheavy vehicles should not be allowed on the Seomembrane dudng its
laying. Movement ofhoofed animals onthe geoEembrane should also be prevented
by providing properfencing ofthe area.
. Geomembrane should be covered as soonas possiblewith asandlayerof20-30
cnr thickness.

Seaming oJ Geomembran eJ: The seaming ofgeomembranes can be camied ou1 in a number
ofways e.g. thermal seaming, chemical seaming, fusiol welding and mechanical methods.
fhetnal Seaning*This procedure is suitable forgeomgmbranes which arc manufactured
\r/iih the base material which is sensitive to heat (themoplastics, crystalline thermoplastics,
thermoplaslic isomers). Seaming is carried out at a temperature ofmore tian 260'C. The
prccedure involves hoi air bonding, hot wedge (knife) bonding, and dieleckic bonding. Various
thermal seaming altematives are shown in Fig.4.4.

Lap s€am wiih Eud tale

Iongu€ and groov€ spllce

Exlrusion w€ld lap s€am

Double hot air or wsdg€ sEam

Flg. 4.4: Melnods of Thermal Seaming ot Geomembrane

Chemicai Seaming-Chem;cal seaming is carried out by using various chemical and base
materials e.g. cement, solvent, vulcanizing adhesives. The selection ofchemicals used forthis
 LeacheteManageirdnt 97

purpose depends on composition ofgeomembrane and the field conditions in which the
seaming is to be carried out. This procedure is howevet generally avoid€d specially in hazardous
waste landfills due to the chemical aggressiveness ofthe seaming materials.

Fusion Weaing---"fh\s rnethod isused only on HDPE liners and requires a hot base product.
Specialized welders are usedto extn de a ribbon ofmoltenHDPE which melts and bonds to
the two HDPE sheets to foim a weld.

Mechanical Methods-|n this system, mecbanical seaming or taping is carried out. An extensive
quality coDlrol is required in mechanical seaming as the presence ofdirt or other foreign
rnalerials can reduce the strenglh ofseam.

Specificatlons for Liners in Hazardoug Wastes Lahdlills

Specification for liner required forhazardous wastes landfill site have been laid down by
CPCB. A liner for hazardous waste landfill should conformto the following:

. A leachate collection Iayer ofthickness of30 crn and with a cbefficient ofpermeabiuty
ofmore than I 0-2 cm/s.
. A single composite liner comprising ofa HDPE geomembrane ofthickness l.5mm
and a compacted clay or amended soil layer ol I 50 cm having a coefficient ofperneabiliry
of 10-7 cm,/s or less.
. In regions where rainfall is high, subsoil is highly permeable, or where watertable is
wilhin 2.0 m to 6.0 m belowthe base oflandfill, a double composite liner comprising
the following layeis should be piovided.

. A primary leachate collection layer as specified above.

. A HDPE geomembrane ofthickness 1.5 mm or nore followed by a 45 cm thick
compacted clay or amended soil layer having penieabiljty less than 10-7 cn/s.
. A secondary leachate collectiot layer (30 cm thick) having permeability more
than lO-3 cin/s.
. A secondary composite liner comprising of 1.5 mm thick geomembrane and 45
cm thick compacted clay or amended soil (permeability < i0 ? cm/s).

Ouality Conlrol of Liners

Construction ofa liner iitvolves various operations e.g. spreading ofclay/soil layer, and
compaction followed by installation ofthe geomembrane and its s€aming. Great care is
needed during construction to prevent leak-holes or cracks in the liner that result in its
failure. Quality contol tests are carried out frequently during lhe construction ofiandfill
liners. These are listed in Table 4.5.

Trble 4.5r Quality ControlTests and Sampling Frequency forLandfi Liner

Sa plihe Frcquehct
Clry/soil Evew 500 - 1000 m3 In-situ d€nsity and moisture content, compacrion, p€r-
meabilily. grain silE disEibution. ArlederB\ Iimirs etc
Thicim€ss, daEiy,st€ngtb iou€lDess. dumbilily, chemical
resistanc€, field se€Jn streogrh, overlap, elc.
9a ATextbook ol Sold wastes Menagement

LEACHATE COLLECTION SYSTEM

Leachate collection system is desigredto avoid accumulation ofleachate
inthe landfills'
tt ls proviaea at ttre Uoltom oilan-dfills but above the liner systefi Ttie system includes
sloped terrace and a pipe net\Hork forleachate collection
(Fig 45) Ihe bottom oflandfill
This
is o'ro"iaea stopes oi t'to 5 percent in bolh the longitudinal and transverse directions
in belween lhem'
foims a series ofsloped rerraces with leachale colleclion channels
piPes surrounded
Leachate collecti;n channels are provided with a nelwork of perfomled
(Fig 4'6)'
with an inverted filter ofgravels and coarse sand to facilitate the flow ofleachate
geneml a 100 mrD dia
The size ofpipes depenrli upon the amount ofleachate generated' In
p ipe, with pe;forati;ns o f liss than or equal to 1 o mm. are s uffi cj ent The Perforations are
uzuity proriaea lO mm centre to centre in the upPer three quarters of?iPe periphery'
Th;general siope at the bottom oflandflll is kept towards the sides where all the ieachate
is colle-cted. Sump wells, are installed to pump outthe cojlected leachate Atypical
sump

-T
_t_
i
I
Flg. 4.5: Leachate Collsciion Syst€m

-SoldwastB

+---soiland bentonite
40 m rHDPE Liner----J

Fig.4.6r lnve ed Filter around Leachate Collection Plpes

 LdadaleMahagetueni gt

wel l used for collection of leachate is shown i$ Fig 4 ? The leachare pumped ou! is kepl in
hoidingtanks usually constructed of RCC.

ProrectNe casing
.- lr oo mm+G] prpe)

p196

Flg.4.7: A Typical Sumpwelllor Leachate Collection

various components ofleachate collection system andtheit functions are suirmarized

in Table 4.6.

Tsbt.4.6: Components of Leachate collcction System

DescriptiotL/Purqose

DEinage l-ayer Hishry p.rm€able la)€r ofsand or gra!€ls to ease the lateml dninage ofleachde'
Sh;uh b€ ar least 30 cm thick, with a petrieabilitv of 10-3 cm'/sec'
Sloped T€rrace To increase the potential of lateral nigration of leachate. A slope of 2 % is
prcfeiable.
id coll€ct and drain th€ leachate. 100 mm dia HDPE or PvC pip€s \rith
Perforat€d Pipes
Derforations of 10 mm in the upPer tltre€ quaneF are prefercd'
in inveied filter, to pr*€nr the clogging ofpiPes due lo insress of sad from
FiltErlayer
dninage laler.
Sump well Used to pump out the lea.hate collecled d the boit'oB oflddfiil

LEAK DETECTION AND REMEDIATION

There is always a possibility of leakage of Ieachate through base or sides
of landfills The
;kage could be iue tojoint failure or puncture ofgeomembrane liners cracks in the clay
seeps
lin., o_, dr" to .*"".rir" pressure built up within the landfill' Toe leakage and leachate
 I
T

1OO ATexlbook ol Solid Wastas Management

I
may occur due to perched water lable, or as a result of, biological slimes in the viciniR of
drainage tiles. T
Lysimelers are generally installed below the liner. These suck the moisture fiom the
soil. Olher jnstruments used for leak detection inclnde pttchrometers, aDd neutron probes.
which gives the vaiue ofchange in moisture content in soil. Gamma ray attenuation probes
are also used to detect changes in moisture conlent. A typical leak detection system is sho\ra
in Fig.4.8.

(a) For below-gmde c6ll

,.,-.t.
._-} -':,c -<-, t'11
4:Ferus6<ts1
I
I
(b) For above.gade coll
Flg.4.8: Typicat kak Dei€ction Sys!6rn I
The remediation ofle3tage depends upon tlle actual siG cooditions which may vary. Remediation
may be accomplished by providing a peripheral toe drain system. For a trench landfill, a
barrierwall may be constructed inthe direction ofleachate migmtion. A number of sulnpwells I
I
can also be provided for pumpingout the migrated leachate.

LEACHATE RECIBCULATION
Leachate pumped out ofthe landfills should be recirculated into the landfill sites. The re-
circuladon ofleachate i, the iandfills has many envircnmental and economic benefits. Many
organic impurities ofleachate are anaerobically digested 'rithin the landfills which helps
in the generation ofmethane gas.lthas been observed that the r.teofmethane gas produciion
I
is higher in landfills where leachate reci.culation system is provided.
Leachate also increases the moisture contentofthe wastes, which helps in its biological
decomposition as well as in the production ofmetlane gas. With the generation ofmethan€,
pH level oflandfill increases. Metals present in the leachate are precipitated and are contained
I
within the wastes. Aftera fewcycles ofrecirculation, the amount ofleachate ard impurities
in;t are significanlly reduced. This also reduces the cost involved in treatment and disposal
ofleachate.
I
I
T

I
 Leechateilaragenent 1O1

The leachate recirculation system is designed to ensure uniform distribution ofleachate

over the entire area. A pipe network embedded within the landfill can be used for this purpose.
Fig. 4.9 shows a typical leachate recirculation system.

Flg. 4.9: L6achat€ Hecirculation System

Leachate may also be utilized to increasethe moisture content in composting systems.

It is flecessary to remove odor and other impurities includingheaiy metals from the leachate
before applyingitonthe shredded wastes materials ready forcomposting. Thisalso enhances
biochemical decomposition ofwastes as the moisture content ofthe wastes is increased.

LEACHATE TREATMENT
Due to a variety ofphysical, chemical and biological constituents in leachate, no single
treatment method can be recommended. Following are i&portant factors in the design ofa
leachate treatnent system:
. Quantity or rate offlow ofleachate generated.
. Concenlration of various contaminants
. Available trealmenr and disposal oprions
Techniques used for leachate treatment are similar to those applied for other effluent
treatrnent methods. These include mainly biological as well as physical and chemical treatment
and are described in the following sectioos.

Biological Treatment
L€achate collected fiom laodfills has higl biochehicel and chemical oxygen demands. Treatrnent
can be carried out by usingaerobic or araerobic methods,
 I
1rJ2 A Texlbook ol Solid Wastes Mahagement
I
1
?

Aerobic frcatfient
Aerobictreatmentprocessesincludelagoons.aclivatedsludgeprocess.rotatingbio]ogical :
t.i"tlini tilte$ etc. ln all these melhods' organic matters Presenl in the leachaie
"ontu"too, tor decomposNoTl
,r" aep,raaea Ur mlcroorganisms. The process requires large quantity ofoxygen
=
of oxvsen for
;;.;T";;;: ;;;;;;ioaa apptied to the sistem the hisher is the demand
method'
; .;;;,1;;;"-f"; iis essenrial to mainrain a proper organic load in erery aerobic
depths in which
Aerated Laeoons: Aerated lagoons are pon'ls with large size and small
in the liquid due to
i"""i"i" I r?rl.a. s"rrce of sippty ofoiygen is air and is diffused
with large depths'
;;;;;; ;;;"lly ""r.rsed bv wiod action where lagoons
provided to ensure
are designed
regulal supPly ofoxygen and
-""hunicat-asitatois or air diffusers are to hours A
ii, .i-it*. frtlt tv".- requires a long hyd raulic detention time i e aboutgiven Fig 4 l 0
6
l 1 E
in
ii.. lt"Jf, of ti.pr" f"go;ns and lagoons with mechanical agitalors is ' '

Flg.4.1o: Skelch oi a TypicalAerat€d Lagoon

ofan
Activatcd Sludge Process: An acdvated sludge process is similar to that
aerated

iaeoons Uut it in;olves an exba feature e.g. recirculation of sludge Due to the recirculaliol
rJn. f. of U*t.ria is manv r imes hi gher than-that in a lagoon This system, therefore'
"].J
i. *."i, ""1
r"oui.. hydraulic detentiontime The process also an aetation
"tmaller 'equires
"na
rani uni .enting r"nt also calied as liquid-solid separation tank
(Fig 4 11) The biornass
i
.. siuape "senies ttris tank. A smallamount ofthis sludge is recycled back iothe
greatly'
aeratiot
values
rank. I-he process is veq effeclive and reduces the BOD and COD
ofa
Rotatins Biotoqicat Contactors: The rotating biological contactor tRBC) consisls
and placed in a large reclangular tank
r".l. r_it "."i.:r, aitts attached to a horizontaishaft
the liquid and the remaining portion is
i'ru. i. rzl. il"t" ai.i.s are partially submerged in
"
 LeaciateManagenenl 1O3

Flg.4,1!: Activated Sludge Prccess

pyhnced 16 ihe atmosDhere. ln this process, biomass is accumulaied on the surface ofdisks'
Tfi:il:#:il;illn.ont""r i"itr, riquia air The submersed portionof disks carries
^na
organic matte; which is desraded b) the armospheric
o\)sen'
;i;;;';;;i;;;;;;,d

Ftg. 4.12: Roiating Biological Contaclor

TricklinsFillers:AtricklingfilterconsiStsofabedofrockPiece5whichProvidefired
I'IJ;:X ill;; i;;iio,"'ri ," g'"" rig + 13 Leachare rhar is Io be lrealed is rriclled
' '
"

Sludqo

Flg. 4.'13: Ttickling FilieI

 I
I
T
1U ATextbook ol Solid Wastes Management 3
i
over the rock beal from the top. As the leachate moves down, it comes in contact with lhe
biomass attached to the rock pieces and is degraded. Air is supplied through ai'vents which
;
I
are provided at the bottom ofthe filter' As there is high organic ioadpresent inthe leachale'
ofthe filier medium. Trickling fillers are usually Provide
there is some risk ofclogging
with a primary and a final settling tank for removal ofsolids I
Anaercbic Treatmenl
In an anaerobic lreatment process, complex organic matiet in the leachate is fermented b)
bacteria to fon'n volatile fatty acids. These in tum are converted by methanogenic microorganisms
I
10 methane and carbon dioxide. This results in a low production ofbiomass requiring disposal
as compared'lo that in aerobic t.eatmenl.

Two-Stege Reactorr A lypical two-slage anaerobic sys:em used for leachate treatment is
shown in Fig. 4.I4. The slage I reactor consists of a stirrer used to develop good contacl
between iaroorganisms and organic matter' The second stage reactor is quiescent whjch
enables settling ofsludge at the botlom. The supernatant liquid is recycled back to stage I
.eacior for fu(her 1.€almenl.

Flg. 4.'14: Two Slage Anaeobic Tr€atment Process

USB Reactor: A USB Reacior (UpflowSludge Blankel Reacto, is based onthe developmenl
ofa sludge blanket. ln the sludge blanket, component particles are aggregated 1o withsla'd
the hydrauiic shear ofleachate movemenl The leachate isfed from the bottom of reactor
and active anaerobic sludge solias convert the organics into methane and carbon dioxide
The reaclorhas an intemalbaffle system above the sludge blanket also known as gas- liquid
separator (Fig. 4.15). This separales out the biogas, sludge and liquid comPoneflts.

Physlcal and Chemical Tr6atment

Phl,sical and chemical methods ofleachate treatment includes flocculailon, sedimPnlation'
granular filtrarion. sorption, reverse osmosis etc. A possible sequence for physical and
chemicaltreatmenlofleachateis giveninFig. 4 l6.

Flocculation end Sedimentetion; It consists ofthe remolal ofsuspeflded impunties. Flocculation

and sedimertation tanks are provided for this purpose. Sedimentation is a slow process but
flocculalion increases the rate ofsettling ofp;rticles Flocculation can be carried out by
adding alum to the leachate.
 LaachateManagemedt 1O5

Gas]iquid

Flg.4.l5: USB neaclor

Granul.r Filtration: lt isused to remove suspended solids from leachate and is typically
employed p or to the use ofaclivated carbon adsorption to pievent c,ogging. Granular
filtration ofbiologically treated leachate may also be required in order to meet the \tale.
quality standards for its discharge in streams or drains.

FLOCCULATION/
CHEMICAL PBEClPIATION

sEDrMENrarroN
I I

f_ s,uooe

f--^-r*" I
I rrLrnarrot .
---l---')"*^" I

f.-*"r,* I
f TBE,AfED
EFFLI.]ENT

Fig.4.t5: Typ,car Sequence ol Physicarchemrcal Tteaheni

 I
16 A Textbook af Solid V,/astes ilanagenent I
Sorption: Sorytion is usually canied out through activated carbon. A column ofaclivated :
carb;n. eirherpacked orsuspended, is usedforthis Pu+ose. Use of granular activated carbon
!
or powdered activated carbon is very effective for treatmentofpoorly biodegradable orgaiic -:
=
m;er. scivents, pesticides, humic acids etc. The service life ofactivated carbon is limited
by irs capacity and organic load. Therefore, provisions must be made for periodic renewal
ofacLir dled carbon.

Reverse Osmcsis: Reverse osmosis can be effectively used for leachate treatment The
system invoives a semi-permeable membrane, \'hich can be flat ortubular' The wasle slreaE
oi leachate ilows throughthe membrane while the solvent is Pulled through the membrane s
pores, The remaining solutes such as organic or inorganic components do notpass through'
but become more and more concentrated on the influenl side of the membrane Foran
effective reverse osmosis, physical and chemical proPedes ofsem!Permeable membtane
musr be compaiible withthose ofthe leachate Somemembranes maybe dissolvedby leachate'
Suspended solid may also ciog the nembrane material.

Air Stripping:This is a mass transfer process in whichvolatile conlaminants areevaporated

inlo air. ihis process is used to t.eal liquid streah that is more volatile but less soluble'
Organics removal from ieachale depends uPon temperatuae' pressuae, air_to-water ralio'
and surface area available for mass transfer. Several types ofair sttiPping technologies are
common. These include tray aeratjon, spray aeration. and packed towers.

Table 4.7: Standards for Disposal ofLeachat.

Pernissible Linits'
Irlahd Sutfoce Water Public Sewers Land Disposal

S,rspended Solids 100 600 200

DissollajSolidr{im€anic) 2.100 2,100 2,100
pH 5 5-9.0 5.5-9.0 5.5.9.0
ArnmonicalNibogen 50 50
Toral KjeldahlNitrogen 100
BOD 30 350 100
COD 250
Arsenic 0-2 4.2
:,
Mercury 0.0i 0.0r
Lead 0.1 1.0
Crdmfuft 2.0 1.0
Climmium 2.t 2.0
Copper 3.0 3.0
Zttc 5.0 l5
Nickel
Clanide
3.0
0.2
3.0
2_0 i,
Chloid€ 1.000 1,000
:,
Fluoride 2.0 1.5

Phenolic Compounds (as C6H5OH) 1.0 5.0

*Allvaiuesexce pH are in mg,'l

 L*achateManagenglt 1O7

FINAL DISPOSAL OF LEACHATE

or bl disposal on land or sewers or tn
t-.".f,ut. m"Y U. airpo,ed oftlhrough evaporalion
walelbodies'Leachaleevaporallonlscarfleoouti$e\aporationPonds,'Largesizedshallow and sides or
;;:;;';;;;ili;J *ith a suitable clav or geomembrane lining at the base
process and depends uPon rhe
i;ff;:;;;;;;';;;t,l'gh ponas unde' rtri sun is a slow
weather condhions
,-hiAn! i.mnerature, This rype ol leacnale disposal is suilable for dry
;:;;;;;'J;i;;"i,;ac'h'ate. as ir requires a larse land area ror Pondins
"'H;li;;;;;;,'"po*auv lts riain advanrage is ttrat the leachare flows
il i"r- Jf tnin sheets,"u'"uaing
increaiing lhe exPosed area to the sun The leachate
"r"?;;;;tr
;;;;ffi",;;*"i";;uit" t""* t; the landfitl or diverted to the treatmeot
'""i'"ur"t"a
faciliw for final disposal.
should conform io the
-'^ c--r ,r;.-^.,t ^ftre leachate in sewers, lanal or water bodies Government of
.,":H:f#'#til ;il'a"*" iv irtt uirr"t-"iEnvironment and Forests' developins horticulture
ffi;#;#.;*;;;r.l.i i'u't r'u"t'ut""*also beutilized for
EXAMPLES
Examplc4l:Thedislancebetqeenlh€bottomofahazardouswastelandfiltandunderlaying
_
permeability of 10 cm sec Assuming
znuiler is l0m. The underl) rng clay la) er nas the
iT,1lli,i i'r",i.i .iio* t"".r,"r. tin rn' d) uill flow down rhe I o0 hectare Iandfill'
''i.t
Soluliotr:
Area oflandfill = l00Ha= 106m2

Assuming l0 cm ofconstant leachale head'

Q=KiA
NI
= ld l0'^tt:: mj sec

m3/sec
= Ol x 10-3
= 9.504 m3/day
are l) ing belu een the base of a hazardous
ExemDle 4.2: The following rhree soit layers
:::iJ1;ffi; ""i r"i.nviie "q'if"' How long *ill Io misrate 1o
it take for leachale
the aquifer?
Depth ()
4.0 1.6 r lo-'q
Soil A
10.0 2.0 x l0-5
Soil B
t2-o 5.8xI03
Soil C

Solution:
Total travel time inyears
r /^ r.)o 12.0 I I

= 6.579 yeais
1@ ATexlbook ol Soliclwastes ManagEnenl

EXERCISE
How does the leachate characteristics change with tihe? Whai are irs environmentat implications?
whal are the majo. contaminadts in a l€achare? civc rhei: B?ical values.
Estimate ihe leachate quantit gererated per hectare ofa landfill in Delhi. Use pubtished data
What ale the advantages of using geomembrane as a liner?
Listthe precautions lo be obserued while constructing a g€omembmne liner?
Discusslhe relative advantages and disadvantages ofva ous leachatet eatmenrsystems.
Design a leachale treatment sysrm for a landfillrece'vin8 municipal.so lid wasre. Whar are tie
standards prescribed by CPCB for disposal ofleachate on land. in river, or in sewers? cive fte
blockdiagram ofa leachate treatment system and naiiealltheunirs.
Leachate co Ilected f.om alandfill site \yas found ro has the foltowine chalacteristics:
COD 25000mg/l
BOD 12000 ms/l
l0000me/l
pH 1-7
Estimate th e probable age of the landfill. Design a suitable treatment systeh for this teachare.
 Chapter
I
I Land.ft,tl Gas Control
I
I I andfi!l gas is a miYlure ofvarious
gases generaled due to the biochemical
,afler. Il also conlains green house
gases e'g' Co)

I ^,,r,'i^i "r*"-i.
:;',,:l'::"l^1,::".#;"
ffi';' il;;;,
::il.a"ir"i.i ;;.
"i "r"".'[i
;iiiunantl
'li.s
p'oa"'
il;.;,lron'"n'ot'on"qu"n'es
orgas na] be erplosive'
*. rt",.iiture
landfill
of
sases e\en the.so
landf ill gas mi$alion

I .lnt. .rl.t"nt;ar"na
;;r..i';il;;;;;;i;;;.
gas'
oflandfilt
range from nuisance to damaBe
to public health'
^ayiabre-s r presens so'e potentiar environmental

I
impacts
ofLandfill Gas
Table 5.1; Potential Environmental Iflpaors

Il EVlosion ;" t ,.m*. *E*"" -d accumuladon in confined

IrG,-* ig'it*-"=,t i"g t' ssibls inju! ordeah
ro buitdurss or other structures'
arEas wilh
and/or dn'asE

I
ir"J.*.-",r,. r-a n rr p.ople or antmals in the \ iciniq ma)
AsphYxidion ",
.,#" #rn a'; a'cmuraion of sas in anv c'nnned
"rir*r"" '
of ot-vgen
i.-. o, otlt.. u.g.u,ion "te damaged as a resuhzones'

T i"nli-""a*to
ffil"ii. ."-;.
rl"anltg"
*a' ;
misarion

biic
in rhe roor
** *In'"or-o "f r*anrr gEt e'g ammonia' cahon
some
monoxjde'
ro pra'$ and mav affeci t,e

I
plantgm$1ir
Due to malodorous gases,
i*1", ai"iia., r,igr,rvsot'ble in $arer iocreaseihe hardncss'
decrEases oH and tums waler acidic '

Il r.*Ii" rru'-.* hldroscn chlodd€ and sulfin

*ch as
Conosion ^"'n rn*
i,"ri. iL *"*i", "tequhmali
o$er meallic icms
'nd ftom incomplete
He.t6Effec! i,i*"tr"iii **p.*ds and emissions
"*. a,;,ig mav c'nrain diorins and tur&s

tl
*,itr',;"" "ie." n'tns
which are serious h€allh hazrd
gas contribute
i*r,- Jr"ira" -a In.tt -" Prerent in the landfill

t
Efred ro the gF.oitou* effec!'

t
I
 1
)

fO ATertbook of Sold Wastas Management

I
COMPOSITION OF LANDFILL GAS
r".,rfirrd,<.<ifnresentinlarqevolumesareknownasPrincipalgasesandifsmalivolufies
I
iill'"*!.. ,,,".irrit*il io"na " r"nanu "" *ethane ca6ondioride nitrogen ammoniL
'ii;t'."";;";^i;:;r?;;.n. t',va'oe"n
"Dpicalpercenragedistriburioni'shoa\n''
"uliia'
i"ur.ii.v"t*"iip.s=entinexcessof5percentintheaircanbeexplosi!e'lheexplosrons
*,it" distance from the site due to migration ofmelhane'
I
."yi"t" pf"".
"
Tsble 5'2: Tvpical Composilion ofLandfill Gas
I
Methane
Caibon dioxide
47 -7
I
3.7
^\itrogen
oryge,
Hydrogen
0-8
0.1
I
0.01
Hydmgen sulfide
0.1
0.5 I
'Ihere are
Tr.ce eises can be loxic and pose a Ii'k lhe public heallh and environmenl
10

*r"r*1""1. t^*-,, ir',. i"nahrrg"t

landfii gas
rhtc"rif;mia Inleg'ated wasle Managemenl Board
anaLysis and characterization' Table 5 3 shows
a
I
ir", .'ri"".ir.i""."itt"a out
ooiiff"reot municipal landfill sites in california'
ilil;;;;;;1;;;i ',;.t*"..
fou-na
't
Table5.3: Typical Concentration of Trace Compounds Found
inLandflllGas

Concenlrutian (ppb)

6,840
2,050
245
Chloroform
2,800
1.1-DichlorcethaDe
25,700
2,830
Dierhyl€ne chloride
7,330
EthylBenzene
3,100
Methyl ethylketone
615
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
2,080
Tdchloro€thylene
34,900
Toluene
245
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
5.240
Tetrachloroethllene
3,500
Vinylchloride
1,500
Styrenes
5,600
2,650
xylenes

So//ce: CWMB (1988)

 LandfillGas Contol '111

STAGES OF LANDFILL GAS GENERATION

phases (Fig 5 l ) Duration ofthese phases
The seneration oflandfill gas occu$ in several
i."."I. ,i"" *. ;stes. moisture con€nt panicles' size' availability otnutrients'
"ri "f etc. Each of lhese phases is described belo$:
i",li"i .".i0*ti""i!*l
PhaseI-AerobicPh&se:Phaselorinilialadjustmenlphasestartsilrmediatelyafterthe
cover material
presenl in the 50it used as
-,{. iq Dlaced into the landl'ill. Mrcroorganism or*astes cenain amount ofair is tmPped
;: #;i,y;;;;;;;i;ioirunii,. a"'omp-o'ition
lit r. ii,i, ""!* r.,r," landfilt. Therefore, in this phase, the biotogical decompositio! of
organic wastes occurs under aerobic conditions'

-d\
i\\
1t l
100
100

60
\,
/ 20
\

Flg. 5,1: Phases in Landlill Gas Gensration

PhaseII-AcidPhase:ThiSisatransitionphaseinwhichoxygenisdepletedandanaerobic
takes place nitrates and sulfates
il?;.t Jtii;;;;pin!. a, tt'"
"nu"tou;" "onversion
ii"r"ir""* .ti.r"" :ndiydrogen sulfide rermetlative and acidogenic bacteria produce
volatile fatty acids, carbon dioxide and hydrogen'
bacteria starts to
Phas€ III-Initial Methenogenic Phese: ln this phase melhanogenic phase II are
t".thane. drganic acids and hlirogen gas formed during
"..* "rJor"Ir."
ionvened into melhane and carbon dioxide'

Phaselv-stableMethsnogetricPhsse:stablernethanogenicphaseischaracterizedbyby
is o-xidized
io i. io o".""ot or ."rhane and low concentration of hydrogen Hydrogen
.;;;;i;td;;" i;.elhane since carbon dioxide is utilized for oxidation ofhvdrogen'
its concentration is also reduced inthis phase
volume of
Phsse V-Air Intrusion: Due to the biodegradation oI lhe organic wastes the
Duing serilement
,rlrrc. ."aul". _a *.".t"s in the landfills mdergo consolidarion and settlemenl_
Jirr-a* il the outerpartofthe landfill and reduces formation ofmethane'
"i*lnir,
Pbrse Vl-Methane Oxidstion: Methane pro'luced in the centre ofth€ waste is.oxidized
io caoon aioxiae, as it migBies throughthe outerpan oflandflll ln this phase nltrogen ls
also present in significant concentration in landfiil
gas'
 I
T
I
112 A Texlbook of solid wastes Managem.nt
3
Phas€ VII-Cerbon dioxide Phase: 1n this phase, methane formation is negligible an. l
intruding air oxidizes solid organic carbon to carbon dioxide Finally the waste is almos:
stabilized and the site is Iike a naiural ground.

FACTOBS AFFECTING LANDFILL GAS GENERATION

The rate ofgeneration of landfill gas depends upon many factors e.g. moisture contenl.
type and size ofwasie. compacted density, pH, telnPerature

Moisture Content: Moisture content is an important factor affectingthe biodegradation

of\Hastes. Higher moisture content increases gas produclion rate The distribution and flos
ofmoisture is important in dispersing nuirients and microcrganisms through ihe fi11 and
diluting and removing substances which affect decomposilion rate.

Waste Typer The naiure ofbiodegradable ftac:ion ofmaterials present in the wastes (e.9..
its molecular structure) affects both the deBradation rate and the composition of landfill
gas. Readil]_ biodegradable fractions ofwastes such as vegetable matter supPort rapid initiation
ofdecomposition process. Onthe other hand, less readily degradable matterwith high carbon
content (e.g. newspapers) support a long term produclion ofmethane r;ch landfill gas.

Nutrient Content: Various nutrienls are required iorthe growlh ofmicroorganisms in a

landfill. Amongthese carbon. hydrogen, oxygen, niEogen, and phosphorous ale most imporlant.
These nutrients are required both in sufficienl quantilies as well as in suitable proportions.
The generation ofgas also depends upon the digestib;lity ofavailable nutrients. Numerous
toxic materials including heavy metals which are difficult to digest can retard the raie of
gas generation.

Specific weight: Specific weight ofsolid wasles deposited in the Iandflll affecl the amount
ofair trapped within the *astes. amount ofbiodegradable matter within the same volume.
and the vertical permeability ofwastes mass. In a well_compacled waste, the amount of air
is less and biodegradable matter is mole in a unit volume. It therefore helps in the earl)
star! of anaerobic decomposition and production of meihane.

pH: A pH of 6.5 10 8.5 is an optimal range for methane produclion. In municipal solid
wasles. acidic condilions are common and may delay melhanogenesis

Temperature: Ior optimum methane generation, temperature should range from 35 to 45

'C. In a shallow landfi1ls. seasonal temperature variations affect the rate ofproduclion of
landfillgas.
Particle Size: With decrease in particle size lhe surface area increases raPidly. Wirh lhe
smaller size iherefore the biodegradation process and the raie ofgeneration oflandfill gas
is also increased.

OUANTITY OF LANDFILL GAS GENEBATION

The quanliry of gases generated are estimated inanumberofways. These include, sloichiometry
method. IPCC melhod. test uell method- and rough approximation

Stoichiometrl Method: The mosl common technique is to use Slricliou e1r)'. ifthe chemical
composition oforganic ma11er presenl in the wastes is kno\r'n. Eq. 5.1 can be used to determine
 LandfillGa. Contol '113

rhe volume ofprincipal gases i.e. methane, carbon dioxide, and ammonia generated in the
landfill.
CJ]lO.Nr+ [(44 - 6 - 2c - 3A)/41H2O -+
l(4o b - 2c - 3d)/87CH t + l@a - b + 2c + 34/8lco, + dNHl r5.l)
}rhere CJ.O"Nr'is the chemical comPosition ofthe municiPal solid wastes

I?CC Mdhods: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has suggested guideliDes
to esrimate the quantity ofmethane generated from municipal solid wastes. Eq. 5.2 is used
to estimate the total methane emission.
CHa emission = t Msnl, t FDOC t x FD t x MEF x CR (5.2)

MSrl, = Amount of municipal solid wastes disposed at landfill

FDOC, = Fraction of degradable organic ca.bon
FD, = Fraction of total degradable organic carbon which actually degrades
(about 0 75)
Mr4 = Melhane emission factor (aboui 0.5)
CrR, = Methane carbon codversion ratio (16/12)

These methods are approximate but give a fair indication of the potential of gas
generation in a landfill.

Test Well Method: This is one ofthe mostreliable rnethods for estimating the gas Production
from an existing landfill. It involves constuction of a gas well at the landfill site and moniioring
ofquantity and quality ofgas received. The number oftest wells required for this purPose
depends upon the size oflandfill as well as the chamcteristics of\Yastes. rcceived. A general
practice is to use a factor of safety of2 for this method to arive a! a conse*ative estimate
This accounts forthe fact that all gas generated is not usualiy collected.

Rougb Approxim.tionr This method is used lo assess the quantity ofgas generated based
on rte vol;me ofwasle disposed off in landfill. It is assurned that ab6ut 6 m3 ofgas is
generated every year from eachton ofwastes. This method assumes an average landfill that
is supportingan enerry recovery system and does not accuEtely account ior the characteristics
of\rastes. Estimation from this methods may vary by as much as 50 percent.

LANDFILL GAS MIGRATION

The pressure in active landfills is generally greater than the atmosphetic pressure which
causes the landfill gas to migrate. Migration ofgas can be upward or do$nward depending
on its density.
The extent to which a gas can flowthrough amaterial depends upon the permeability of
the maierial and the physical properties ofthe gas. Gas will migrale along all possible
pathways in proportion to their accessibility or penneability. Pathlvays for landfill migraiion
could be on-site or off-site. Fig. 5.2 shows various possible path\davs oflandfillgas migration

On-site Migration Palhways

On-site migration oflandfill gas may occur within the refuse, wiihin the various landfill
installalions, into the cap. around site perimeter, or through the gas extraction system.
114 ATexbook of Solicl Wasles Managenenl

i,Il-;F-
t:
iij:nl.ii:l

1.h and aound siie inslallaiions. 10. Exploration and oiher boI€hole5.
2. Through cove. materials. 11. Changing watel levels (e.9. cessalion ol mine
3. S6ttl6m6nl cacks, esp6cially al sile p€rimet6r. pumping) can op€n or 6lose palhways.
4. Fracluros in adjacenl rocks(includhg blasting 12. Granularmaterla lnsoakavays and pip€ o. cabl6

5. P6msabl€ rock stBla 13. Basemenls ed @llars.

7. Collapsod mine workings.
g.lnducsdtractures inzoneolstralaloxlension
at sdgo ol mine subsidence area
15. Seruic€ €nlri6s (oas, wal€r, elecl cily, elc.)
16. Del0ctiv6 bnck{ork or honaL
17. Drain pip€s. archiroclulal leaiur€s.
18. Soir, generalground sudac6 (possible ingrcss
to 9ard6n sh€ds, iehls elc.)

Fig. 5.2r Pathways ol Land,ill Gas Migration

Within Wastesr Wasres remain highly perneable even when well compacted. The presence
ofvoids inthe waste due to poorcompaction, bulky objects etc results in higher permeability
and thus more space for gas to migrate.

Site lnstallations: Landfill gas may migrate through or around any boreholes. chimneys
()r similar structures within the wastes. Surface drains that discharge offthe site and roads
also provide potential migration pathways- Similarly, olher services tothe site controlofiice'
weigh bridge or other building structures add to the migration pathways for landfill gas'

Caps: Low permeabilily Iandfill caps (final cover) and crack in landfillcaps due to differential
se;lement also provide a room for migration oflandfill gas. Gas flo$ through caps increases
with time due to the development ofdesiccation or settlement. Deep penetrating plant roots
wilhin the landfill cover also contribute to gas migralion
 Lahdfillcascontrol 115

Site Perimeter: Landfill gas may vent to the aunosphere from the entire surface ofa landfill'
Bur it is particularly likely to migrate to the sudace from around its perimeter. Afler its
depositio;, \vaste can continue to settle over a numbero?years, causingfissures to develop'
Increasett gas venting at the site matgins is likely to ensue, notably where the rilaterial
boundingthe site is relatively impermeable, such as clay or a synthetic site liner'
Gas Ertraction System: The use ofan effective gas control system greatly reduces both
laterai off-site migration and venti[g ofgases through the landfill surface Migration may
however, ircrease ifthe extraction system is clogged or is not in operation for a longtime'
ln such cases, gas may migrate through the voids between extraction wells and wastes.
Oll-site Migiation Pathways
Off-site pathways could be natural orartificial Natural Pathways itclude permeable soil or
rocks, planar opetings, joi dts, faults etc. Artificial Pathways are generally due to mining or
any other construction or bo.ing activity.

Natuhl Pathwayg
Perme.ble Rocks or Soils: Landfill gas may teach the surface at some distance (hundreds
ofmeters) from the landfill site by travelling through permeable strata dePending upon its
penneabiliv. Services e.g. underground pipelines and buildings consfucted nearby are particulady
vulnemble to gas accumulation.

PIansr Openings: There are various types ofplanar discontinuities in rocks An inclined
b€ddingptane, for instance, mayrun ftom the baseofthe landfillto intersectthe iand surface
some distance away. Wherethis provides a ready gas migmtion pathway in low permeability
rocks, the migrating gas will not be detected till it reaches the surface-

B€ilding Planes: These are the basic discontinuities in sedimentary rocks, representing
breaks oi changes in se<limentation. They may be oPento a greater or lesser extent Providing
migration paths.

Joints: Joirts form parallel or sub_parallel sets. When such.loints have a high
a systematic
frequency, they may influence the movement ofgas in a direction parallel to thejointing'

Fsults: Faults are fractures along which relative disPiacemenl dfthe adjacent rocks has
occurred. They may also contribute tothe landfill gas migration.

Other Fissures: Blasting fractures ortension fractures extending for several meters into
a rock ma] occur in the \r'alls ofhard rock quarries. These may induce surface emissions at
the perimeter ofa land{i11.

Natoral Cavities: Some rocks contain cavities e.g. shallow holes or pot holes in limestones
These may b€ connectedtothe cave systems often extending several kilometers. thus provid;ng
easy paths for flow ofgas to a very large distance-

Artiticial Pathways
Mine Workings: Landfill siles are common in coal or rock mining areas. Such areas also
include disused tunnels and shafts which act as a conduits forgas. Gas migration pathways
can also be provided by fractures created by subsidence in areas overlying deep mines'
'116 Arextbook ol Solidwastes Managehent

permeabilh
N€ar S[rface Installatiods: Any service installation may provide in itself a high
various service:
mierarion route for landfill gas simply by thecrcalionofa line ofweakness
gas
ir"lraing .t..tr;.ity. .ratef se*erige etc laid down nearthe landfill may enhancethe
migration.

GAS COLLECTION
gealth' exPlosion'
The miglation of landfill gas Presents Potential for several hazards e 8 fire,
ofenergy. There is therefore considerable interest
But thJga( is also a potelntial ofsource
in the p;ssibilily of gas recovery. The objectives ofgas collection are:

. to prevenl migralion ofgasto the nearby areas;and

. to use it as an energy resource,
The landfill gas has a high calorific value and can be ulilized forrecovery ofeners/'
Use of landfill ias as a sou;ce ofenergy recovery is now incleasingly being considered'
It also redlces many other problems e g. odor due to landfill gas'

Componehls of Gas Collection System

A typical gas collection and energy recovery system is shown in Fig 5 3 Various colnponenls
ofgas colieclion system are as follows:
o Gas wells placed within the wastes
. Header syslem to connect the wells to the gas Pumping unit'
. Flare systeit for burningthe landfill gas, ifrequired.
. Gas purification system
. Energy recovery Piant or genelator

Gaspu.illcaiion El6ctrLlty
syslem len€|al€.

Flg. 5.3: Componsnts o, Gas Coll€clion Syslom

Each ofthese components ofgas collection system has a specific role and need to be
designed properly. The feasibility ofthe system depends on the amount and rate of gas
g"n"iation. Wh"r" th" gas generation mte is high, it canbe supplied as afuel to the n*rby
ireas at a reasonable price. Ho\Yev€t ifthe rate of gas Seneration is low, it may nol
be

feasible to energy and the gas should be bumt thrcugh flares

Gas Extractiol Wells: Gas e].traction could be achieved by lsing €ither verlical wells or
through horizontal trenches. Details ofa vertical gas well are shown iD Fi8 5 4 The size
of
 Landil Gas Control 117

itrese \4elis varies between 300 mm to 500 mm including the inlemal perforated piPe of50 -
6i mm dia. Though both otthese systems arc different in layout the basic concept remaids the
sarne. Suction pressure provided by the gas pumps dl?ws the landfill 8as into the vertical/horizontal
pipingthrough the $avel backfilland the slofted PiPe. vertical pipe system is usuaily Provided
ar the time ofclosure of landfill i.e. together with the construction of landfll cov€r. On the
oderhand, horizontal pipesystem isprovidedasthe waste disPosal progesses. Gas extraction
\rells may also be provided in combination with lhe leachate collection wells (Fig 5.5).

L-oocm *-l
' oiameter

Fig. 5.4: Gas Extraction Well

Header Pipes and PumpingUnit: A header pipe is usually provided to coltect the gas
fiom various vertical wells or from horizontal trenches. It also receives gas from a network
ofsubheader pipes which are used to join a number ofgas weils. A pumping unit is usually
connected at the end ofheader pipe to extract the gas. The caPacity ofPump depends upon
many factors e.g. quant;ty ofgas available, por€ space ofcompacled wastes.

Flaring Systeh: Landfill gas ifnot availabie in sufficient quantity or found ofpoor quality
(i.e- \r'itb low methane contenl) isnot feasible for energy recovery. In such cases, gas should
be burn! off. Various tlpes offla.e burners are available forthis purpose. These burners ale
kepr ai a suitable height. Typicallythe height offlaringburners vary from 3 to 6 m above the
landfiil surface. A Star Arm burner (F;g. 5.6) is economically available specifically for
flaringoflandfillgas.
118 Alexbook ot' Solic! W?6tes Managpnent
IT
!l
iti
*':
:
a

100 thick gravel

. 500

Well
Flg.5.5: combinaiion oi Gas Ext€cion Well and Leachale Colledion
contains various impuiiiies especially
Gas Purilic.tion System: Gas collected from landfiil
oit", lyatogen sulfide, which needto be renoved for efficient energy recovery'
u"oo..
--u"i.tlt. These are c) Iindrical
r., riJli
"na gas is removed using moisture removaltraps'
columflsfabricatedofM-s.sheet.Flanges.about5mmthickareprovidedatthetopandDonom
nqOU* gaskets are use; to prevent leakage ofgasJrom flan8es ForabsorPlion
"iti" ""fr"'..
oimoisture ttre cotumn is filled *,ith 15-20 mm size gravels and dry solid calcium
chloflde.
A cvlindricalM.s. column aboul.]00 mm diamelerand l'1 lor hyclrogen
5 m height is used
iron cuflings and lead
trinji rlrn""r1 Ihe column i, fillel with gravel l5'20 mmasi/e' membrane
acerale oowder lo absorb hydrogen sulfide gas Allemalively semFpermeable
moisture to pass through while
;"" i" ,i*a i" r,ydrogen iulfide, carbon dioxide and
"fl"*
methane is.etained. Tiese membranes are available as a flat sheel oras a hollow pipe'
in suitable
Enersv R€cote.l Generator: Gas recovered from landfills is purifled and stored
;;;i;;;;;.;#, There are a varietv ofgensets ofdifrerent capacities' commerciallv
i". g.."*i""";"\ery. using lardfiligas Us$lly a standby generator is also provided'
"r",f"il" "tel;r'iciry
Methods of Gas Collection
The collection oflandfill gas is carried ou!mainly by two
methodsl
(i) Passive Pressure Method
(ir) Acri\ e Pressure Velhod
 Landlill Gas Contol 119

75 dia Slotred screwed

Ceramlc f ibre insutalion

Movable air controt vanes

Fig. 5.6: Ftare Burner

Passive Pressure Method: In this method the pressure of Eas jnside the Iandfill is the
main driving force which causes movement ofgas. A series ofgas vents/wells is provided
in the landfill at regular intervals. Perimeter intercepting trenches with perforated pVC
pipes can also be installed for collection ofgases, which migrate towards the periphery of
landfill. The collected gas can be slored in cylinders for energy recovery if jt has high
methane content- Ifthe gas is not generated in sufTicient quantity. the energy recovery may
nor be economically feasible.

Active Pressure Method: In this svstem, a number ofgas wells are installed in the landllll.
These wells are connected with a header, through a pipe network, which is connected to a

I blower. Negative pressure orvacuum is induced bythe blowerwhich draws outthe landfill
gas. The spacing ofgas wells is such that their radius ofinfluence overlaps (Fig. 5.7).

I
MONITORING AND OETECTION OF LANDFTLL GAS
Landfillgas monitoring is essential to ascertain sk to public health and environment, to veriry
efficiency ofgas control measures, and to face Eends in gas generation and migration_ Monitoring

I
is canjed out both within and outside the landfill.lnside monitodng is carried out to determine
the quantity andcomposilion ofgas generated. Anoutside monitoring is requiredto establish

IL
themigration paths oflandfill gas in the area sunounding the periphery oflandills. Monitoring
heips in deterrniningthe concentration ofthe constituent e.g. methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen,
hydrogen sulfide. andlo measurethe pressure, flo\{ rate and temperature ofgases.

T
16 ArgrJbook ol Solidwasles Managanenl

To{adng

Flg. 5.7: Typical Arrangemsnt ot Gas Wells

Monitoring techni ques can be ciassified as intiusive and non-intrusive The choice
ofa
rechnique *iii depenion lhe scale ofinvesligalion. PurPose and objectives Non-intrusi!t
parameters without disrurbing the equilibdum
techniques foc,-rs on measuring or observing cerlain
ofthe environm"nt. Thermographic surveys' infra_red photography, light detection and mnging
(LIDAR) nonlintrusive techniques used for landfill gas monitorinS lntrusile
technioues"r"ma! "o-.o,
disturb the environment where monitoriflg is carried out This lechnique
g"n.r"ily in',,oir., .ottection of samples from monitoring boreholes which can alter ihe
eouilibrium and deplele gas concentratlon.
'The gas
deteclion basically consists ofa sensor, a processing udit, a display unit' a data
logger, id a power suppiy unit. The most imPortaft component is the sensor'
Most hydrocarbons
int .uai"tion Reliable results can be obtained from a' infra_red absolption
"tA.U "-."a
based sensor. A typical sefisol consists of an infra_red source and an inf'a-red detector
(Fig.5.8). The sensor measutes radiation absorbed by a sample ofgas The signal fluctuates
availabie1o
ana'"or."rponas to ttre percentage ofhydiocarbon present Such meters are
'''-iui" quantities ofmethane and carbon dioxide over a wide range'
measure
oiuuuf" irttru*ents based on infra-red sensors designed specificall]' foi landfill
are commonl-r
sa-s-monitorrne are auailable in the market. Fixedversions ofinFa-red analyzers
ised in ,tatio-nary insLrumenlalion of landfill gas naring and ulilization
 Landfil Gas Conttol 121

Flg. 5.8: Schemalic ot lnlra-red CO2 Beteclor

EXAMPLES
Eramplc 5.1: Estimate the theoretical volume ofgas that wiil be generated in a sanitary
landfill by anaerobic digestion of 1000 kg ofMSw having approxinate chernical fornula
for its organic portion as CaoHrjoosoN.
Solution:
h is assumed ihe complete conversion ofbiode$adable organic waste to CO? and CHa by
anaerobic digestion in the IandfiU will lake place. The tolal lheoretical volume ofgas may
be estimated using the following equation:

c,nro.N, + (
4a-b- +U H:O

I -l4o
- b _k - v
)cH.
_(1q -4q)co, _dr.rH,

I For the given wastes composition,

a=90;
we obtain therefore,
b = 150:, c= a0: d= |

I CeoH rjooloN + I 3.25H2O

(2s24) (2385)
From 1000 Kg ofwastes therefore,
) 43 .37 sCHa .
(6e4) (20515) 0?)
46625CO2 + NH3

I (i) The weight ofmethane (CHl) gas that will be produced out of 1000 Kg ofwaste
=;i4 . t000=214s6 Ke

I (ii) The weight ofcarbon dioxide (COr) gas that will be produced out of 1000 Kg of

r =Hf;'rooo=8r2re Ke

I
I
 T
12 A Textbaok al Solid Wastes Managemenl
I
T
Now, the sp. wt. ofmethane at STP =0.1176Kqt|t ?
And the sp. wt. ofcarbon dioxide at STP = 1.9783 Kg/ml :
Therefore.
(1) Theoretical volume ofm€thane gas,
i,v
-,i 01116 l!1lK - nJ
'--
(2) Theoretical volume ofcarbon dioxide gas,
_ :-:::l-:
dlnc( nj
$7Al= '-' '
Hence, total theoretica, volume ofbiogas (CH4 + CO2) that will generate,
= 383.i6 + 410.85 = 794 m3

EXEBCISE
l. Whal are the gases rel€ased from a typical landfill site? Discussthe environmental impact oftl€se
gases.
2 . How does th€ quanritv and qual ity of a landfill gas change over time?
3. Discuss vario'rs factors that affect the quantity and ccmposition oflandfill gas.
4. What are likely palhways of landfi ll gas m igration? G iye su;table rem ed ial measures to control
migmtion.
5. A MSW landfill silehasanareaof l00hawithanaveragedepthof wasteof s15m. Estimate:
(r) .heooslof inslallingagas collectionandpowerproductionsynem.
(,i) the time it willtake forthe facility io become profitable.
(irr) the volume ofbiogas likeiyto be generated.
Assume suitable va,ues for any datarequir€d.
6. Discuss various monitoring methods for landfillgas g€neration.
Cbapter

II oz or d,o ws Wa Motc ag e'tnent t

s es

nn d, Site Rerned'iotion'

Hazardous wasre is defined.as the

waste likellJff:'i:r'.ilT:i:.Ti';:
in comblnal!
and/or environmenl by itselfor ''anv
defines a hdzardous subsance as
;l;:;;;;;; iP;;i."t;"n) Aci la86reason-of or phlsico-chemical
;;L;#.;;;;P;"" which' bvto cause harmits tochemical
human beings' other living
i.""ili* "ir,"'ra,i"g. is liabie properq or the environnent '
:;f,;;., ;i;. ;i;;;"'sanism
WASTES
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS
Ul the USEPA as hazardous !\asle
if ir exhibits any of
iv"r,. l. igniLability reactivil)' lolicity'
"tu.rin.a
'r,. r^ll^wine characteriuics-corrosrvtry'
lTt:::;#ili:"tfi :'i * L"i""e*i'i;i "oeeneciD bioaccumuration'

p-ilt"i*i.i.v ." also classi6ed as hazardoLs

"'. "te
il has a PH less than or equal lo2.or
Corrosil ity: wasres are conosive if
conodes sleelat a rate grealer
i"."i.t ,i",i "t .qr""" I2 5 Any waste thar is classified as haardous'
,* a test temPerature of55oc
iniit.ri r"ir*t "
of moisture'
lsnitebility: \)Yasle causingfire through friclion absorplion
hazardous suchwa es
.?i, ."..r."."r. .ft", ical change are classilied as
flammable
X;j"1Hffi;;;i;;'o'stv ana p"si'renttv lt also include
gases. ind liquids as described belo*:
in the gaseous stale.at,normal
(i)
'' Flammable gases: chemicals which
pressure and when in conlact with air
become
i.rp.i"*,t -o
flammable. point lower
have a fl ash
,,,, tiirili, n".."on'iquids: chemicarr which
' ,iu'n:1"c una ttt uoiling poinl ofwhich aI normal Pressure is abote
20" c.
flash point louer than
iia.n'mable liquids: chemicals wtich
have a
,il;r
""' undercertainprocessne
"i:l--a"'r,l.tt"mainliquidsunderPres"ure'
 ,
14 A Textbook ot Sotid Wastes Managehent

conditions, suchas high pressurea.d high ternperature, there may create hajor
accident
ha"rrds.
Chemicais whirh explode underthe effec! offlame, heat or photo_chem;cal conditions I
or are sensitive to shocks or faiction are also categorized as ha;ardous.

Reactivity: Reactivity is the process whereby a mateiial is normal ly unstable but undergoes
violent changes or reacts violenily with water

Toxicity: Any waste that has poisonous effects upon human beings or any other living
organisms
is categorized as hazardous waste. Toxicit) can b" acute orihronic a"p"ra#
typeofsubstanc€andlenglhofexposureoflheliv;ngbeingstoit.ToxicirfCluiJ..i.ti"
uiorlir"
Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test is used to idenriry roiic coisrituent of w"it".. S"*"
toxicity Ievels are as folloiys:
u.*"

Meditn tethal dose Mediud lethal dose Mediud lelhal dose

b! inhalation route
LD sa hstkd ba4) LD 5a (ns/ks) body LC 50 (ns/t) inhala-
weiEht of test atinals veight of test anidols tion b) tett aninals
Extr€rnely toxjc l-50 r - 200 0.t - 0.5
Highlytoxic 5l - 500 201 - 2000 0.5 -2.0

Csrcinogenicity: Wastes which can cause calcerare considered as highly hazardous. Such
subsrances anacl rhe normal cells of bod) and ma1 indr.rce cancerous!r,i*f,l
of rime ",", " fJ"a
Hazzrd identificalion is required to determine a relationship, ifan), between a pollutarr
and its potenlial for causing injury to human health orenvironment. Such iri*l"i.ui
inJrA"
neurological disorders or cancer, fish kills, habitat destruction or any orf,.,
deterioration. Risk ro humans inchdes kidney and Iever damage, ski; infe"ti""r, "nri,jn."naf
t;i;i;"",
eye_ disease, neurologicai disorde* and significant increase in the r-isk
ofcaa"". nl.i *r"..,*nt
techniques involve clinical srudies, epidemiological studjes, animalstudi"..
studies.
a";;4";;i;*
It is necessary to identifylhe initial or background concentration ofthe chernicals
in the
environment before commencing any project. Any increase jn concentration
due i;
projecr provides an index ofthe Iikery exposure.It is often difficuit to determine
t;;*
the initiar
concentration ofchemicals since most ofthe epiderniological studies ar"
;ft..
the symptoms of disease manifest when the amouDt or d;ation of expoa*" ""..i.d;ui
i,",
Maintenance ofdetailed recotds and continuous monitoring ofpublic he;lth;";;r;;;;;:"","f,"'#U.
can help in accurate assessment ofexposure.
Environmental consequences ofsome categories ofhazardous {astes are presented
,Table 6.1. in

MANAGEMENT OF HAZAROOUS WASTES

The main sources ofhazardous wastes are the industrial uni8. Law requiresthat
iadustries
di.Foseoff their hazardous wastes. only afier proper treatment. Unfo;unately it is seidom
heedecl ln practice especiall) in developing countries. As a result most hazardous
wastes
are commingred withlhe municipar wastes. ultimately hazardous waste
reaches the randfrrs
and is leached to the ground water with glave impact on the human health.
 HazadouswastdsManagementand Site Rem5.liatton 125

T.ble 6,1: Envionmental Consequences of various Categades ofWalles

Environne ntal C oas eq"etce s

Spenr mken aEi4 acid sludge, Generation of toxic hydrogen

cyeoide gas
Acetylene sludge, alkaline Fir€ ofexplosioo, generarion of
caustic liquiG, sp€nr calstic, llammable ga,
spe mixeda.id,acidsludge,

Non halogensted Aluminurr belyflium. €lciurn,

hyd$,.arbon including
wastE oil and emulsion
lidiur! rnagresirE sodiuq
zinc powder and other rea.,tive
metals and mefal hybrids
Asbeslos wasre & other toxic Release oftoxic substances in case
wastes, b€ryllium wastes, offte or ex?losion
unrirsed p€sticide.ontaine6,

Phenols oxidizing min€rals acids, spent Heat gen€ration, fire

mixed acid, acid sludge
Clening solvenis, obsolee Release ofto/ic substances in cas€
explosil€s, P€loleum \rasie,
ret ograde ex?losives, waft
oil & other flamnabl€ and

Clening solvelts, obsolete Release oftoxic subst nces in case

expiosilts, petroleum wast€,
retograde explosives, waste
oil&oth flammabieand

Ac€tyiene sMgc, alkalire Heat geneation, violent r€attron

Acid slulry
causlic liquids. sP€nt calsnc
Sp€nt mixed acid, acid studge, Heat g€nemtion, violeft r€adion
Alkdine slurry

Source: CP.B 11997a).

Manv chemicals are bioaccumulative. Studies onaquatic life in contaminated \Yater have
revealet huge bioaccumutation - magnifying hundreds oftimesthe original concentration
ofchemicalirising through various l;vels ofthe food chain For instance, watercontaining
0.02 Darts Der nill i;n fPPM ) ofDDD (an organochlorine peslicide namely Dichlorc'diphennyl-
ai.t io,o"ittun.t *itlgtow plankton conlaining 5.3 PPM ofDDD Small fish living on it
-with
may be contaminated ;bout 10 PPM ofthis chemical, and large predatory fish feeding
onifris smatt hsh -ay, in lurn. have DDD concEltralions ofas much as 1700 PPM This
to u ."gnlni"iion ofS5OOO times the original concentration of0 02 PPM in
the
^.ount,
themselves' but
Many chemicals are syne.gistic, i e.' they donot pose a majordanger by
iD com;ination with even a smail amountofcertain other chemicals' these transform i'to a
major, sometimesfatal, health rist. Impo.tant consideration in the management ofhazardous
wastes are given in Table 6.2.
1fi ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managenent
I
Tible6.2: Important Considerations

Eatnan entdl
iD HandlinglDisposal of Hazardous wastes
I
I
Aspect

Existi4 air qualily, various sources ofair pollution and dEir cumulative
AnQulEy

Vohme, physical arld chemical cha'ad.ristics of s?nes, includingpotEntial

for volaliliztion dd dispelsion
H€3llh risk due to human €x?osure
Polential for danagc to wildlife, cmps, vegptatioq buildirgs etc
I
a p€Im&ence ofthe Potntial adverse efreds

Surface warer Ouality

PeEistence

Hldrog€ologicd fedures ofthe area, including topog"Phv

Details ofsurfa!€ water bodies i. the regiotl
I
Quantiry, qurlity a diie.lion ofgroundwater
flow
Pdems ofminfall in the region
Proximity ofraste facility to surfaoe warer
I
E{sting qu.lky ofsurIA.€ watet including other sourc€s of.o,tardination
and their cunulalve impact on sudace warer
volune, physicat & chernical chaE i.ristics ofwastes, including potentbl
for volatilizaion and dispelsion
Heath nsk due to human €xpos'Ie
Poientiai for damage ao *ildlife, crops, vegeaation, buildings eic
Persistenc€ and permaneDce ofthe potential adverse effects

Croundwarer Qualir.v Celogical and hydrological chara.leristics ofthe area

Qu3ntily, qual;ty, and dire.lion ofgound*ate. flow
Pdtems oflandus€ in the region
Polential for migration ofwaste constituents o. lea.hale into subsurf&e

. Potentht for migiarion ofwaste constituents oi leacha& into root zone of

food"chain crops arld other vegelation
. volume, ph) sical& cherni..€l chamderisdcs ofwastes, includiBpot€ntial
for volailiztion and disPersio
. Health risk due ao humao exposute
. Potential for damage to $ildlife, crops, vegetatior! buildings etc
. PeBistence and permanence ofthe potential adve6e eff€cts

Hazardous waste treatment and disposal strategies are usually industry-specific and ari
best implemented on the basis ofan environmental audit of each industrial unit An envirofinen';
I
praclices
auditis a systematic, documenteal, periodicand objective revie* ofoPerations and
in the industrial unit. It ensures comPliance with rules snd regulations. It can also detect
any risk olbreakdown leadingto environmenlal problems Fuaher, the aud it can also
examine
the possibility of minimization of wasle streams.
Apart from audits, other management $rategies for hazardous waste management include
Iife cycle analysis. volume reduction, loxicity reductio ' recycling and reuse, avoiding
wasi;mixing, tnd good housekeeping practices. A periodic review ofhousekeeping procedures
(Table 6.3) is necessary. Training ofstaff is a major element in the implementation ofthese
practices in any facility.

Trblc 5.3: Good Housekeeping Pracrices
a?tsre Minimizdion Assessment
Fnviro ne rl audiE/reviews
Loss prevention
Prograhs
PrEvmtive fiaintenance
Taininga'.r"rEnesebuilding
Emp)oyee paniciPalion
Produclion schedulingpla,ning
a.cluntin9alloc.dion
Cost
Source, USEPA(1998).
The well known British Practices e-g BPEEo
*,i""i
ii"pi.l ""j-s"fl,tirc
i"t a*la;rg ,pon lhe management
Hazarclous4astesManagamentandsite Remediation
W
Form a leam ofqu.al ified individuals'
goals
Eslablish praldcal shon'cms and long-terms
Allocate resou.ces and budget
Establish ass€ssmmt 6gets
ldentifl and selecl optioE to minimiz waste
Pmodicall) monilol fie progra'n's etrediven6s
Alsenble Perlnent docum€nls
corduct envimfl mmlal Process reviews
Cana oui a sie insPe.lion
Report on and follow up on the findings
I SrcC I plarE
Establish spi[ Pler'e,ltion. Conrol. and CournermeasuEs
phas6
i."J," n'"ora.* *".**enl in the desrg and oper'rion
Prcvent mixi; ofhazardous wastes with non'hazardous wasres
Isola& haardous *astes by containm€nt
holate liquid wasles fiom solid *tst€s
Us€ equiPnent data crrds on equipment location,
ch@lerinics and
Master pr€v€ntive maintenanc€
(PM) schedule
Defen€dPM rePotu on equiPrnent
MainGin equipment breakdo*n rePons
Keeo vendor maintenance manuals hand)
Mai;bin compuerizrd reparhislory fi le
Provid€ t'aining for:
Safe operarion ofrhe equipment
ProDer materials handling
'Jno.i. *a er'riton-.nal lsp€sls of haTT dous wane generalion
D€rectin g rcleases of haztdous materiais
Use ofsafety geal
emplove€s and superviso6) io
'Qualiq circles" (ft€ forums betw€en
idenriry wars to reiuc€ waste
Solicjr empiq et suggestroD for $asle rEduction
ida
M3ximize Mch sizE
Dedicate cquipm€nt io a single Product
ia"ii"q,i.ii"g..i"l.i*ah,ninseequencv(e'g,light-r+d'*
Schedule prcduction to m in imize cle€ning frquem)
aod a@undne done for all wa$e sbEans l'aving the faci liti6
oirn"*. *nt*-o**ent -d disPosal co$srothe operations fial
(Best Possible Environme al and Economic
Nor Entaiting Excessive cost) can be
(ilest Avaitaile Techniqu€
strategy for hazardous wastes'
1A ATexbook ol Solid Wastes Management

Trealment and disposal techniques for hazardous wastes include Chemical Oxidatiod,
I
-
vitrification, Incinemiion, Pyrolysis, and Land disposal- Incineration, Pyrolysis and Land g
=
Disposal have been described in the Previous chapters Chemical oxidation, vitrification
and design ofhazardous wastes landfills are briefly discussed hereunder.
=
Chemical Oxidation =
Itis awell eslablished technology, capable of destroying various organic molecules including
chlorinated volatile organic carbons (vocs),
phenols and irorganics (such as cyanides)
present in the hazardous wastes. Che ical oxidation is typical ly applied to liquid hazardous
wastes and contaminated groundwater. Solid hazardous wasles mayalso be treatedthrough
this technique, Wastes may be converted to a pasle or slurry and then treated in reaction
vessels.
Chemical oxidation is carried out in "compietely mixed" tanks or "Plugflow" reactors.
Oxidizing agents are added at the entry poiflt olthe reactor. Complelemixing ofslun1 with
the oxidizing agent is achieved by mechanical mixing, pressure drop. or by injecting air
into the tank. The end producl after the redox reaclion is lesshazardous in nature and can be
disposed offon a secured landflll.

Vitrilication
Vitrification is the process of stabilizatioD and solidification of wagtes to make it structurall)
stable with a reduced potential for contaminant migration i[to the environment lr is basically
similar to glass making. The process involves meltiilg and fusion ofmaterials at high temPe.ature,
followed by rapid cooling into a non-crystalline, amorphous form- vitrificaiion has been
used extensively for soil remediation.
vitrification has several advantages as a waste management lechnique The technology
emp loys a furnace operating normally at teoperatures higie. than I 600 'C. Initially a stafier
mix ofrecycled glass, flyash, aod limestone is used to start the process- The wastes to be
Eeated are then fed into the fumace. for meliing and fi$io( for about five hours. The technolos
is used to treat the hazardous wastes andlo produce a stable Product.

HAZAROOUS WASTES LANDFILLS

No singletechnique ofwaste managemente.g. waste minimization, ,ecycling can completely
manage hazardous wastes. Some treatmenl technologies such as incineration, biological or
chemical treahent produce residues and byproductswhich need to be disPosed oiI securely
Landfiils are commonly developed for disposal ofhazardous wastes or for disPosal of residues
from other treatmenl processes,
Comprehensive rules, regulations and guidelines have been Prescribed bythe MoEF for
the development ofHazardous Wasles Landfill. CPCB has laid down a detailed criteria for
site selection, site investigation, planning and design. waste applications, quality control
and environmental moniloring ofa hazardous wastes landfill. These are briefly described

Site Selection
Hazardous waste Iandfillsshould be located in an area of low population density,low altemative
landuse value,low ground water contamination potentialand less permeable subso;lstrata. The
 Hazadous Wastes Managemenland Site Renedianoh 129

\{;nis!-1 ofEnviron nent and Forests (MoEF), Govemment oflndiahas also laid do!fi procedlre
:or selection ofa site for hazardous waste landfill. The steP by step procedure is as follows:
. Earmarking a'search area'taking into accountthe location ofthe waste generation
units and a 'search radius' (typically 5 to 250 km). The search area will be so chosen
that it minimizes the number ofhazatdous waste landfiils in any region or state.
. Identification ofa l;st ofpoaential sites on the basis of
. Availability of land
. Collection ofpreliminary data
. Rest ctions listed in the locational/siting crite.ia
. Collection ofp.eliminary data fiom various sources e.g. lopographic maPs, soil maps,
Ianduse plans, transpoftation maps, water use plan, flood plainmaps, geologic maps,
sateiiite imageries, goundwater naps, .ainfall data, windrose, seismicdata, sitevisils,
preliminary boreholes atd geophysical investigations.
. Selection of two best ranked sites from amongst the list of potential sites on the
basis ofthe ranking system siipulated by MoEF.
. Environmental Impact Assessment for the two sitesfor various parameters includi[g
groundwater quality, surface water quality, air quality Gases, dust, litter, odor), landuse
alteration, drainage alteration, soil erosion, ecological impacts, noise, aesthetics,
vermi., flies, traffic alleration elc.
. Assessment ofpublic perception for the two sites
. Selection offinal site
Criteria recommeflded by CPCB and US guidelines forselection ofsite for hazardous
$astes landfill are given in Table 6.4 and Table 6.5.
Tsble 6.4: CPCB Criteriafor siting Hazardous wasle Landfills

Desndhle Condilions

Surface warer Bodies No landfll shall normally be constucted within 200 m ofany lake or pond.

River No landfill shall be constucted within I00 In ofa navigable river or strem
Flood Plain No bndfill shall b€ consEucted within a I 00 ye3r flood plain. A lardfill may be
consnucied *idrin the flood plairs ofs€rondary stEans ifan eftbankment is built
along tle strem side 10 avoid flooding ofdle area. However, laodfills musl not be
buill within the flood plains ofmajor rive6 unless properly designed protection
embankhents are constucl€d amund the landfills.

I Hid'"ry

Habi6ion
No landfills shall be constucted witlin 500 m of$e nght ofway ofany slaE or
ir ional highv!'y.
be at ieast 500 m fiom a notified habitated atfr- A zone of500
A landfll site shall

I
m around a bndfill boundary should b€ declaled a no-development bufier zone
atEl dE ledfill locdion is flrlalizld.
Public Park No landfi]]shall be const ucted within 500mofapublicpark
No hndnl shall b€ constuctEd wi6in cdtical habit area including i€serwed turest

I
Critical Habitar Area
areas. A crirical habitat area is the one in which one or more en&ngered speci€s
li\€.
Table 6 4 \cantd ak p- l3O)

I
I
I
13O A Textbook ol Solid Wastes Managenent

Table 6-4 \contd .fron p. t29]

Coasial Regula,tio, Zone
No landfill shall be constucted within werlads
No landfill shall be constructed within a zone around airports as norifien by rhe
regulatorf ai.$ority or the aviarion authorit).
No landfill shall be cons!-uctd within s00 m ofany water suppty well
No ]andfi U shall be siled in a crastal i€gulation zone
No landfitl shall be localed in a,es where the g.oundwaler table wi be tess th3r
ofthe landfill
I
2 m b€low the base
Olher criteria nay be decided by the plannels in consulration win\ Stare poltution
Control Bo&ds / Pollurion Coftrol Corurittees commensumte wirl specific locat
requiremenls such as presmce ofmonuments, religious structures erc.

So'rrcei CPCB (2001). I

Tablc 6.5: US Crireria forHazardous wasteLandfi s

Desiroble Cahditiohs [.tnacceptable Condnians I

>50ft
Bed.ock depth
Shale, fne mdistu$ed sandsrone,
sedimentary basins
<30fi
Fissued. fractured czrbonaie
rocks, anyjoint fiactured rock
I
> t mile ftom aaive fauh < 1 mile Aom altive faulr
Arctueologicalsignific ce
I
Upland, clay pit Wet lowland, floodplain, adjac€nt
lo steep slope, deep gullies
Slope 2 - t2a/. Slope> 25% T
Soils Siltto loarn t$dure with mode.dely Very fine clay with poor dGinage
ad

InflFaic,n
well 10

0.6 - 2.0
well dninage

iDh
I % organic

<0.6 and > 2.0 inh

I
Dmin€e Fast draining material. dry surfa.e He3ry clayey or org,njc mat,
flood prone area ( 100 year
I
floodplain)
> 3000 ft from lake, marsh
> 2000 fr Fom a strearr
No indication ofhigh \}"ler table
2000 li trom any surfac€ water 5
miles to rYateBhed boundary
Se€page, springs, marsh,
I
phresophyic vegeorion
Deep bedrcck wiil thick ;mpemeable Use ofshallow aquife6
I
Direciion offlow
Warer supply soure

Evaporation > 4 inch in excess of

>3000 ft <2000li

Prccipitation exce€ds evapotuion

I
Low iiequercy ofwind ard selerE Within path ofmajor hurricane or
I
I
T

I
 Hazarclouswaaes Managonent and Sile Remedianon 131

\-md tu enosphelic mixing

No population centers in downwind encompassed in slatic air zone
Population certq <05 mile do\rnwind

> 1000 ft < 1000fl

Fublc frcilities
> 2000 fr
Low spill risk on tanspon routes < 2000 ft
5
Not adjacent to agricultunl land Bordering parks, recreaiion 2.'eas,
widemess areas, wildlife
sanctudies, orccenio rivels
: Hrnan Enironnent
ry*osnety lrw popularion dersity Bordering cdtural 3re?s,
> 5 miks noin mrmicip3l weUs < 0.5 miles fiom potable wells,
< I mile do!\rstre3ln ofintakes ;n
flowingsatels

8. Biologicol Low ecological \€lue, low speci€s Habilal for rare or endangered
E.lo$/ dive$ig and uriqueness

saEe: Petts and Eduljee ( 1994).

Design ol a Landlill for Hazardous Waste

Hazaralous wastes landfilis are designed for the disposal ofwastes so as to cause minimum
impactto human health and environmeDt. There are seven main components ofa hazardous
wasle landfills. which needto be properly designed
. Liner System-at lhe base and siaies to prevent migralion ofleachate ofgas lo the sunoundings'
Hazardous waste landfitls may be provided with a double liner system'
. Leachate Coll€ction and Treatm€nt Facility-to collect leachale fiom within lhe base
ofthe landfill for treatment to stipulated standards'
. Gas Collection and Tr€atment Fscility-to collect 8as emanaring from the Iandfill
and lo lreal or store il for energy reco\ery'
. Final Cover-at the top oflandfill to p,event inflltratiofl ofwater into the landfill and to
suppon vegetation.
. 6rrtace orainage Syslem-to collect and divert all surface runofffron the landfill'
. Environmental Moniloring Plan-for periodic monitoring ofenvironmental quality
ofair, surface water, groundwater, vadoze zone.
. Closure and Post-closure Plan-i e. details of activilies to be undertaken to close a
Iandfill site oncethe filling operationhas beencompleted and for m onilori'g and maintenance
of the completed tandfi ll.
the
These components have already been discussed in delail in previous chapters, for
design ofmunicipa, solid wastes 1andfil1.

Critetia for Wastes Acceptance at Landfill

Characteristics of hazard ous wastes may be h igh ly variable General ly a lafldfi
il is not suitahle
for disposal ofall types ofhazardous wastes. lt is necessary therefore to monitor the wasle
132 ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managenent

being transported to the landfill site. CPCB has laid down guidelines for acceptance of
wasies at hazardous waste landril sites, These aae as iollows:
. Alt wastes shall be acceptedonly ifthe truck carries aulhorized documenls indicating
the source and type ofwaste. Such wasle shall be routinely inspected visually at the
tipping area in the landfill site.
. Bulk or non-contaminated liquid ha"ardous waste or shrry-q?€ hazardous waste conlaining
free liquid or sludge, which has no!been dewatered, shall not be placed in landfi11s.
Suchwastes shall be placed inhazardous waste impoundments designed specificall!
for liquid hazardous wasle.
.lncinemble/compostablewastesoranyothertypeof\rrastefromwhichenergy/material
recovery is feasible, shall noi be placed in hazardous wastes landfills.
. Iflcompatible wastes i.e. any two types ofwastes, which could result in aggressive
chemical changes after coming in contact, shall nol be placed in the same Iandfill
unit. Compatible wastes will be grouped together and placed in the same landfiil
unit (each such unit shall hale its own phase, cells etc.). Incompatible wastes
group shall be accommodated in separate landfill units.
. waste that can cause damage to the linermater;al shall eitherbe containerized before
disposal in landfillor be placed in a separate landfill unitmade ofaltemate compalible
liner material.
. E*remely hazardous wastes e.g. ndioactive wastes shall not be disposed off in hazlrdous
wastes landfills but in specially designed wastes disposal units.
. Non-hazardous wastes e.g. municipal solid wastes shall not be deposited in hazardous
wasles landfills.
. Residues system should bedesigned specifically for each landfill. Howeveraminimum
oftreated biomedicalwastes e.g. inciDerator ash caD be deposited in hazardous wastes
landfi lls.

Non-compatibility ol Halardoug Wastes

Wastes to wastes compatibility is ao irDporiant aspect ofhazardous wastes minagement.
Some wastes should not be m;xed, stored, transported ordisposed oflogether Ifnoncompatible
waste are commingled they can pose increased risk to environment or human health e.g.
generation oftoxic fumes, fire or explosion hazards, violent reactions.
These consequences should belaken irto account in planning for common disposal facil ities
or effluent treatment plants. A waste-to-\{aste noncompatibility matrix (Table 6.6) should
to be formulated before plannjng ofcommon facililies. These matrices are also useful in
the eslimation ofrisk involved in disposal ofhazardous wastes.

HOSPITAL/BIOMEOICAL WASTES
An important category ofwastes, rapidly increasing in volume, is biomedical waste. These
should be properly treated and disposed off to avoid risk 1o the public health. Apart from
commoD ailments l;ke eye irritation, asthma aod other health disorders it may also lead to
deadly diseases such as AIDS, tuberculosis, and skin diseases. In Delhi, on an average a
hospilal generates 3 Kg ofwastes per bed/day including bottles, cotton, plasters, syringes,
needles, bandages, human organs, as well as wastes from X-ray and radiological departments
 Hazadouswactes Managiernent and Site Remediation 133

l.

€ 3? f h!
2 9c -.=';: d

o0: F-o"i3
.9 pE+ .18
g
;>i
E.e;::o
,'na 9a=q x--
"-
b3
-"
tzie.9,2v. 912
z
=-=:'+Yt z:.-d
!
=3- 5 &=
{; : i : It
6 h Hs

ea!gc;i"iE, .{E*
:iE!zb;E5a 63Dx
v.9Zs:.93iai .!;i uaAa

; P"9 ;309 ;3b

E7i 672 E7
;iy- !iu.
!eie- P.vi2
,
3!:! 3s:! pa
z= iE3
rE i9! :;^. s_:_ so.e , t
i: -: -a ? i i;=>
a|ii :633
;.4 ;.i i' iVa.j y ! iE
" &iiE= e-.i C! ai
a!ir*!e
==j,cn-i. ::Ce 5E:E l!f: ;.1
ii
P
 I
I
1g ATextbook ol Solid Wastes Managenent ::

(Table 6,7). lt rs necessary lhat segregation packaging transponatio'l or slorage otlhese

constituenlsiscarriedoutaccordingtolheguidelineslaiddownbyiheleg}latoryaurhonne(,
Trble 6.7: Typ ica, Composition ofHospital wastes

35-40
Cloth & Badage
lnfectious wastes lNe€dle & Srdnge etc ) 1-2
20-30
Biodegndable
9-t2
Paper & Hardb@rd 8-12
Metals
t-2
E-r0
Bio€sistani 5-10
2-5

s,,//cej NEERI {1996).

Trealment and Disposal ol Hospital Wastes

'I he rrealmenr and disposal slralegies oflhese wastes dePend upon the wa(te-charalrerislics'
biomedrcal
i ;" ;;l; ;iE;t t;";nrent an; Foresls. Government of lnd id has cla5sified in
be collected separate
*"r,.. i"*'ro .""g"ries (Table 6.8) These wastes
(Table 6 9)'
oug. *;iii lif**, """f"r
and proper disposal
coding for easy identification 'hould

Trble 6.8: Caregories ofBiomedical Wastes

Colegory
heament and DisPosol

Human Anltomical Wastes lncineratio deepburial

Human tissues, organs, bod! Pans
Incinet"iio deepburiai
Animal tissues, organs, body patt! ca.casses'
bleeninspans. fluid, bloodandexp€rime al
animals used in resellch, wasle genemted bv
vet€rinar-v hospitals mlleges, discharge fi om
hospitals, mimal hols€s
Mi$obiolog/ and Biotechrolog/ Wastes Adoclaving/misowavine/
Waslesfiom laboratory cultures, stocks or specim€ns
of micro-orgarisms liveorattenuatedvaccin6,
human and animal cell culture used in r€s.nch
infectious aEents ftom esear.h and industrial
taloraonei *asres iiom production of brologicals.
d ishes and de! ice, used foI Fansfer ofcultu e
lorrns.
Dsinfection {chemi€al
Needles. syringes. scalpeh, blades, glass etc. ihat nay
cause pundxle and cuts. This include both used and
micro*aving) and mulilation
/shreddi.g
Incinmrion/destruction and
Discarded Medicines ard Cytotoxic Drugs
Wa$es comprising ofoutdaied coniaminated and drugs disposal in secu!€d
 Hazatdouswastes Management an<l Sle Ramediatian 135

Incinerdtior/adoclaving
ttems contaftinated with blood and bodv
fluids
includins mtton. drestines' soiled Platt€! cats'
iines. u.iain es, oder maerial conBminaed
with blood
Disinfectjor/autoclaving/
u rst€s senerated from disposable items other
rhe $a
waste sharps such as tubings. cdiel€rs inEavenous ;uildioi, sluedding

DsinfeclionDischarge inlo
Liquidws(e
drains
waste senerded fiom Laboralory and washtng'
disinfectingacnvfi es
cle-aning, house keeping,
Disposal in SecurEd lardfills

Ash iom incinetation ofanv biomedical $atr6

Chemical Tr€atr-nedt 3nd
t0
discharge into draiN for
chemicals used tn producEon ofbiologicais'
insetticides €1c' liquid and s€cuftd landfiIs
chemicals used in disinfclion, as
forsoliG

So//ce MoEF(1998).
Treatmentmethodsincludebu'ial,autoclaving.incineration.microwaving.shredding.diSposal
and Land
t" h#;il:il;; i;;arment etc shtedding' lncinemtion chem ical Treatmen{'
pre t ious chaplers ' othe r sPec lallzed lecrnlques
oi,oo'ut'".t,niqu"' r,."t. been described in the
ing are discussed hereunder'
r iz. eutoctaring. ana Vicrowa!

Autoclaving
Adtoclavineorsteamsterilizationisalo*.heatprocessdesignedtoprovidedirectcontact
the waste malerials'
I'f *"itli *. ti"". in a coDtrolled manner in order to disinfect
"?*
ii"r" typ., ofautoclaves commonly used viz Gravitytype' P'e-vacuumtype' and
".",1,.""
'--j"Retori tYPe
the
pressure is used to evacuate the air from lhe treatment
in" iiir,ity ,yp"
^utoclave' ofabout 120 'C These systems require
chamler. lr typicalil operales a! a srcam remperalure
complete penerration of steam inlo the mosl
, ir oo L io minures to achieve
"""L-,r-.
_-in-u
densely packed waste load'
pi"-r""rur,yp. autociave, aii is evacualed from the treatmenl chamberby vacuum
p";;.. i;;;;ti;. is less i e about 30 - 60 minutes' Pre-vacuum svstem lvpica'lv
operate at about Il2'C
'A R"ton type consists oflarge volume treatment chambers designed for
much
"ulo.luve
temperature and pressure'
higher steam

T,b1.6.9: Color Coding and TvPe ofContainer for Disposal ofBiomedical wastes

Plasticbags
1,2,3,6
Disinfecled contaioeE/ Plsstic bass 3,6.7
Rd
Bluo^ hite Finslucenl Ptaslic bags/pu.dure proof conkjner
Plasfic bass
5,9,10
Black

so/rce, MoEF (1998).

 i
II
16 ATaxtbook of Solid Wastes Matageneot
:
I
Microwaving
Microwaving is a thermal process used for tteatment ofhospital wasles. But uDiike otber :
thermal processes, which heat the wastes extemally, micro\rave heating occurc inside tie
waste materials. The system involves shredding ofwastes, injection ofsteam, and heatinE
for25 minules at95'C nder as.des ofmicro*ave i.e. electromagneticradiation ofiiequenciE
300 ro 300-000 MHz. The microbial desfuction occurs as aresult ofthe thermal effecl of
the radiation.

Central Facilily tor Hospital Wastes Tr€aln€nt

It is difficuit for every hospital, nulsing home or polyclidc to instali all the treatment and
djsposal equ;pments and plants. The quantities ofvarious categories ofwastes generated in
a single hospital are usually not too large and often its treatment system remains idle. A
Central Facility however can be easily establishedto feat and manage all kinds ofbiomedical
wastes being generated in a cit) or within any other administrative boundary. For this purpose
necessary equipment should be installed as per the waste characterislics and legal requiremen6.
Collection, segregation and suitable treatmentofeach category ofwastes can then be catrjed
out under expert supervjsion. Final disposal ofthe residues should be onasecured landfill.
A well-equipped laboratory a computerized database centre and a specialty library shouid
form an integral part ofthis Central Facility.

T.blc 6,10: Comparison ofBiomedical waste Treatment Technologies

Systens
Descdption Sleam stqilizaion Microwave h€ding Hi$ Mixingp!e-
(DirEct heating) (wit pEshr€ddins

s&dlizdioII Medium Mediun High(!ohl Dep€ndert on

Eficie.lsy clDloirc $Ergth
miclo-organi!ms) and dispeBion
droughllasles
CapiialCost Medium I4edium try'
Op€mting Cost $d1
Operalio lrw skill Ie1€] Hishkvrl High le\€l
hightycomplex r€{uired for
skills and high lev€l
skill rc$ircd skills rEquir€d ard Srinder
Air Emissions Odorous bul Can b€ hignly Some chlorine

N€eliejble

Moslly ash.
Chamcteristics be shredded)

sa,/.e CPCB (1000/.

 Hazatatouswasles Managenent and Site Remediation 137

be administered by a privale agency oranNGO The

feeto be
ldeall! this Facilit)'should
generated
.a,.J" i..., i".rit"Ls should be a funclion ofthe lype and quantily of$ astes
i' r,l" J*ii"r r"i;rl,y will be a great incentive to the small and large hospitals alike' as
and equipfient. All
.;., *,,i0" ,".."iii" iuge initialiost incured in the purchase oflandsalaD-forthe !arious
*i:""r."i.-."JIir* [. upgtading ana expunsion ofthese facililies
e
.l,ri.l ,r!r lil"alt"irl *ii-n,.nu'itt intiatnul exPendirure erc ma) all be met rhrough
"rJ
Jrefeeco]lectedfromusers'Thiswillresu]tinhugesavingstolhegovelnmentolcrvlc
;;i;; ;;;;;;"t *ill also be in accordance with the PolluterPavs Principle accepred
*all over the world for environmental protection'
;;;;;;ti;;i;;o,.rs techniques used for treatment of biomedical wastes is presented
in Table 6.10.

Slandards lo, Treatmeot and Dlsposal oI Bio'Medical Wastes

vide its Bio-Medical Waste
Tte Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, Govelnment oflndia guidelinesand
it"r"*i.,i,ri"rJ n".aring) Rules, i998 has laid down comPrehensive arc summati?-ed
:i;;.';;;;";;""t and i'isposal of biomedicai wastes These standards

Standatds fot lncingfttots

standards
All incinerators shall meet the foilowing oPerating and emission

Operutlng Slandads
. Combustion efficiency (CE) shall be at least99 00o/o'

. The combustion effiaiency is computed as follows:

o/.CO,
c.E =
%aO-;;aO 'uu
. The temPerature ofthe primary chamber shall be
800 + 50 deg 'C'
.r
. irl. ."l,iJ"iy residence time shall be at least I (one) second at 1050
"rr^rbeigas
3olo oxygen in the stack
gas
, 50 "C, wilh minimum

Emission Standads
Concentration (mgNm3) ar 120/o CO) Coffection

150
Paniculate Matter
450
Nitrogen Oxides
50
HCI

. Minimum stack height shall be 3O metres above ground'

r Volatile oreanic compounds in ash shall not be more than 0 0lo/o'
with the
. soioufy JJ.ig*a porlution control devices should be installed/retrofilted
incineratortJachieve rhe above emission limits' if necessary'
. W^.* to Ua in"in".t"d shall not be chemically trea1ed with any chlorinated disinfectanis'
. chlorinaled Dlaslics shall nol De incinerated whhin rhe regulatory quanlities as
.- i"-i. ."irit'r" I""f"erarion ash. hall be limited and Handling Rules') 1989'
i"ir"a r"a". *," n"zardous Waste (Management
 I
:l
I
138 ATetboo| af Sohdwastes Managenent
,
E
n
I
. +
Only low sulphur fueliike L.D.0dLS.H.S.l Diesel shall be used as fuel in the

Stanalatds lot Autoclaving

The autoclave should be dedicated for the purposes ofdisinfecting arid
incineraror.
I
. When operating a
treating bio-medical

gravi!' flow autoclave, medical waste shall be subjecfed to :

I
.
.
a temperature ofnot less than I2I "C and preslure of l5 pounds per
rpJl' rorandutoclaveres;de.lcerime of not les5rhan60minures: o.'
a temperalure of not less than 135 oC and a pressure of
square inch

3 I psi for'an autoclave

I
residence time ofnot lessthan 45 minutes;;r
r a iemperature ofnot less than 149 oC and a p.essure of52 psi
residence time ofnot less ihan 3O minutes.
for an autoclave I
. Wh€n operating

to the follo\ring:
a vacuum autoclave, medical waste shall besubjected to arninimum
ofone pie-vacuum pulse to purgethe autoclaveofal air tle waste sha be subjeoed I
r
.
a tenperat,.lreof not less than i2l "C and pressure of 15 psi per an autoclave
-e"idence LiTe ofror Ie.5 lhan 45
miDJres: or
a temperature ofoot less than 135 oC and a pressure
of 3l psi for an autoclave
I
residence time ofnot less than 30 mioutes;
. B iomedical
\a asre shall not be considered prcperl) rreateci

and pressure indicators indicate thal rhe requi;ed rir

Lrn less the rime. rcm DeraNre
,:mperarure
a";;;.rrr"
I
were.eached Curing the autoclare
Frocess. Iffor an) re?s;ns, tim" t.r'r"rutrr"
crpressure indicalor indi cate s that the required temperarure, pressure
time $ as rct reached. the entire load of medicut .u.i U.
or rlsidence
ugu,n
I
until th€ paoper lemperature. pressure and residence "urt" time *.ere"rto"t"r"J '
Recgtding at cperuticna! parcdeterc
Eachautocta\eshalhalegraphicorcompulerrecordingdeviceswhjchwillautomaticallv
achieved.
I
an0 co-ltnuou: ) moiitor atd re.ord dales. ljme of da]. Ioad
operating paramelers throughout the entire Iength
idenriJlcarion number and
oithj autoclave cycle. I
Validation test
Spore re.rinr: r he dujJcld\e snoJla co11pleleiy and consislenLl).
. lill the dpproved
n.,n.:l:"1, d€!igl (aDacir) ofeach cutoctave unir. Bioiogicat bioloqrcal
I
:l:'*1", snalL De Bactllus stearothernophilus SpOreS using
indiiator
with ar teasr I x I04 spores per mi, ilirre. Under no ciriumst"".".-*iii
minimum opeding pararneters lessthan a residence rime of3O
vials or Spore Srrips;
;;";;];r;;;,..
regardil;;;;;;i,..
t
ft;r;t;;i.- '--"'''-'
minutes, --
and pressure. a lemperature tess than t2 i
"C or a pressure tes.
Routine test
A cltemiLa indrcalor5rripraperhatchangescolourwhenacertaintemperatureisreached
I
cai DL u(ed 10 \ er tl.. that a ,oe. if:c temperalure has been
ac hie\ ed. lr may be nece5san ro
use more rhan one strip over the uasre package at drfferenl localion
to ensirr" ,f,"i if,r"l"'r,".
con!ent ofthe package has been adequatelv autoclaved

I
 Hazadousryastes Managenent and Stte Refiediation 139

Standard fot Liqui.l Waste

generateal from lhe hospital should conform tothe following limits
' - effluent
The
i1,.." u..ii.it to tho;e, hospilals which are either connected with severs
"ppficable
'{irhoutterminalsewageteatmentplantornotconnecredropublicsewers'lordlscharge
under the Environmenl
,nio oJtil ."*.o *i*t tJ..inal facilities, the general standards as notified
Acr, 1986 shallbe applicable'
'Prolection)

pH 6.1 - 9.0
Suspended Solids 100m91
Oil 3d grease l0mgl
BOD 30 me,a

COD 250me4
Bio-assay test sool" ;wival of fish after 96 hours in 100% effluent

Standatds fot Micrcwavlng

. Microwave treatmentshall not be used for q'totoxic, hazardous
orEdioactive wasles'
conlaminaled animal car casses. bod) pans and large melal
heml'
test'routine teslsand a perlormance
. The microwave syslem shall complywilh the efrcac)
suaranlee ma\ be prov;ded by the supplier before operation oi (he llmll
oulO completely and consistenll) klllLhe bacleria and olher
pathogertc
. itre micro"ure tt
the maximum design
orpanism5 that is ensured b) appro\ed biological :ndicatoral
for microwave shall be tsacliius
caiacig'oteach microua\e unil Biological indicalors
iJttitil .po.", ,s;rg ,lals or spore strips with al least I " 101 spores Per miliiliter'
Standatds fot DeeP Burial
.- A oit orlrench should he dug about 2 meters deep lt should be halffilled
with waste'
ir.I"-*r.i.a *itit Iire within 50 cm ofthe surface, before 6lling the rest ofthe pit
wilh soil.
t" .nsr."a tr,at animals do not have any access to burial siles' Coverc of
. ii-muv
gal\ ani'ed iron u ire meshe( nra) be used
.6neachoccasion,whenwastesareaddedtothepil,alayerofl0emofsoilshallhe
added to cover the wastes.
. Burial musl be performed under close and dedicaled supervision' well should be
. ir," J..p trri"i.it".hould be .elatively impermeable and no shallow
close to the site.
so as to ensue thal no contamination
.' iiie pirssirorfa U aistant from habitation' and sited
o..,,i., oluny.r.fu""\'ateror ground rvaler'Theareashould notbeptoneto flooding
or erosion.
. ihe locarion ofthe deep burial site $'ill be authorised by the prescribed aulhor;ty
. The inslilulion shall maintain a record of all pits for deeP burial'

BADIOACTIVE WASTES
emlsslons
Radioactivity is deflned as lhe proPerty possessed by some elements ofsponianeous
p"rii.r.. f"l. u"tu puili"i.t ip1. o' totetimes, gamma rays (l) due to disintegralion
"i"ipt "
oflhe nucleiofaloms.
16 ATextboak of SolE Wasles Managenenl

Radiation from alpha particles loses energv very quickly when Passing through ma$er'
the
As a result, alpha particles travel only a few inches in air and can easily be stoPPed by
outer layer ofhuman skin. But they are harmful to humans ifthey are ingested and can
damage body oigant specially the lungs.
gel raaiation traveis farther as comparedto alpha radialions' These can penetrate several
layers ofhuman skin. The human body can be damaged by exPosure to a source ofbeta
radiation or by ingesting it. Betaradiation canbe stopped by an aluminum foil at least2 mm
thick.
Gamma radjation has a much smaller wavelength and can therefore penetraie much deeper'
Itcan pass completely through the human body damaging cells or can be absorbed by tissues
and bones. Damage to human health is therefore much larger. At Ieast three feet ofconcrete
or t\r'o inches oflead are required to stop 90% ofthe typical gamma radiation'
The process of unslabie nuclei giving offradialion ao reach a stable condition is called
radioaciive decay. Isotopes ofelements havingatomic number larger than 83 (Bismuth) are
radioactive. A few elemenls wilh lower atomic numbers, such as Potassium and rubidium,
in
have nalurally occurring isotopes which are also radioactive. Radioactivity is measured
the
terms ofcurie (Ci), which is defined as the quantity ofa radioactive material in which
number ofd is inlegations is 3.7 I 0ro per second. Each radioactive element has a characterisric
"
speed ofdecay, so that each elemenl can ire characterized Thetime it takes for halfofihe
element to decay, is called lhe half-life ofthe elemen!.
jn units called rcms. A rem is the amouni
The biological effecl ofradiation is neasured
of beta or g;mma radiation ihat transfers a sPecific amount of energy lo a kilogram of
matter. An;xposure of3OO.ems for 3O days would resull in death of50o/o ofthe persons
to
exposed. The permissible level for occupational radjation exposure is five rems peryear
th; whole body. It is believed that this level can be absorbed for a lifetime wiihou! any sign
ofbiological damage. lntemational Commitlee on Radiation Prolection has established strict
safety standards to ensure that exposures to workers is minimized and thai the public is not
exposed to mdiation from otherlhan the natural background (Table 6.11).

Delection and Analysis of Radioactive Wastes

Detection ofradiation is generally carried out by using devices designed to measure the
radiation dose. The absorbed dose is defined asthe energy imparted to matter by the ionizing
radiation per uni! mass ofirradiated material at a given location. It is measurcd in terms of
rad. Rads of 'y an d p are normal ly eq uivalent to rems, and are used interchangeab ly The
ri.rel, (Sv) is the Sl unii and equals 100 rems.
Softe instruments used in the detection ofradiation includel
(i) Ceiger Mueller Counter
(;i) IonizationChamber
(iii) Scintillation Counter
(ir) Film Badges
(v) ThermolutuinescentDosimeter(TLD).
The Geiger Mueller Counter, lonizaiion Chamber and Scintillation Counter are used for
detection oisurface contamination. Film badges and TLDS are used fo. Iong term moniloring
ofexposure to wo.kers. Gamma Ray Spectroscopy is also used foranalysis ofgamma mdiations'
 Hezadouswastes Manag€menland Sib Remealiatbn 141

Tsbl.6.1l: Maximum Permissible Dose Equivalenl fo. Occupational Exposure

Unit

. Combined whole body exPosure

Prcspective arnual limit 5
Rairsp€.rive annual Iimil l0-15
Lng-term a..mula,tion (,\-18) x 5
. shrl 15
. Hands 75 remryerr (25lqtr)
30 rems/year ( l0/qtr)
. Otheroigans, tissues and organ slstem l5 remslyear (5/qtr)
. lertilewomen(withresp€cttofetus) 0.5 rems in gestalion pedod
. Dose limits for the public, or occarionalh
e4os€d individuals
Individual or oc.asional 0.5
SnrdenB 0.1
. Populatio. dose Iimils
Genetic 0.17 remYy$r (aveiage)
Somatic o.\7 rems/yea (avemse)
. Emergency dose lirnits - Life saving
Individual (olderthan45, if possibl€) 100
Hands and for*rns 200 rems, additional (300 rems
toial)
. Emergency dose limils - L€ss urgeni:
Individual 25
Hands and forearms 100 rems (tolal)
. Family ofradioa.rive parienls
l,rdividual (uder age 45) 0.5
Individual (over ase a5) 5.0

Sarca: NCRP ( 1975 )-

Classllication ol Radioactlve Wasles

Radioactive wastes or Low-tevel Radioactive Wastes (LLRW) is a general term Dsed for a
wide range ofmalerials contaminared with radioisotopes. LLRW may be disposed on specially
designed landfilis. These include wastes which are potential hazards and will persist long
after such precautions as inslitutional controls, improved waste forms and deeper disPosal
have ceased io be effective- L6wlevel radioactive wastes are ciassified as Class A, B, and
C wastes. An overview ofthese cl?.sses and their types and sources ofgeneration ale presented
in Table 6. 12.
Radioactivity inthe environment comes from both natural and man_made sources Natural
sources are natural deposits ofradioactive materials such as uBnium and thorium. Although
natural radioactivity is most likelyto be encountered in the envircnment due to its widespread
dispersal. man-made mdioactivity poses the greatest environmental dsk Man_made sources
include mining activities, nuclear power plants, medical and laboratory facililies, nuclear
weapon testing etc.
Nuclear powea plants are the main source ofradioactive wastes The process ofenergy
recovery from nuclear fuel include miningofuranium containing ores, refining ofuranium,
142 ATadbook ol Solid Wastes Management
=l
t

fab.ication and use offuel rods etc. AII these activities produce low-level radioactjve wastes.
Hospitals, clirics. research laboratories etc, also generatethese q/pes ofwastes, asthe useof
radioisotopes is rapidly becomingcommon e.g. in cancer trealments.

Table 6.r 2: Over!iew ofClasses A, B, and C ofRadioaclive Wasles

Class R Class C

Highest conc€irations

RequirEs srabilizarion Requircs sbbilizarion

for 300 years

Afrd I00 years After 500 years, decays

levels, provided Required srabilizaiion

Requircs stabilizarion
S€Ieealion ClassA mustbe No need to segregate No need to segregate
segegated from B from Class C from C]ass B
ard C
Prote{tive clothing, Resins and filters
high a.tivi9 indusrial
plana

,to!rcer adap:ed from Li! 3rd LiFak (1996).

Oisposal o, Radioactive Wastes

Management ofradioaclive wastes includes various operalions similar to the MSW e.g.
transportation, processing and disposal. But the techniques adopted for such wastes are
differenl. Cementation, Polymerization, Vitrification, and Land Disposal are the common
techniques for hazardous waste management. Another techniques is Hol&for-decay disposal
i.e. sloraBe of radioactive wastes to allow decay ofsho(lived radionuclides !o low levels
so that !lastes can be disposed off safely.
Land disposal ofradioactive wastes is caried out both in the below ground vaulrs (BGV)
and above ground vauhs (AGV). A vault is an engineering structure builtto hold the most
hazardous low-level radioactive wastes such as Class C waste. Earth-mounted Concrele
Bunkers (EMCB) are also used for land burial ofradioactive wastes. lt involves isolating
the waste in an engineered vault located above or below the ground. A multilayer earthe!
cover is positioned overlhe vauh lo provide an add it,onal barrier to the nuclear radiations.

FLY ASH
Fiyash is a major by-product in the coal based fhermal power plants. It is a fine1y divided
residue resulting from the combustion ofcoal in a thermaj power plant_ It is generaliy grey
in color, abrasive, acidic. refractory in nature and has fin€ness (specific suiface) of+-000
to 8000 sq. cm per gram. The particles range in size from as much as l20 to less than 5
microns in equivalent diameter. The part ofash that falls to ihe boftom ofthe boiler during
combustion is called bottom ash, *hich is coarsor in size and is washed awav with water.
Ash. which is fine and is carried away with flue gases. is called as -Fl\ ash . li is separated
 Hazadaus&asles Management and Site Renedhtion 143

:-:- ho, gases in the ereclrosraticprecrTlT:'#:f:::i;:Hfl,ji;,ll"flIIllljill

:::iel awa) by wel method rslurD torrn I or ov or) IrHruu-.^.{Illi,-^,"'.i". .r,.ri SO
...nssilhlLehotgasesthroughchlmne)s.Approximatell.flyashaccounlsforabout
::rc!nt ofrhe total ash Produced'
F:!ashbeingligl,tinweighlgetsarroolne\erlfaslandpolluleslhe'lmosphere--Long
- _"Liion *ri", iiti.o,is fibroses oflungs
bronchitis etc ll coffodes slructural surtaces
or settrrng
and asriculrure slun) disposal lagoons
,.;,; l;;;t;;;;;"r"ge" honicuhure
--;|."|j.fi'. ha!e porenrialto conramirate
..r;* .f iosqr,ritoes and bacrrl. Funher. rhe5e

:r.re subsurface water witfr traces

oftoxlc meiais present in flyash Disp*"1if !]:-*.':tn"
consequence(
;:ir:;'r;;,;".qr"iic life cycle sincethe fl'ash has se!ere environmenlal
rt sho uld be ;isPosed off carefullY'

Ftyash OisPosal
oi,po,ur ornr",t i,.u.ind"I.r,i::1rf;,'nlf*i:'ifilffiiJ::il.SiH'[."1]'",;"X
prperrnes rn n'E.'"'1"."-'l:],':"'
rlants 10 the ash Ponds rhrough :;,;".,,,,. r. *r;r"Uf.
;. ,.;,"r.1."*rr.,,"" ,nd mandfacturing operations. A grear deal ofof lilemlure.rs
aYarli
marerial' some of these are as
iii,]."ri,ii"ii"" is a consrrucrion
especiallv
foliows:
"iorash

Backfiriog: F r]?sh.can be used.in.l:iliii[:;:.",ff

.,omisins for ash utilizaiion parllculany
i;:"i:fr ;:1,:i:ifl "T:'":'"::;:
il;. j:;ii"; ;;; ;i;;;" "'a in n tting 'o oi tow-rving areas for rsc raimins !and and ror
con:truction ofroad emu"nt ."n,s. r,pro
lbo'l95 ierc-ent of maximum dry densiD can be
,.hi.ved ifcontrolled filling is carried ouL
can be
and due to presence ofPozzollons flyash
Blended Cement: Being rich in silica
:ii",""]; ;'il;;;;uiii^t
25
ro' o'oa'aio"ot
percent ol dr) rlyz ;:ff l[lilf ili,:':;i::r'^;'l,Xl]:ll,",l
cemenl. About lO lo
to Portland Pozzolana Cement'
li ."."", [i."a"i; iin ord inary ponland cement Produce
",
Fine Assresar€: Pond *h l": lill:l:'-'li:;l:Jiii:'":r::":li:Tl; [:ilJH$:::
be used as a partial or complete replacern
[."t'r'il;:;;;t;;e * hat differenr from rhat of the normal concrete'
be used as a rau materialforthe manufacture
Bricks. Blocks and Other Prodocis: Flyashcan ofpavements or for
IinIi .t""liaiit. rtyash Blocks can be used in the construction g
amount ofcoarse aggregate to the mix e morlar
other purposes by adding approp r are I
material in
include usJ-offlyash as a filler
,,<erl for Dlastering ofwalls OtherapptrJions
,"fv".tl"*p".li"t *hich is a conslrucrion material

SITE REMEOIATION
ofpublic interest- The burT:l]l!f**tt""
ii","."a;ution t u, t""ome one ofthe hot areas
the cosl of land makes iI ine\jtable to
i.r*i"f,, i, ,fr. ,,0- areas and the steeD rise inContaminatlon of land is usuall) due to
.tlrr" *,iii-a is nol lost due to conlaminalionindustries' This is further compounded b)
ilii"""i ii i^r"'a"rt *astes on it largelv fromof hospital. and slaushrei.lgl:: *-':'
i;:',""'.td";;;r;r;;. le g o ill or aumiing "'
pesticides' spravs also
dves' acids
il;;;;fi;'i;ffi Jclpuinit' tut'"'i""-o'edicines'
 I
I
lU A Textbaok of Solid Wastes Management I
contribute significantly to the contamination oflands.Land contamination poses
health_riskto human beings and to plants in such areas. Contanination ofland
may also occur due to leachate through hazardous wastes.
serjous
oig.oundwater I
Remediation techniques for contaminaled lands depends upon
(l)
(ii)
(iii)
soil characteristics,
conlaminant characteristics. and
I
legal and social requirements.
Soil characteristics importa.r for remediation are particle size distributioo (percenrage
ofcla_y and sitt), shear strenglh, porosity and permea bility. Other imponanr
factJrs inciuOe.
I
pH,ofgroundwarer and fhe soil and rhe pesricide conteni etc. The d;prh
ofwateria;i; and
vadoze zone and moislure content ofsoil are also impodant parameters. Climatoloeical
factors e.g. the ambient air rempemture, rainfalt erc. ari also considered.
Ch"-;. ;;;"n,
I
I
naturally in the soil e.g. chlorides, sulfates. carbon. nirrogen and rhe profile
of iarious
nutrients and metals present at the sjte should be analyzei before select;ng particuiar
a
remediafion technique.
The nature and characteristics ofconlaminanl in lhe soil should be estimated.

fraction: halogenated or non-halogenated compou nd s; melals speciall) heuul

in the contaminan!. Some contaminants may be predominanrly hydrocarbons
This includes
identiflcation oforga.ic and inorganic fraction, volatile, semi-volatil", una ,on-uoiutlt.
rn"oL ri"."n,
I
I
e.g. arie to o:t
spillage, leakage in perrol pumps. Other important cons iderationi in decidingthi
technique
for.remediation are solubiliry and biodegradabilit), ofconraminants. Finuiiy,
and loxlcit\ ofruch contaminants is al$ a) s imponanl.
tt. roirr.
A geotechnical or environmental engineer should also be aware ofthe legal requiremenrs
and guideiines to be foltowed for any remediarion work in lerms ofthe goa!
These goals are usually specified as:
t" lJ
"li;.""a.
t
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
in terms ofthe permissible limits ofcontaminants in the soil:
in terms ofpermissible ljmits ofsite \rhere the wastes are lo be disposed
in terms oflhe technique employed e.g. disposalon secured lancifiiis.
off; or I
Bernediatioh Techniques
Depending upon the volume and characteristics of contam in anl several oftechniques are
I
available. These are classified as follolvs:
l. Physical Merhods-Excavation, Soil Washing (borh insitu and exsitu),
extractiOn e1c_
Sojl vapor I
2.
3
Thermal Methods Incineration, Desorption. Vitrification etc
Chemical Lrearmenr- chemical srablizaLion
4. Bioremediation-/, rir, biotreatment, .ar rirr biotreatment, ,r rr, slurry biodegradation
I
Rootzone Treatment etc.

Physicdl Tteatment
Excavation and Removal: This is a simple method suitable where volume ofsoil
I
treated is small. The contaminated soil is excavated and disposed away
secured landfill. Importantconsideration in thjs melhod are the type ofsoil,
and ihe location ofthe area
to be
irom ttte iite_on a
typ" ot"onturnin"nt
I
I
I
I
 Hazardouswastes Managemen and Site Remedtalion 145

SailWsshing: The soil may be washed insitutoremove the conlaminant. A leaching agent
na) be adde; to water and a pressure gradient is maintained. Water for washing is allowed
:o ;nler lhe soil by construct,ng horizontal galleries or boreholes. The leachate is then
::iercepted or pumped out fortreatment This technique is good for nonhalogenated volatile
r.Sanics
-In
with good soil permeability but is not suitable for clays.
the ersirmethod. ihe excavatedsoil is removed and washed in a contain€r' The water
:a) enter from the lop and collected al the bottom for its treatment before it is finally
iisposed off. The washed soil may then be teplaced to its original position'

Soil Vapor Extractionl lnthis method air flow is generated through awell creating a pressure
iadie;. The air removes volatile components from the vadoze zone. This technique is
lsoecially good for halogenated, volatileand fuel hydrocarbons. Thetechnique is not suitable
if;ir perfi;ability is low or when carbon content is high or temPerature is low.

Thermal Trcatment
lBciDeretion: Thermal trealment is esPecially suitable for remediation ofcontaminants in
ihe yadoze zone. The soilmay be excavated and heated ata high temperature inthe presence
cfoxygen, i.e. at aboul 1000_1500 'C. The organics aie destroyed and lhe volalile fraction
is remived. However, metals are not destroyed. This method is good for both halogenated
and nonhalogenated coniam iflants inc luding fuel hydrocarbons. Ciay or rockfraction should
be removed from the soil before apPlying the heat.

Thermal D€sorption: ln this lechniquethe excavated soil is subjected to a lowtemperature

and the volatiles are collected fol seParate treatrnent At high temperature halogenated volatiles
and hydrccarbons are deslroyed-

Vitrification: In this technique heat is apPlied to the contaminaled soil causing a melt
\ah'ch moves clownward. It mobilizes the organics and destoys the volatiles For insitu
!ilrification ]arge Sraphite electrodes ate inserted in the soil in a g.id pattern (say l0 m x
l0 m grid). A high;lectric current is appiied resulting in the generation ofheat which fuses
rhe m;terial. Afier sitelsoil is cooled, the final material is iner!. The technique is good for
Iong lerm stability but consumes iarge amount ofenergy.

Chemical Tteatment
Chemical treatmentcan aiso be carried out insitu or exsitu. These areessentially stabilization
rechniqLres *hich have been extensively developed. The contamiDated soil is mixed
with a
binding material to reducemobility ofthe contaminaflts Suitable binding material s include.
lime (f;r clays) cemenl (for sands) and thermopiastic bi.ders. Thermoplastics binders are
available in a variety oftrade names Prolection may be required for soils with high content
of oil, grease, or surfactanis. Stabilization lechniques are suitable for sludges or slurries
conram-inated with inorganics. These are nol ver] effective for clays or for soils with high
organics, sulfates or chloride conlent.

Biorcfiediation
Both insitu or exsilu biolrealment melhods have been developed The contaminated soil
is
heaped in piles and allowed to deg.ade the contaminants through the natural action ofth€
micioorganisms in the soil. lmportanl factors affecting the.ate ofbioremediation lreatment
l+-

=
146 A Texl,baok of Solid Wastes Managehent

ir\clude oxygen content, I]utrient content, moisture content! pH and tempemture. Oxygen
ma) be suppljed through blowers or the soil may be frequently turned to ensure aeration in
the enlire soil mass.
Microbes require several nutrjents for their growth. These nutrients may be added if
.equired. Microbiai activities accelerated in mo ist condiaions. Therefore water may be added
to ensure a high degree ofmoisrure conrent atl ofthe iime i.e. abour 40-5Ooo. Some microbes
thrive in acidic and sorne in aikaline envhonment. pH should there{ore be maintained within
the range 6 - 8.5. The idealtemperature formicrobial activities is about 45 .C.
The success ol b ioremed iation methods deperd upon ho\\,well the above factors ar€
confoiled: Treatmentmavbe carried out insitu(e.g. composting)or the soil maybe fansferred
to a treatment plant for treatment in a controlled reactor. The treated soil can be replaced
on the sile afterrYards.
B ioireatment techniques are good for removing allbiodegmdable contaminants esDeciajlv
h) orocarbons..lnsilL mettod) are good tor nonialogenaled volatiles. jn $is Lrearmenr.ioxiciD
is greativ reduced. However this techniques is no! suitable for Iow permeabilily soils.

Slurry Biodegradation: This is an aerobic exsitu technique suitable for hvdrocarbons and
biodegradable contaminants. Theexcavated soilis mixed in a reactorwith witerand nutrienrs.
Temperarure and pH are also controlled. This technique is not good for pestjcides, heavy
metals or chlorides.

Rootzone Treatment: Il is a recent lechnique used for soil remediation. Various types of
contaminants. This technique is good for removing heavy metals present in the soil. Aeavy
meials are uptaken by roots ofthe plants along withthe moisture. There are various species
ofplants \vhich are used for soil remediation depending upon their deptl ofrooko;e and
the rype ofsoil. Schematic ofa typical rootzone treatment system is shown in Fig. 6.1.

Graves

Fig. 6.1: Rootzone Tiealment Systern

RISK ASSESSMENT
Risk assessnent (RA) is defined as the characterization ofthe potential harmful effects on
human heahh due to exposure. It is a systematic collection of information about potenlial

I
 Hazadgus Wastes Menagpnenland Site Benedbtion 147

risks and evaluating them for necessary aclion. Risk estimate ofharmful or adverse effect
on health (due to chemical releases) is often expressed as the ratio olpredicted concentation
ro no-effect (or safe) concentration.
Risk assessment may address any ofgnvilonmenial issues but it primarily focuses on
health and safety ofhumans, animals and plants. Abaodoned lEndfill .ites after closure are
ofren Iater developed for public use e.g. as parks, or other development projects. Many
noxious gases e.g. methane and mercaptines continue to be generated long after the iandfills
are closed. In all such cases a risk assessment should forh an integral part ofEIA process
for ary development project on such sites. Risk reduction measures ana! control and emergency
response options are also included in risk management.

Steps in Risk Asses6ment

RiskAssessment is a four-step nethod as given below:
. Identification ofhazards (sources and receptors)
. Hazard Assessment
. Risk estimation
. Risk management

ldentlflcation gl Hazards
This is asystematic examination ofvarious Project components and activities to determine
source ofimpact and the potential recePtor. The likely acute, chronic or fatal effects on
receptors are identified. Hazard identification can be carried out by using checklists or
though field surveys. Impacts ofvarious hazrdous substance on human health are presented
in Table 5.13.

T!bI.6.13: Health Efiects ofvarious Hazardous Substances

Heakh Elfects

1. Pe$icides
. DDT lns€.licides &ncs, damageto liver, ernbrlos, ard bird eggs
. BHC lrse.licides Cancer, embryo damage

2. Penochemicals
Headaches, naus€€" Ioss ofmuscle coordi-
narion, leuk€mi4 damage to t'one mano$,
. vinylchlond€ Plasti6 Lung and liver crncer depression, darnage to
c.nlral nervous sfstem
l. He-avy M€tals
Neurotoxic; caues h€da.h€s initaiioq nertal
impqilmeiq bmin, Iiver, and kidney damase
. Ca&iiurn zinc bar&ries, fertiliz€rs Canc€r in animals. dam€e to liver ,,d kidn€rys

4. Other Toxic Chemicals

. Doxin Herbicides, wane Cancq binh defects, skin dise.ses

. PCBS Electonic. lrydraulic fl ui( Skin danage, gasao-irteslinal dam€e, cause

fluorcs.€nt lights
 '=
:s

VA A Tenbook al Solid Wastes Managdnenl

Chemicals ofpotential concern are identii€d using €rious indicalors e.g. toxicity, pe.sisterce,
ard mobility. A to-xicity score may & developed for each cheoical by multiplying the maximum
concentration with its carcinogedc potency factor. ID th€ case of non-carcinogenic chemicals,
the ioxicity score is obtained on dividiag the maximum concenration by areference dose.
Potency factor ofvarious carcinogens chemicajs is presented in Table 6.14.

Tabl€ 6.14: IoyiciD Daia for Selecled Potential Carcinogens

P o te ncy F ac t ar (tr,gkl6l d"y )- |

1.75 50
Benzale .
2-q lo-2 2.9 , tO-2
CnJnium 6.1
Carbon tet achloride 0_13
Chloroio.m 6.1 x 10-3 8.1 r l0-2
Chmmium Iv 41
DDT 0.34
l,l -Dichlomethylene 0.58 1.15
Deldrir 30
1.4 x l0_2
Metnyl chlonde 7.5x103 i.+ , ro.
Nickel and compounds
PolychlonnaEd biphenyls (PCBS) 7.7 t''
!'
2,3,7,8-TCDD(dioxin) 1.56 105
Tnchbrced'ylene (TCE) 1.1 l0-2 l3xl0-'
viryl chlodde 2.3 0.295

Sou.e: USEPA.IRIS dat base(I989).

Hdzatd Assessment
it includes determifiation ofthe probabilify ofaccidental ieleases; quantificalion ofrelease
rates and calculation ofdose; and duration of exposure. Accidental events may be due to
human enor, equipment failuie, during mnsportation, or due to a catastrophe, Various technjques
e.g. HAZAN (Hazard Analysis), HAZOP (Hazard Operability), or FTA (Fault Tree Analysis)
have been developed used forthis purpose.
Quantification ofchemical releases and rates duiing dayto day \vorking is an important
parameter of hazard assessment. Models aan be used for quantification ofexposure through
air, water, and soil exposure to receptors. Modeis can be developed for calculation ofdose-
response relationship. A flow diagram ofvarious possible routes ofchemicals exposure to
humans and animals is shown in Fig. 6.2. Health effects ofexposure to chemicals due to
broaccumularion are presented in Table 6.15.
Table 6.15: Responses to Chemicals Exposure

S€nsitive Dermalitis5 6h

Mubgeric
Embryo, Gtus binh def€.1s
Damage to DNA sEuctwe
I
I
Cartinogenic Cancers

1
I
 llazadouswastes Meragiament and Site Remectation 149

Flg.6.2: Va ols Possible Foutes ot Exposure

Bioaccumulation and synergistic effects ofchemiials are also estimated in the hazard
rsessment. Dose response relalionship has been extensively studied folthis purpose. This
:--ips in identification ofcarcinogenic chemicals when risk depends on total cumulatiYe
:o.e and noi simply on duration ofsingle dose. Chemicals which have no adverse effect on
:.:nran health below athreshold or reference dose (Rp) are catego zed as non_carcinogens.
Rp =NOEL/FOS
:ite.e NbEL slands forno observed effect leveland FOS isthe factor ofsafety. Experiments
.rcnducred at very high doses ate extraPolated for appiication in much lower dose scenario in
{i.ral eovironment. A slope factor is obtained from dose-response data. Slope factor multiplied
:i C1e calculated intake otcarcinogen gives an indexofincrease incancerrisk.lt is expressed
:s annualor life time riskofthe chance of developing cancer e.g. 1in I million. For example'
. jo- ofo.o I pg&g ofbody weighrday ofdioxin causes risk increase of I t I 0j. Bioaccumulation
and Rp for vadous chemicals are presented in Table 6.16 and 5.17 resPectively.
=.rors
Tabl€ 6.r6: Bioaccumulation Factors for Vatious Chemicals

Bioaccunulatioh Factor (L/kg)

Al&in 28

5.2
Cadmiuri 81
19
Chlorcfonn 3.75
ClEmiwn l6
Copper 200
DDT 54000
I ,l -Dichlorc€thylene 5.6
DieHrin 4760
87
Nickel and compounds 47
Polychloronicated biphenyls (PCBS) 100000
2,3,7.8-TCDD(dioxin) 5000
Trichloro€$ylere (TCE) 10.6
Vnyl chloride 1.17

S@Ee USEPA (1936 r)

15O A Telbook ol Solid Wastes Managehent

Trble 6.17r Rp for\oncarcinogenic

Effecll ofvdious Chemicals T
RP tnskc.'dar)

5,10r
0.1
T
Cadnnnrl

I
0.01
Chlorofonn 0.009
I .I -Dichlo.oelhYlene
0.06
Medryi Chlodde 0.04

I
0.0001
PCB 0.01
0.3
0.09
.l .l -Tncholoroethylene

t
1
30
cFC-11i 20
Xylene

s,rce: USEPA, IRIS databale (1989)'

Risk Estifiation I
ni.i",,i.u,ion.,nt.usedloLonpareahernalivestlategies,.lhisisanadditionalinD'l e\ aluallon
olher indicalors e g' the cosl ol project' R'sk
i'"',
"..i"'""
rnrl. i"g
i;;;;;";;;;i;;;;'t.k "ronc*'rlh
iia"ceptabie or nor' c''ridilines standaids
medium to which recepror is exposed'
are sel relative to the
I
Hl = Toral Dose / Rp
is lhe sum ofalle\posures e g duetoinhalation
,^hereHI is th:'h"za;;irier"Thetotaloose
: e!ii"_"'- .. rres. lhan l 0 implie'no hazard or no_ri)L
-^^.,^- --,r
lngesrrurr
h.',rprm,r
d'Lu eJ --' A ralue ofHl less
lrma\benoledlhallhereisal*a}sanelementofuncena.ntlinLheassessmenloIri.L
,, it u' u"t oi risl'q are made baseo upon e\perrence and
'l;::'$;ih;;;;,. 'iin,"''"
l",t;"'.'i;;;;.:;t"hrcharerheoreticallvPossible'rherisrcanbecompuredb)usinB
the follo\r'ing exPression (6.1)
(mglk?/dayx PotencrFactartns/k8/dav)-t
Risk = Chronic Dailv Intake
according to the body weiSht and average
The chronic dailv intake (CDI) is estimated
life exPectancy.
(tcc) 1,",og" Lif" Govt)]
CDI (thg/keida.l) = Total Dose hs) / [Body veight " ...qa.z)

Tctul Dase = Cancentratioh af.chemicat t n^E af food ' Intake rute tkg offaod.lay)

^ r,h.'ure durrtlon'davs) AD'otpt;on lroclion ,kg ".

o'a c hemical in fi'h poPulalion can be esll'naled as
* i"i" ,i" u.. rru,ur"a concenl_alion a

follows.
Concentration infsh h!/Kd = Cancentration in vlati(ng/l)
t mul at i oh F ac t or ( l/'kg) . (6.4)
B i o ac cu

Risk Managefient
a strategy forits
,A.tt", iaentified and estimated the next step is to develoP
rl.t i", l".n management
"
l^'."*rn"* ofrisl5 potenlialhave to be examinedto devise asuitabie
orthe risk esiimated
^1""r"* ouuio,,5 a"p'na on
:iil:?;:::;;;,"tii;il' tt'" nature and magnitude

ii,. tuslc ,rep. i" ,ist' mcnagement dre the followinS'

 Hazardous l)lastes Managenent ancl St,e Eemedialion 151

. Derermine ifother altematives/options are available, which carry lesser risk ofexposute.
. Eslimate the cost ofavoiding and/or reducinglhe riskto acceptable limits.
S::?regi€s should be deveiopedto reduce the quantity ofha?ardous waste generated and
: ,_:ssible. to change the charactet of hazardous wastes geflerated e.8. by changing the
_-=:^:oio9, subslituting allernative raw marerials with less hazard potential.
::. rolal risk assessed must be compared with the acceptable sk to devise any risk
-,a-:gemenr plan. The risk management strategies are developed by decreasingthe chances
:: :\losuie or by decreasingthe concenuationofthe exposure - usually both. Human exposure
:::- ). limiled by isolation or by providing physical barriers or protective clothing e.g.
--5:(s or shields.
leuse. recycling and treatment of hazardous w.tste should beexamined before its is finally
: .lcsed offon a secuied landfill. k is also essential thaivarious guidelines and statulory
:i:!:sions laid down by govemment, CPCB ol other aulhorities ate implemented strictly.
:'j11) all hazzrdous emissions orwastes should be captured in acradleto gmve managemett

RISK ASSESSMENT IN SITING OF A HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL

STUDY
=ACILITY_CASE
:- :rarrirative approach using multi-objective planning iechn iq ue has reported by Koo et
i , !989) for the assessmenl ofnine strategies for the disposal ofhazardous waste in
itr-ih Korea. Oflhese, Strategies 1 to 5 involved the siling ofan integrated incinerator and
::l sico-chenical treatmenl center al one ofthe five possible iocations. Strategies 6 and 7
;::. assessed for the siting oi integrated center a! lhe site of one of ihe trvo large waste
:.:.r"tion units. Stmlegies 8 and 9 involvedthe siting of incinerator and physico-chemical
:.airnent plant separately on lwo siles. Risk, equity, economic efficiency, public reactions,
L: cosl were the main elements ofconsideration. The risk component was expressed as a
.-.:-.poshe of the hazard posed by each waste type and the population density ofthe arca
:,_ougb which waste had to be transported. The risk was presented as:
Risk (ton - person/km2)= f,1t,P, tI(HrQ )J)
:a.re , is the travel time through lhe heavily populated cities and is givenby L,/f . L being
'-r e irave I di stance through the city (km): Iz , the average speed of the vehicle (km/h); P is
::: Dopulation densiqv oftbe city (thousand persons per km2); I is the quantity ofhazardoqs
: asles passed through the city (t/year); A is the hazard factor ofthe waste;i is the type of
:-azardous wastes; and i is the number ofcity.
Public reaction or public objection component ofrisk was expressed as:
Public objecrion {person km2 ' - PWt
nhere l7l is a weighti.g factor (1.0 for a city, 0.7 forthe countr,vside). Using the fuzzy se1
n?ory', a weighled value for each objeclive relative to the nine strategies was oblained.
These are given in Table 6.18.
The higher the value, the highe. the rating ofthat ahemative. It can be seen from the
Table lhat option t has the hjghest product value and the highest minimum value ofthe
.ombined weightings and was therefore selected.
This is an example ofhoh_ risk assessment technique can be applied in the selection of
si.e for waste disposal facilities or treatment options.
 I
T

152 A Textbook af Solicl Wastes Managefient I

T:bl€ 6.1E: wliehls of Vadous Strategies/Options
Strctegy
T
Objective
Ul =risk
U2 = equity
0.51
0.E,1
0.04 0.92
1.001 0.41
0.73
0.69
0j3
0.69
0.94r
0.33
0.51
0.99
0.73 0.63
0.59 0.6?
0.91 0.93
I
U3=objections 0.991 0.89 0.25 0.991 0.99t 0.97 0.82
0.16 0.02 0.631 0.63 0.16 0.631 0.02 0.26 0.63:
0.73 0.82 0.52 0.41 0.48 0.86r 0.82 0.81 0.8i T
tui 3.22 2_77 2_13 3.45 3.03 3.732 3.l6 3.30 3.67
0.E3 0.196r
I1Ui
MinimM Li
roplimun strareg
0.049
0. i6
for each obj
0.001 0.031 0.i29
0.02 0.?5
e!li\E.
0..11
0.037
0_16
0.163
0.33
0:007
o02 0.26 0.62'2 I
roptimum sfate$, based on comprehensive value for degree ofoplimi"rtion.

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Life Cycle Assessm€nt (LCA) is the process ofevaluating the effecls that a produca has on
the environment overthe entire period ofits life cycle. Tltis tcchnique can be used to estimaied
the environmental impact ofa product by focusing on its functions 6rxse. It is a complex
process and consists ofthe follolying three eiements:

. Identiryingand quantifyingthe environmental Ioads-the energy and raw matedals

used, and the emissions and wastes consequently released;
. Assessing and evaiuaringthe potential environmentaiimpacls ofthese loads;and
. Assess ing the op portunities avai lable !o bring aboul en\ i ronmental improvemenls.

The obj eci of LCA is to uncover envircnmental consequences of a product or more geneml ly
the function which the product is designed to perform. It is one more decision support tool
supplying informalion ofl the environmental effecls ofproducls, It furnishes information
on the environmenlal effects ofall the stages ofa product's life cycle. This information is
very valuable to the decision maker-be it govemment, industry or individual.
There are many good reasons lo use LCA as an environmenlal management tool, It i5 a
product-oriented. integraled. scientific and quantitative approach. The use ofLCA technique
avoids problem shifting one stage of the life cycle to anotheri or replacing one sor! of
environmental problem by another. The process ofpreparation ofLCA requires time, skili
and money.lt also requires a methodolog); a greal dealofdata and software to analyze data.
It would obviously be a great help ifstanda.d databases containing data on process are available.
A unified frame$ ork for LCA needs ro be developed in our country for easy communication
and training of personnel.
The LCA methodology requires inventorization of pollution ioads of a producf at all
stages from the raw material procurement to the final d;sposal consecutively, ,ncluding
manufacturing! energy consumption, and transportaiion. The lotal pollution Ioad and its
impact on environment should be compared with sim!lar LCA ofolher alternatives. Va.ious
sLaBes of LCA are preienred in Fi8. 6.j.
Fig. 6..1 shows an ourline ofsystem boundaries for production process ofbar soap. This
indicates various aspecrs to be included in the LCA ofsoap. Tallow is the main ingredient in
soap production and irs primary ra* nalerial source is the grain fed 10 cattle. Therefore
 Heza/douswastas Maragemenlend Sitd Remediation 153

Lfs cycl€ slsg€s

ou'lpul

+ SoId

Flg. 6.3: Stag6s in LCA

Flg.6.4: Flow Diagram t Prcduction ol Bar Soap

 1g A Tey;lbook of Sctid Wastes Managem1nt

grain production and cattle raising are included in the Iife cycle assessment
ofbar soap.
The production ofpaper for packaging the soap is also ioctuded in the system boundaries.
Fate ofboth lhe soap and its packaging are included in the life cycle analysis ofthis system

EXAMPLES
Example 6.1: A person weighirg 65 kg consumes an avgrage of50 g of fish every week.
The ish has been caught ftoln a pond with a concentration ofDDt eq-ual to l.O ppb (0.001
mg/L). Estimate the maximum lifelime risk ofcancer due to this exposure_
Solrtion:
The Bioaccumulation factor for DDT = 54000 (from Table 6.16)
The expecaed concentralion ofDDT in fisb is therefore
= Concentration in wate. x Bioaccumulatioh Faator

Ifa
= 0.001 x 54000 = 54 rng ofDDT perkg
person, weighing 65 kg. consumes 50 g (0.05 kgr of651
day) the chronic daily inrake is (Eq. 6.2),
offish
p., *..L (
(Eq.6.4)
i.e. 0.00i I kg/ I
cDl
UsingEq.6.l
=(0.0071 x 54)/6s
= 0.00593 mglkg ofbody weighr I
Risk = CDI (mg/kg/day) x Potency Facror (mg,&g/dayfr
. =0.00593x0.34
= 0.0020i7 or 2017 x 106
I
or about 2000 persons per million are at risk due to this exposu.e
Exrmple 6-.2: A worker weighing about 70 kg is exposed to a carcinogen (avemge concentration
iD air = 0.01 mg/mr)for8hoursperdayfor.]oOdalsperleuro-r".up..i-odof30r.".r.
I
Average breathing rate ofworker is l.O m3/h. Estimate the risk ofcanc;r
has a po€ncy factor of0.l {mg/kg/day)-'. Assume average Iife oflvorker

Solulion:
if the carci;ogen
to be 65 yea;s. I
From Eq. 6.3,
Totaldoseofcarcinogen=0.0img/m3xl.Om3/hx8h/dayx3O0days/yearx30),ears
= j20 mC
t
CDI
= 720l[?0 kg x 65 years : 365 days/year]
= 4.3 x 10r mg/kg/day
Risk =4.3 x l0r mg/kg/da), , 0.1 (mg/kglday)-l
(Eq.6.2)
I
= 4.3 r 10r
About 43 persons out ofone million are at risk of cancer.
T
EXERCISE
1
2
What are the main characreristics ofha2ardous yastes? Dhcuss the inpac!
. Discuss various techniques used for t.earment and disposat of hazrdous
on huma, heatth.
wastes?
l. What are the caregories ofbiomedical wastes? Discuss rhe merhod ofrreatrrent and djsposal for
I
4. How are radioacrive wanes ctassified. Explain rhe methods ofderection and
disposal ofthese T

I
)

,
 Hazatttouswastes Managementancl Site Rernediation 155

ftom a liYer polluted with PCB Estimate the concentration of PCB

in
- . Fish are sulplied in a ma*et ofl
5
: l0j due to consumption ofthis fish' ifaPerson consumes lo0
ir,. ii""r t.:i* f ."*. tisk
is 65 kg and life expectancv of60
at teart rou. times s morih. Take avErage bodvweight
g;fnsh
'o to Chromium in an electroplating factory' Norrnal
^- *.i,hinn aloul 65 ks is €xPoscd
"-.^" r,""'i i" ir,. r"ctory aie 8 hrdav and number ofworkins davs is about 300/vear' The
"J,-rl* ro.i ofair everyda). what concentration ofchrornium in the ah would
".'i"l'li."ir,* "m,
cause him arisl ofl inonemilllon'
7 what is Life Cycle Ass€sshent. Discuss its advantages'
.
3-Discusssuilablestrat€giesforth€remediadonofacontaminaledsitewhattechnique\rouldyou
suggest for sites conia$inated with oil spills? Give reasons
9. B;efly expiain the following:
elsk essessment. LLRW, Biomedical Waste, Dose-resPonse RelationshiP' B ior€mediation'
 I
:l
I
=
I
Chapter
=

=
I
I
Erup ir o nrnent o I Irnp a c t I
Assessrnerut I
I
Environment Impact Assessment is an objective analysis ofthe probable
changes in the Fhysical, biophysical and socio-economic charaiteristics I
I
ofthe environment from a proposed project. The prediction and evaluation
of the environmental consequence enables the planne$ to plan better
ireparable damage to environment and to ensure sustainable
so as to avoid
developmeDt.
Every development proj ect isplanned to changethe existing environment
for some benefit. Unfortunately often such development; bring in its
wake many unintended harmful side effects. It is essential ther;fore io
I
lake into account any likely negative impacts in plannjng a development
project. Both short term and Iongtel1 consequences are io be considered
to ensure sustainable development e_g., ..,./rjli, ation o/ existing resource,
I
/or fulfLling present needs \rithout threatening the abilit, i the futurc
generations ta meet their needs,'. A)l changes sbould howeve, be such
thalthe environment is not adversely affected. A sustainable development I
I
ensures that the developmental activities do not strain the environment
beyond its capacity and the p.oject does not overdraw from its ecological
and environmentai assets-

I
Over the last two decades most countries have enacted suitable legislaiion
requiring a comprehensive environmental impact assessment (-EIA) of
all najor projecrs at the plaDnirg stage irself. EIA is a process wheriby
information about the future environmental impacs ofa project is predictej,
assess€d and taken into account in deciding \yhether the project should
go ahead, should be modified or abandoned.
I
I
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The Government of India has enacted a number of Acts fiom time to
time for the protecrion of environment in the country. Notable are the

I
Wat€r (Preve nrion & Conrrol ofpollurion) Act of j 974. lhe Air (prevention

I
I
 Envitunmentallnpaclassessnent 157

passed in
& Control ofPollution) Aci of 1981 However, the comprehensive legislation
isii i; t.rry " *ir".tone in the field of environmental e g the Environment (Protection)
-q.i. r9g6. iit" ,{.t ptovides for the Prolection atd improverlenl of environment
and
.ri".. therewith. It consists of four shapters containing 26 sections and
"onn""t.a
io!ers Ihe enlire counrr).
tis act empowers the government to take ail necessary measures (a) for protecting
quality, and (b) for preventing, controllirg and abatjng
-J i.p.ouingit',. "nrlron;ental government is empowered lo take such fleasures as
the en.rironmlntal Poliution The
,"orl."a for laling down standards for emission or discharge of pollutanls from
"r.
i"ar.tlies or to ena.t rilevanl rules for industry (e.g' its operation, process or location)
-- as ro Drotect Ihe environment.
so
bod) ie' Ihe Central Pollution
ii. ni".rrr.* has also constiruted a regulatory prescribing
c".i.ol"gcara fcpCgl for laying down guidelines, standatds' environmental
."rii".i"" ""a for various oth;r acrivities necessary for the implementation of this
i.i pnrrui;on cont.ot Boards have also been set up by the State Governments allover
'--ii"
the country.
ioii,on."n, (Protection) Act, 1986 is a iandmark legislation thal provides much
a

1"""i_i."r"*"rt f". tf're improvement of environment Public awareness is now

in
r,i'rf,". i". ," enriroomeni protection and the CPCB has contributed Tlnensely
lr-oniaine guidelinei and staDdards to the industry and public The Supreme
"atuaUte
rur..n I number of iniliatives to ensure compliance ofthe various
provisions
Lor.r rrui"iro
- - the Act.
of
t't tt, * u"t t"mains to be done The Act itse lf is flow much drore supplemented
a succession of rules, subrules' amendments, annexures, guidelines, notifications'
oiih "r"nl1"t"
leading
scneauies. vtl-a.s, resolutions etc. Thele are too many cross'reierences often
authorities are usually
to loniu.iont. f*""ttire paperwork is involved frequently and the
;;;;;;il;; ;";"'.." "f t;e time-schedules incorPorated in the Act The basic spirii of
voluntary
this Act is commrna and controi withno provisions for economic incentives or
---if,"
choi ce.
uiniu.y of Enviroiment and Foresls (MOEF), Covernrnent of India vide its
the list
notification of 2?th January 1994 (as amended on 04 05 1994) has laid down
projects which wiil need EIA clearance Development projects for
"i'a"r"f"p.*t
gf,i hu. ui"n .ade mandatory include Power Stations, HiShways and Railways'
"fri"t,
funnels. Oil refinerias, Hazardous Waste Landfills ln many count es ElA has
been

made mandalor\ for uaste disposal sile( also such as land'llls and
' iDcinerarors'
iil .i.uon.. i. gi'ten on the basis of ilformation which Ihe clienl has to supPly in
tfr#"r".iuea io.rn"tischedule Il, Application Form' See Box 7 l ) lt shall be accomPanied
bv a Droiect reooit * hich shall, inler'alia, inciude ao Envilonmental lmpact Assessment
n'""J.t in"ironm.ntal Vanagemenl plan p_epared in accordance with the guidelines
issued by the Central Government and the MOEF from time-to time All imporant
,r"i"*".'".*. Power project, lndustrial project have to supply this information on the
iails of an-efl ,epon prepatea b) a comoelent agency' The procedure for carr)ing
out EIA and submilting report is spelled out in the MOEF notifications'
--ii" Control Board (CPCB) has, in its various notifications and
c""""r Polluliin
,riii"u,;ont. laid down standards for lhe control of pollution of air, waler' and major
noise
!lc. ii"uf" Lr-2.+i. violation ofsuch norms will attract penalties as per law All
 I
.,
I
1* A Textbook of Sold Wastes Management I
Box 7.r: Schedule il, Application Fo.m to be submiaed alonswith th. EIA R€pon
SCHEDULE.II
APPLICATION TORM
I
l.(a)
(b\
Name and Address of the project proposed:

Locarion of the projecr:

I
Name of rhe place:
District. Tehsil:
Latitude,/Longitudel
I
Nearest Airport/Railway Station;
(c) Alternate sites examined and the reasons for selecting the proposed site:
(d) Does the site conform to stipulated laDd use as per local land use plan:
2.Objectives of the project:
I
31.a)
Land Requirement:
Agliculture Landi
I
Foresi iand and Density of vegetation:
Other (specil):
(b) (r) Land use in the Carchmen!/ wirhin lOkms. radius ofthe proposed site:
I
(ii) Topography of the area indicating gradient, aspects and altitude:
(iii) Erodabiiiry classificarion ofthe proposed Iand:
(c) Pollution sources existing jn l0 krn. Radius and their impact on quality of I
air, water & land:
(d) Distance ofthe nearest National parL/Sanctuary Biosphere Reserye/ Monuments/
heritage s;te/Reserve Forest:
(e) Rehabilitation plan for quarries/borrow areas:
I
CD Green belt plan:
(g) Compensatory afforestation plani
4.Climate and Air Quality:
I
(a) Windrose at site:
(6) Max./Min./Mean annual iemperature:
(c.) Frequency of inversion:
I
fd) Frequency of clclones tornadoes cioud bursr:
(e) Ambient air quality data:
(, Nature & concenrration of emission of SpM. cas (CO, CO2. NO, CH,, erc ) I
from the project:
5.Water balance:
(a) Water balance at site :
(r) Lean season water ava;lability:
I
(c) Sou.ce to be lapped with comDeling users (River, Lake. cround. public
supply):
(d) Water quality:
I
(e) Changes observed in quality and quantity of ground $.ater in the last 15
years and present charging and extractjon details:
(/) (i) Quantum of waste water to be released with treaiment details:
I
I
t
I
 Envircnnental lmpact A,ssesgnenl 159

O) Qu"ntr. of quality of *ater in the receivjng body before and after

disposal of solid waste:
(iii) Quantum of wasae water 10 be released on land and type of land:
(g) (i) Details of reservoir water quality with necessaly Catohmenl Treatment
Plan:
(ii)
Command Area Developmenl Plan:
6 Solid wastes I
(a) Nature and quantity of solid wastes Senerated:
(r) Solid waste disposaL method:
T.Noise and vibralions:
(a) of noise and vibratio.s:
Sources
(b) Ambient noise level:
(c) Noise and Vibration controi measures proPosed:
(c) Ssbsidence problem if any with conirol measures:
S.iower requirement indicaling source ofsupply: Complete environmental details to
be furnished separaiely. ii captive po*'er unit proposed:
9.Peak labor force to be deployed giving details of:
. Endeflic health problems in lhe areadue to \'vaste water/airlsoil bome diseases:
. Health care sysiem existing and Proposed:
lO.(a) Number ofvillage and population to be dispiaced:
(b) Rehabilitation Masler Plan:
11.Risk Assessment RePon and Disaster Management Plan;
12.(a) Environmentai impact Assessmenl ) Report prepared as per
(,) Environment Management Pian ) guideiines ofMOEF
(c) Delailed Feasibility Report ) issued from lime to lime
(d) Duly fil,ed in qoeslionnaire )
13.DeGils of Environmental Management Cell:
I hereby give an underiaking tha! the data and informatiot given above are true to
the besi if my knowlerlge an<i bel;ef and t am a\i'are that if any part of the dat'
information s;bmitted is found to be false or misleading al any stage, the project be
rejected and the clearance given, if an)' to the projecr is likely to be revoked at our
risk and cost.

Signature of the aPPIicant

with name and full address
)ate:
'!acei
Given under the seal of
organiTation on behalf of
whom the applicant is signing

ln respect to item for which data are not required or is not available as- pet the
declaration of project proPonent, the projeci would be considered on that basis-
 I
I
1A A Textbaok of Sohd Wasles Mana96ment I
projects in the count.y will henceforth require a clearaflce from an autonomous body,
i.e. Environmental lmpact Assessment Authority (EIAA) constituted by the government
specifically for this purpose, as per the directions oa the Supreme Court.
I
Teble 7.1: Ambient

sa.
Air Quality Standards

CO
I
PPB ttg/ 3
1 . Industrial & Mixen Use 120 45.8 120 63.8 5000
PPM
4.37 500
I
2- Residential & Rtlral 80 30.5 EO 42.6 2000 1_75 200
3-

.\orer
Sensitive

Nq Siardad in PPB has been

30 I1.5 30 16.0

crmpded utilizing NO, conveEion fidor

1000
as
0_87 100

ther€ is no Aecified convasion

I
factorfor togeD oxides
Satce: CPCB.
Teble 7.2: Ambient Nois€ Standards
I
Do, Tine
Linits in dB(A), Lzq
I
B
c
Irdusrial

Residential
75
65
55
m
55
45
I
D Sil€nce Zone 50 4
l. Dai iime is reckoned in between 6:00 a.m. and 9:00 p.rn.
I
2. Night lime is reckoned in betseen 9:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m.
3. Silence zone is defined as areas uprc l00n around such premises as hospitals, educatioial
institutions and couns. The silence zon€s are to be declared 5y the Competent Authority.
I
4. Mixed categories of area! should be dectared as one ofthe four above mentione{categories
byrhe Compelenl Aurhoriq and lhe conespond ing slan dards shallapply.
So/r.?, CPCB. T
Trble 7.3: Noise Limits for Automobil€

Sxo CateBary ol ltehicles Naise Linits in dB(A) I

1. Motorcycle, Scooler and Three wheeier 80
2.
3.
Passenger Cars
Passenger or Commercial Vehicles (upto 4 MT) 85
I
4. Passenger or Commercial Vehicles above 4 MT and upto l2 MT 89
5-

Sorcer
Passenger or Commercial vehicles Exc€eding

CPCB.
t2 MT 9i
I
PTJRPOSE OF EIA
A cost-benefi! analysis is always carried out before finalizing any projecl. However, I
all ma'or projecl plans should also be examined to ensure public health and safety,

I
 Enironmental lnpact Assessnent 161

c.ralir-v ofenvironmedt and to comply with legal reqriremeots. Great care is needed in
.lery first of its kind Project.
Tablc 7.4: Warer QualirY Standards

lhdian Stohdatd 11993) wHo

pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-9.5 7.GE.5 6.3-E.2

Total Hardness 300 600 r00 500
C3lcium 75 ?N ,: 2N
N'lagnesium 30 100 150
Sodium 100 80
6. Chloride xo 1m0 2N -600
Copper 0.05 1.5 0.05 1.5

& Iron OJ to 0.1 t.0

9. \{anganese 0.1 0.5 o.:, 0.5
t0. 0.01 NR 0.1
11. L€ad 0_l NR 0.1
l:. ZkE 0.05 0.15 0.05 0.15
1t. Ctunni-m 0.0s NR 0_05

r1l rzlu€s €xcepl pH are in m9,4.

\R - No .ela-'ation.
The planning, construclion and opelation phases ofa project entail a Iarge number
ofactivities. Each ofthese activities should be analyzed to determine whal impact, if
any,it will have on the environment. These impacts need lo be predicted and the
probable severity ofeach impact should also be estimated lt may be noted that the
impacts may bel
(i) positive or negative;
(ii) short term or Iong termi
(iii) temporary or continuous:
(iL) reversible or iraeversjble; and
tv) direct or indirecl.
Some ofthese effects may not be significanl in isolation but in conjunction with the
impacls of other activities these may be unacceptable. The cumulative impactofall activities
is to be taken into consideration. Any ecological imbalance, enviroDmental pollution, aesthetical
loss or excessive siraiD on existing infrasructuial facilities should be mhigated through a
suirable EMP (environmental management plan) Impacts ofvarious air and water poilutants
are given in Table 7.5 and 7.6 respectively. A decibel scale showing impacts ofnoise on and
response ofhuman beings 10 it, is presented in Table 7.7.
EIA is anticipatory in nature. At an early stage in the developmeDt process necessary
action can be taken to ensure suslainable deveiopmentand fol preventingany environmental
disasrer in fulure.
 I
I
162 A TexlDook of Solid Wastes Manaoement I
Trble 7.5: MajorAir Polluiants and their lmpacts

I
Suspended
Matte.(SPM)
Paniculale

Sultur oxides
Aggravates lung illness, corod€s meials, cats€s gime on belongings and buildines,
obscurcs vision
Conodes metais, causes a.ute and chronic leafirjury, attack a wide \"!iety oftrE6,
I
NitrogEn

C2rbor
oxides
monoxide
irriktes opper Espiralory tracl desroys pain piSmenrs
Irritate eyes and nose. creales b.olr haze, causes visible le3f damage, stunts planr
growth, corodss mefals
Causes headaches, diziness, and nause4 reduces oxygen Ievel in blood, impairs
I
Hydrocarbons
meni.al pro.esses
Cases cancer retards pl&t gro*,th
I
I
Table 7.6: Important Water Contaminanls and Theirlmpacts

tnpacts and Reasonslot concem

Suspended
I
Can lead to lhe developme ofsludge deposits ard anaErobic conditions wheo untreat€d
Solids wastewarer is discharsed h the aquatic eNiromenl
Biodegradable Genemlly me"sured as BOD and COD. Ifdischarged untreared lo rhe environment, then

r
organics biological stabilizarion ca! lead to rhe depletion ofnatural oxygen resourc€s and to the
development of sepric conditions.
Pathogens
' Dise?se vectois. Communicable d;seas6 can be trdnsmitted by the palhogenic oBanisms
in waier.
Nuti€nts
I
Both niaogen and phosphorus alongwith carnon, arc essential nuuienls for go\1,th. When
discharged lo aquatic enviroflmen! drese nunients can leld to th€ Ero,xth ofundesinble
aqualic ]ife. When dischag€d in exoessive amounts on land, they can aho lead to rhe
pollution of goundw"rer
Priodly
Pollutanls
Hea\y metals
Orgaic and ioo.ganic compounds selected on the basis of their krotan or suspected
cffcinog€nicity, mutagericily, alutE toxicit etc. Many ofihese compounds are found in
waste$ ater or leachate fiom landfills.
Heary me6ls are common in lardfillleachate and wastewder liom indusnial a.livities.
I
EIA METHODOLOGY
These may need to be removed ifde water has to b€ reused.

I
An EIA study is specific to a particular project at a particular site. The entire area
circumadjacent lo the p.oposed project should be taken into account. Usually an area
of l0 km radius all around the proposed site is considered to be the infuence zone fot
most major projects.
t
It is often difficult !o decide if a projecl is 'good' or 'bad' in the absolute sense.
Planners find it easier to lyeigh the relative merit if severai alternatives are availabie. It
is lherefore mandatory that all EIA sludies should analyze several alternatives rising
1
the same criteria.
The various alternatives or choices ma! be selected on the basis of one oi more of
the foliowing consideralions:
1
.
.
.
different siles e.g. for developing solid wastes landfill
different processes or technology e.g. a gas based or a coal based power plant
different types e,g, a surface or a underground urban transpon sysiem
a
1
I
I
 Envi@nmental lmpactAss'ssment 163

. :ii_itrent phases or size ofthe proiect

:. .:.:roieci alternative should always be included in EIA study. Usually three or four
I ::-:::i\ es are sufficient.
Table 7.7: A Decibel Scal€ and its Effects

Elfects

! 180_ Rockei Engine

' I70--
injury
i50- J€i Plane Paintul
140-
damage

Thunder clap Vigorous

lt 0- Rivele. Darger zone;

iet flrins oYer at 300 m progressive
100- loss of hearing
Moiorcycle, E m aryaj
Food blender
Diesel huck 80 km&,

80- Damage starts

70- Very Loud after long
Ordinary conversation comPlaints
60- Air conditioning unit,
Moderately No significant Occasional
Light tafiic noise, Loud impacts
30 m away
50
,10-
Librd Qid
30-
20- tsroadcasting studio very qujer
l0- Rustling leaf
I hrcshord ol hearing Barely audible

r
-iJr.:ei Turk er al (1978).

.{n ElA study isalways a multidisciplinar.v teamwork. Experts inthe areas ofair, water land
:il lurion as well as in socio-economic f eld should constituie a balanced team. Much responsibility
::srs on theleam Ieader who coordinates the efforts, meets the deadlines and is responsible

I :_.r a variely ofrelated activities e.g. documentation, presentation, public hearings.

I
I
 I
T

164 AlexfDook ol SclidWastes Managenent

I
an imDofiant first step in an EIA study is to define its 'coPe andtonolethe
t.;;,;;ih*i;;;";;;i.,ttvnnati,eainconsulrarionsithrhe5ponsorinsaurhorit) ma'v
ti"at if tie aara colt'ction and analvsis so warants' the
key constl_aints'

scoPing
Drr'ns
be
I
accordingly "ri*
'"#5."i*t
-'e"
houe\
amended.
ii?.ira:, is usually carried out over a period- of one y-ear' In exceplional cases
er a RaDid EIA ma) be submined on the basis oflhree
or lour monlh s sluoy'
I
";;;-;;;i; ir'
;r,""J.5 i".",r.t
n.r't,oaoloel $ill depend upon the nat,re ofihe projecl and
ri; -H"*et.,
th!-uatic elements of merhodolog) and rhe objecri\e o'
;;;;"t; ,h. same. The methoaiology for conducting an EIA study consists of four
I
distinct stePs e.g:
l Baseline Sludies
2. Pred iclion of ImPacls
I
3. Evaluationof ImPacts
4. Environmeotal Management Plan I
Each ofthese activities is discussed below'

Step l-Baseline Studies

For objective evaluation of the ptoject, the first step is to make
an inveiltory of the
!
.*L,in'" in lhe influence zone The existing environment is defined in
r".ri """;,on..n, paramelers These should cover all aspects of waler' land' noise'
"'rir,.,"r.t.*
iur"rao"t *"""a, muflicipal solid wastes, and air polluiion wiihin the influence zone
inleresl (e'8' lrallic'
"i,i" rr"i*,. Parolrret.r.'defining ecolog] aeslheLics and humanA comprehensite lis- ot
.".i"-J|"it".r., cullural and he,iruge' ute also con"idered'
a"fr"i"g rhe ervironment 's'thus Prepared lt ma) be noted thal all lhe
"^r"..i.tt
;;;;;;i.,; r") noibe equattl imporrant for a project Nor is there a'universal'li'r
covering all Projects.
the
tfre imooriance of each parameter will dePend upon the location and nature of
ei instance impaci on marine life wiil be important for a project near a coast
"-1"-cr- , desert Similarly projeci in hills may have
[ri^"i i*p.""", f"t project planned in a
project ptoposed in the
different perceptions oi u pu.,*"t"t as compared to a similar
t
Dlains.
the imPortance ofvarious paramelers selected
1'h_" type oftire pro;ect also determines
to a"nn'.'tt For instance, air pollution is more important in-the case of
"nrlionrent
in"ir"iutors"t,,t tot u landfill site selection the groundwaler pollution is of paramount
-- _b"""
fiu of parameters is finalized to define the existiflg envitonment the next
"
important decision in Slep I is lo assign su;table veightage to lhe
selected parameters'
unit Usually a total of 1000
wJightage is also term ed as parameler importance <PltJ)'
existing environrnent'
Doin:ts is'distributed to all lhe parameters selected to define the
iiir ai.,riUr,io" ofPllJ to the various parameters is a subjective Process and it is not
theirPerctption
s,rrfrising tirat one team ofexperts ma) sharPly differ from another,in
Techniques ha!e lherefore been develope! to
of irpori.n." of various parameters'
Delphi
r"r. * possibie in an objective manner' one suih technique is *re
"r.ie;Piu
technique.
".
 Enironrnental lnpact Assessnent 165

Delphi is a group techniq ue that organizes and utilizes experts' opinion forevaluation of
.ompiex problems. It is a slructured communication system which involves two or three
iounds ofexpert estimates. Anonymous feedback is provided to all the experts after each
romd by the team leader This method enabies each participant to make independent estimates
and then revisethem with suppiemental information provided by olher Delphi Panel members.
Ihe experts then use the information frorn previous rounds to make subsequent better estimates.
Tire final round produces a consensus ofopinion on the particular Parameters at hand The
q eightage is assigned quantitalively in terms ofPIU's. This technique was evolved by Rand
Corporalion in the 50s to obBinthe most rel iable coisensus ofopinion of a grouP of experts.
A typical distributio. of PIU to all the parameters is give! in Fig. 7.1. This is for a US
\\ ater Works Project. It may be noted that assi8nment ofsuch weightages may di{Ier ifthe
,roject or its Iocation changes.
The next stage in this slep is to collect baseline information on each and every
rarameter defining ihe environment. It may be collected from both lhe primary and
secondary sources. Secondary sources include records ofmunicipal offices, meteorological
department, census bureau, pollution control authorities, remole sensing agencies,
inrernet etc. Prima.y oatd is required for verificalion ofexisting records as well as to
generate original data which are not available. Appropriate equipment and lechniques
are used to collec! such information for the respeclive parameters. For example, air
rolume samp)ers may be required for collecdng data for SPM, bore holes may be
necessary for geotechnical and groundwater informalion, a socio"economic survey
:nay be necessary for data on human interest paramelers. Tabie 7.8 presenls some of
ihe rechniques available for monitoring air pollutants. These techniques are commonly
used in an EIA study. Differen! equipments arc.equired for other parameters e.g. water
quality, noise, land pollutiolr. Many ofthese equipnents have been listed in Chapter 3.
Collection of samples and resting in the iaboratory should be carried out as per the
srandards and guidelines laid down by regulating agencies e.g. CPCB, BlS. Similarly
field tests, monitoring and related work should be underlaken and documented as per
rhe relevant and plescribed slandards.
'lable -.8: Air Qualjty Molirorins Techniques

Monitoting Technique

Sulfi' dioxide Hyd.ogenp€roxideacidimelricandcolorimetric;Oas phase

r"iEogen dioxide
volaile Organic Compounds (vOC)
fluorescence; Diffe.ential optical absorption sp€ctroscopy
(DOAS)j Flame photomebf, Diffilsion tube
DiffiIsion tubel DoAS
lnBa-rcd absorptioni Ele.lroma€netic cell
High volume samplers; Smoke shade teflectance; Beta gzuge
Ultraviolel phorometry; Chemilunnescencq DOAS
Total hydro€arbo nor-methane hyd.ocarbon analyzer; Gas

Pobcyclic aromatichydrocarlons(PAH) High pa{onnarce Iiquid chromarogrphy

Toncoreanicmicropoll ants Polynahane filEr
Vetals in air Atomic absoAtion spedomery (AAS)
16 ATexhook of Solid Wasbs Management

!
1: - e!
ES

!ri? E:
.E
E:_:_s;
E

E
;"
E=
iE, Ei .9EE t
ng ::t
3
ei
a: c: 6 3,t ig
E:E{.;E
ts!. *€i tti.i . t9
;PS
EEEEs d
?66
i 6
9

,9

st
i5'
'6
'd
a
E 6-!8i3. t i
E!ee
86.!Hiiicr: _t!Ei!i:; .s,
,9 ;iii
: 66:666aAaa 66?6
:.e
t
i
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e
P6
ul
i i i '*:
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6 :E- F!;:f ;3;
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i!EE:;E 5i3;g 3i!Et.'fi
 Enitonmenlal lmpacl Assessment'167

Step tl-Prediction of lmpacts

Prediclion.consists in
Prediction of impacls is the next imporlani step in an EIA study
tf," liLi,fy qualitatively and quantitatively in lhe value ofeach Param€ter
""ti*uting "nunges,
defin ins th1 enr ironment Each ahemati\ e is to be anallzed separalely using the same melhooolog,'
i1*" i. i*..i.err,"aologies a\ailabteforpredictingthe likely imPacts Ttesearebriefl\
described as folloss:

Studies: Past experience from similar projecls give a good idea of

'''i r Csse
r PrototyPe
th. fif"fu iro""o ofrft proposed project such a database should ofcourse be interpreted
ii,uriiiinio tignificant differences, if any, in the climatological and other
"..orn,
localcondit;ofls.
the
{,i, Checklists: These are simpie queslioonaires and ale useful for summarizing
;acts due to various oarimetirs Exhaustive checklists a'e available for various
e g WHO' USAID' world Bank These
Spes ofptojects as prepired by many agencies
proPosed proFcl'
clrect<tisisIna1 be modified so as to adapl for appl] ing to the
(i,i) Trend Ansly;is: Trend a.:lalysis and extraPolalion are some ofthe other techniques
used for forecasting the impacls.
f i, f f"f"ttt"ra"ti"af ftfoa€-ling: Th; mathematical
models attempt !o quantilatively describe
''''il"l"ut"ana.ft".treLirionshipsbetweenthevalioussystemvariables lt predicts
ior, t";tf ."""r to an extimal influence Air, water, and noise pollution models
have "."tte*
bJen developea some ofwhich are usefui forgeneralized applicalions'
ofwater and air
Physical models are used for many predictions including transportatioa
condilions where other folms ofmodels arc unreliable Historical
ooll,ti"nt, in
"ompl"^ available and other
Li"."i"ii" u" r'..a r"r predicljon where considerable information is
exPosure to chemicals soil pollurinn'
'p."Ji"ti* titf.^.itf. eig. prediction ofoccupalional
,J"aI*.
rsei ior various environmental Parameters are Siven in Table 7'9'
t""f,niqr"t
Trbl€ 7.9: Prediction Techniques for Various Enlironmental Impacrs

Tvw
Efre.ts ot1 Ai, Qtolity EKPetimenlal melhods I \ ind runnel warer channels)'
rong mrge Eansporl
Oualitr lmpacb liadrerna;cat moaels uimptc boL Galssran pluire. K-theory
lons rerm prcdidion r: emPEcat models
n,ir,e, O*, t*as Valhemarical models ( limple dilurion models e g for 'orl
ani water, pathway models for human exposure & dose €ffect' and iDventory

\aorrtic tnp.* t-rymia.dEtmodelsftydEulic models ': mdErnaical models

'iarer (ilacel experimenls' hvdraulic
Qualilr Impacls: Exp.xtmental m€thods
model;); Mathematical models (for rivers, estuaries, coasol trateB' Iakes etc)i
limDle mirinC mod€ls, dissolt€d oxvsen models: disp€rxon model5'
U,it", Oa", tn"." Experime{al models I e.g bioassa) r Malhema'ical models
population. productvit! and nulri€nls q c ling models I su eyand inlentory
Le.-g.

soil and Grourdwaler Htaruutic lnpacts E\penmenlal melhods (field lesrs): Malhemarical
knpacts models (dispe6ion models etc.)
 I
I
1@ A Texbook of Sclicl Was@s Managamont I
Table 7 .9 lcantd. fron p. 167)
G rol dt
a t e t Qual i ty : Experirnen6l methods (in-situ farar experiments)i
Math€matical steady stde and cofipiex dispersior models
I
Efects on Soils: Mathemari.:l models (mi ngmodets, steady state models);

Mathemalical
'llodels
(€.9. for popularioq produciivity, nujrienrs cycling models);
I
evaluation t€.hniques; and inventori€s.
Experimental models (still and moving 2-D models, 3-D modets); Mabemarical
models: ehpirical models; Survey techniques (evaluation methods. visibiliw
techniques. intmror) rechniqu6)
I
A.tivitvr Mobile sources (roads, railways, airports); Srationary sources
(industries er..)
Acoustc Inp@x: Eryin]€itulrnelhods (phlsicat modetsl MdleJnaticrl modets
(qadv sree arnbientnoise models)
I
Hisher Oder Efects: Mathematical models (ehpiricat annoyance modets)!

Ac.idental lrnpacts Hazard and op€rabili, (HAZOP) studics; Event and fault tr€e analysisj
I
Cons€quence nodeling
Sr/rc.r Environmental Resourc€s ( 1982).

Thechoice ofprediction methods depends upon the time, monev. information available and
I
the importance ofparameter in a particulai EIA. Prcdiction ofihpacG helps in carrying out the
evaluation of impacts and in devising and implementing the EnviroDmental Managemenr plan.

Step lll-Evaluation ol lmpacts

I
Evaluation is the assessment of impacts on various parameters defining the existing environftent,
on a common scale, due to changes in the environmental parameters olt impiementation of
project. Several!echniques are ar/ailable forthis purpose. Two are described below.
I
l. Simple Matrix: A simple matrix is assembled by displaying various components ofa
project (e.g. activities) along one axis ard the prcdicted impact on environmental pararneiers
on the other axis. A matrix provides a convenient method forestimatiogthe impact due
I
to each activityas \rell as to estimate the cumulative effect onthe parameter due to a
number ofactivities. A well k.own matrix method is the use ofLeopold Matrix. It
displays about i00 acljvities aiong one axis and 88 environmental pa.ameters against
I
the other axis. Each activity and its potentiai for impact is noled where interaction is
anticipared its magnitude (if) and imporrance (4 are also indicared (Fig. 7.2).
I

E6

Fig. 7.2: Leopold l,ialrix

Leopold matrix enables a quantitative estimate of impact ofall parameters, both
singly and cumulative. Decision making is easier, especiall! in cases \rhere crireria

I
 EnvionmenlallmpaclAssessnenl 169

are highly subjective e.g. in deciding whichis more imponanl-bette. airquality or

socio;conomic uplift. Byassigning suitable M and I rating to each parameter impact,
it is easier to estimate tmde-offs before selecting aparticular alternative'
: . Battelle Environmentrl Evaluatron System (BEES): In this system, the environrnental
quality (,E g) scale is obtaifled for each ofth€ identified parameters, through the use
ofconesponding funcfional reladonship (cailed value function curve) Avalue function
graph is a piot ofthe values ofPalamete$ on X_axis and,9 on Y-axis' scale is
j
iased on vatue of 1.0 for good r0 and O 0 for poor r.9.lt may by '9
noted that the
environmental qualiry decreases/incrcases rapidly ifthe pammeter reaches ihe acceptable
iimit prescribed for it. Typical value function graphs for some oflhe selected pammeters
are given in Eig.7.3 ra)-(d)

Hi9h High

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 O O.O5 O.jo 0.j5 0.20 0.25

AEBse an.ual @rcsfiaton, ppm

2c-Hour annual adlhm6ijc 6ean, PPm
(6.) NO,
(a) So,

HiEh

65 7 3.5

odor Slighl Mod€Gte

(4 pH
(c) Odor

Fig. 7.3: Typical Value FLrnclion G€phs

A numerical index is obtained defining the environmental quality for parameter'

The BEES defines the environment through 78 parameters in four categories'
The relaiive'weightage'to each Parameters is assigned by dislributing 1000
Units-called PiU's (i.e. Parameter lmportance Units) among ali these parameters,
as mentioned in the earlier section on Baseline Studies.
 I
I
1m ATexbook ol Solidwastes Management
I
Evaluation ofthe environmental impacts usingBEES, is ca.ried outin terms ofaI1
index known as Environmental ImpactUnit (EIU). For each ofthe altematives, thc I
I
EIUs are obtained using the following relationshipr
(EIU)j=(EQ)ij.(Pru)i
(EILl, = Environmentai impact units forjth altemative,
(rq)t = Environmental quality scale for ith factor andjth altemative, and
(P,ftri = Parameter importance units for ith facto..
For the baseline value of each of the parameters (before project
I
I
phase), E0
and hence E1U is obtained. The impact or change in the value ofeach parameter
_ due to ihe proposed project is then estimaied. Forthis anticipated value ofparameters
(post-project phase), again the EO and hence 61U is obtained. The nume.ical
differeDce of E1U is summed l]p for al1 the parameters! separately for each
alternative.
Environmenlal quality is evaluated for various alternatives including the No-
r
project scenario. Such an analysis ptovides an objective technique to decision
makers in identifying the best possible option.

Step lV-Environmental Managoment Plan

I
Parameters predicted to have negative impacts on the environmental quality, are of
critical concern in an EIA study. These paiameters require a systernatic and scientific
management plan to mitigate such impacts. An environmental rnanagernent plan (EMp)
I
is therefore an integral part ofElA and should be designed so that the negative impacts
are minimjzed. The EMP is prepared for both lhe phases of the project e.g. for the
construction phase and the operation phase.
I
Du.ing site preparation and construction phase, substaniial quantities of soil and
debris are moved. Heavy construction equipments and machinery also operate on site.
A large Iabour force is .nobilized for the project. These activities result in the generation
I
of various environmental problems, which should be properly taken care of. posr-
construction or operalional phase EMP should address various pollution sources or
causes ofenvironmefltal degadation. For instance, in case ofa landfill EMp willnecessarilv
I
include:
(i) management of leachate for protection ofgoundwater and
(ii) control of landfill gases io minimize fire and health hazards.
I
(iii) long term monitoring ofair, water and land environment.
NEW TRENDS IN E'A I
The EIA techniques are continuously evolving altover the world. As experience and
case studies are garhering the techniques are being refined. Ne\r.developments such
as use if Information Technology (lT) are useful in documentarion. standardization of
report formal, and development ofdatabases. The legal requirements are often changing
r
from countr), to countr) and many environmenial problems are global in their imp;c$
e.g. Blobal qarming ac:a rains. oil spills. I
r
,T is now universally recognized as a valuable tool for high speed computing, instant
communication, database accessand problem solving sarategjes. Datacolleclion and processing

I
I
 Eni/ironmental lnpact Assessment 171

is a time consumingjob especially as in many cases, a number olaltelnatives need to be

the
examined. Moreov;r, decisions have to be made withinthe legal framev/ork and under
umbrella of slandard guidelines laid down by various regulatory agencies e g CPCB, MoEF'
The standard limits, the qualily assurance and the Prescribed forrrats are often upgraded
from time to time. The IT provides a ready means for accessing such information (e g'
through interret) to ensure compliance withthe legal requirements
lnt-ernet is now being frequently used for information gathering and sharing Suitable
shaped links allow cross refereDces and act as a roadmap for tbe user' A large number
of sites are dedicated to housing key eDvironment documenis, rePorts and news and
views. Since information on the intemet varies enormously in bot}l quality and quantity,
use$ need to check the sources carefully and to ensure the curency of the material
accessed.
In many cases public particiPation, conflict resolutions and coBsultations are required
in EIA studies, environmental audits and risk assessments. IT plays an important and
valuable .ole in all such cases.
Remote sensing anal Geographic lnformation System (GIS) is now extensively utilized
to transfer alaia a;d to make comparative analysis oflarge scale environmental changes
g
e.g. deforestation. Muhitemporal data can be used to improve image classification e
la;d characteristics by combining data types i[corporating ancillary and spatial data
and by incorporating seasonal varialions and other changes. The volume ofdigital data
becoming av;ilable is enormous and skill is required in storing , analyzing and handling
lhis data. GIS is now routinely used to disPlay and aDalyze the information through
!arious methodologies e.g. overlay analysis, models of animated output CIS store
spatial and lemporal dala which can be a;cessed, analyzed al}d communicated for
environmental management,
Linking muitimedia to GIS including the use of interactive digital video and sound,
combined-with graphic files and zoning map are some ofthe latest innovations in IT' It
presents opport;nities to compare and analyze complex patterns and to better evaluate
altematives,
video simulation process can be utilized for EIA studies. Participants may actuaily
see hovr their comments and suggestions can influence the environment ofan area
due
to a project by simulation e.g. the increase in fish poPulation due to increase in Do in
a river ihrough cleaning or pretreatment of watei. Computer models can simulate the
behavior of system as changes occur in the enYiroDmenl. Online monitoring ofenvironmental
qualjty including air, water and land is now loutinely caried out through IT tools'
' Exie.t and knowledge based systems enable decision rnake. to arrive at oPtimal
solution in acomplex situation, For example an environmental assessment knowledgebase
would coniain expert judgment as to what conclusions night be drawn from a given
set of facts about various project activities and the environment.
The internet and computerized databases supply such information speedily and uptodate'
Use of the latest IT techniques is very convenient in monitoring, foliow uP of action
and public participalion. Risk analysis and hazardous waste management is another
area \rhich is fast developing in EIA lechniques. EIA studies frequently form an essential
elemenl in many economic analysis (banking, loans etc.), design strategies, cosl benefit
analysis etc.
 T

I
'172 A Tenbook at' Solid wastes Management
I
EIA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
The systematic application ofenviionmental imPact assessment procedure to waste managemen:
I
sratesies and projectsis an impodant asPecr of wlrste managemenl Various waste managemen:
optio;s and site; aviilable for such slslems are identified- For each ofthese alternatives
p;tential impacts such as traffic, noise and aesthetic are to be evaluaied The type of $ asl'
I
handied at the facility will also influence the extent ofimpacts-
Site criteria ofa waste management facillty includes !echnical, economic socio_
poiitical and environmental considerations. Technical criteria for wast€ managemenl I
process are generally Process specific and address issues such as land requirements'
sile access, Proximity to lransportation networks, access to power' \Yater' se\rerage
etc- Economic, socio-political and environmental criteria are usuallv geoeric ann I
appiy equally to most lypes of waste facilities, although the relative imporlance of
environmental criteria can vary, depending upon the type ofwasle handled and trearmenl
or disposal process under consideration For inslance' locaL meteorological condiiions
are oi greaier importance in the siting of Power plaots. In case of landfiils a secure
hydrogeological setting is ofparamount importance. Olher environmental criteria
include avoiding ofsensitive ecosystems, protection of natural res ources, surrounding
populations
- eI(.
impa"ts from awasre facililv oPerations are (i) impacts associated wiih landuse Plannjng
and ail developments (ecolog), noise. traffic, aesthetics etc.); and (ii) impacts sPeci{ic
1o

thetype ofrvasie treatmenl process uoder consideration -4ll factors relatedto environmental
qualit), public health and socio-economic issues aretaken inlo account The pub lic concern
ii u"ut" ou", poteniial delerioration in enviror[nenlal quaiily caused bythe release
"rp""iully
.ofchemicals to air. water and land.
The medium into which the process discharges are released is impo antforoverall
assessment. In ihe case oflandfills, the land and groundwater parameters are ofprime
importance. Similarly for industries or chemical treatment plants air and surface water
are of critical importance,
The polenlially affected area can extend well beyond the immediate vjcinit) ofthe sile
processes
depending upon meteorological conditions. Forexample, emissions ftomthermal
can be deposited over an area extending upto 5 km beyond the site' Similarly, the leachate
plume of a landfill can extend to a considerable distance down the site.
The time scale over which the baseline assessment ofvarious parameters is conducted'
vades widely. For instance, in Eroundwater assessmert, spo! samples coliected from slmtegic;liy
located boreholes are generaliy sufficient But in the case ofair quality, the survey 'nav
extend for 6 to l2 monihs.
The prediction and evaluation of impacts Potentially associaied with a waste mana8ement
operation must draw upon a vride range oftechniques Qualitative methods may suffice for
quaniified
sorne parameters ..g. landscape, aesthetics For most parameters ho*ever, impacts are
and evaluated against numerical criteria (noise' air, and water qualit)', health risks) For
various types ofhazardous wastes and waste management processes i! is also necessary 1o

consirlerthe environmental consequences ofaccidental releases The impacts which an individual

facility is likely to have on the surrounding environhent and the cumulative impact ofthe
facility with other exisling or planned facilities are evaluated in an EiA stud)'
 Enironnentai lmpactAssessment 173

The most effective environment managementplan (EMP) or the mitigation measures

:a- a \1'aste managemenl facility are preventive i.e. a combination ofappropriate abatement
:id cortrol systems in the design offacility. Landfills should be carefully sited arld
suitable liners are provided to ensure protection ofgroundwater. The operation ofa
:zndfi1i is in effect a continuum oi mitigatioo measures, with covering of waste by a
soil cover on daily basis. Gas control should also b€ part ofmitigation plan, which
:revents the migration ofmethane to the nearby areas and thus minimizes the risk of
f:re hazards.
EIA is conducted on the assumpdo, thal necEssary mitigation measures will be incorporated
inro the desigr, operation and maintenance ofwaste disposal facility. Regular monitoring
ensures that EMP is efficiently implemented. Monitoring oftechniques depend upon the
operational methods adopted for disposal. For landfills. moniloring ofgroundwater and
ladoze zone is ofprime impofiance. For incinerators, srack monitoring for airpollution is
essential.

EIA OF A DEVELOPMENT PBOJECT: CASE STUDY

Delhi Development Authority (DDA) has planned to develop an Internatjonal Hotels
Complex (IHC) in South Delhi in 315 Ha ofprime land. The project envisages construcrion
of 12 luxury hotels, a few insritutions, a hospilal, a shopping mall, and recrealional and
residential facilities amidst vast expanse ofgreen. The project has been initiated by
DDA in response to acute shoftage oftourists/visitors accommodation in Delhi. The
author has carried outthe EIA study, forthis project. This is a briefsummary ofthe EIA
report. The complete EIA report ofthis study contains more than 300 pages plus several
appendices and annexures.
For defining the existing environment ofihe study area,35 pammeters have been carefully
idenlified. These parameters have been divided into four major groups viz. Ecolog/, Environnental
Polludon, Aeslhetics a,.1d Human Interest. Delphi tecbnique was usedto determine the weightage
to be assigned to each parameter (PIU). The sum total ofthe pIU,s distributed to all the
parameters under consideration is usuallv 1000. Higher the number, greater the relative
importance (Fig. ?.4).

Baseline lnlormation
Dala was collecled for all the 35 parameters from boih the primary and secondary soutces.
Env;ronmental sampling slations were selected according to environmental sensitivity
ofthe region (with the site as the central station) covering an area of l0 km around the
site.
A resistiviiy survey was conducted for the entire area upto a depth of2O m. The Lateral
Electrical Soundings (LES) of Wenner's Eiectrode Method of Space Configuration was
used to determine laleral extension ofthe geolog;cal formations. The Schlumburger method
was used for groundwater resource assessmeut and water zoning ofarea,
Various base maps ofthe study area were prepared and updated using available remote
sensirg data and salellite imase.ies. Various maps e.g. hydrogeomorphology, vegetation
density, drainage, landuse,/landcover, setrlements, lineament/lineament density, surface
water bodies and topography have been prepared for the siudy area.
174 A Textbook ol Sotd Wastes Management

Paameter Lmpo(ance Units (PlU) Total= 1000

ENVIHONMEIITAL AESTHETICS(70)

Topography (20)
BOD (50)
DO (15) Sanilalion 120)
Brodiversity (60)
pll (15) Odour (10) Energy (25)
ruS (10) Employmenl (3s)
saliniiy 00)

SPM (s0) hearih (r o)

co (50)
HC (50)
(30) Culiu.al
so" 120) herltage (1s)

Eosion (1s)

Fis. 7.4: Parameler lmporiance Units

Prediction ol lmPacls
Prediction of impac! is an important step in an EIA study. It helps in canying out the
evaluation of impacts and in Preparing the Environmental Management Plan. There are
many mathematical modeis and methodologies available to predict the impacts The
mathematical models attempllo quanthatively describe the cause and effecl .elationships
between sources ofpollution and different elements ofthe environment, e-g. air, water,
noise. land and socio-economic aspects.
In the present study, the prediction of traffic volumes has been carried oul by
extrapolation. The predicted traffic voiume data has been used to predict the impacts
on air quality and noise level. Prediction of impacts on the water quantity & quality,
solid wasles, community health, energy, habitat and communities and on various other
parameters have been carried out on the basis of Population Projections due to the
project.

Evaluation ot lmPacls
For the evalualion of the environmeltal quaiity value function graPhs for selected
paramelers pertaining to the environmental impact have been developed adopting the
 Environmental lnpactAssessment 175

Battelle Eflvironmental Evaluation System (BEES). The environmental qualily (EQ) scaie
Bas obtained for each ofthe identilied factors, through the use ofcorresponding functional
..larionship. Value function graphs were deveioPed for each ofthe 35 pammeters'
Evaluation of the environmental impacts !s:ng BEES, is 'a'i€d orli i! terms of an
index known as Environmental IniPact Unit (EIU) For each of the alttinadles' i:l€
EIUs are obtain.d usiAg the following reiationship as explained earlier:
(EILrj = (EQ)ii.(PIU)i
The resultsofthe evaluation ofimpacts onEcology' Environmental Pollution, Aesthetics,
Human lnter€sts, and overall impact evaluation are described below'

Ecotogy
Bio-diversity: The preseni vegetation is sparse and stunted. Since the area is going to
be occupied ty hotels of international standards, the area will be en.iched by extensive
plantarion ani vegetation. A large area will be develoPed as green area Therefore-, the
total impact on p:lantation/vegetation due to implementation of the project shall be
positive. The animai and bird poPulation wilt be disturbed during the constructioo
phase, but after the comPletion of project there will lie more plantation and green area
l,ailaile at this site. overall, the imPact on biodiversity will be positive due to this
p.ojec1.
Groundwater: Croundwater resources are meager, The project wilt increase the local
population with a heavy demand on water This will further deplete these resources
ihe impacr on Ep due to thls parameter will be significant and negative
Lenduse Comprtibility: The Proposed ploject will not result in any eflvironmental
project
conflict from the landuse point of view- Further, as much as 44 percent ofthe
area is kept in reserve for recreational oPen spaces. These will be developed as g'een
reserves, parks and a golf course.
The project of this;agnitude js bound to gererate direct employment as-well as
indieci jo; opportunitieJe.g. services for vadous supplies' transportation & travel
and
services, tourism information and guides, photography, recleation, entertainment
a host of other seavices,

Env i ro n m e ntaI P o ll uti on

Water: The groundwater table is very deep and there is little possibility of it being
contaminated; The effluent from hotels will be treated before it is utilized for
plantation
and horticulture. The overall impact on environmental quality (BOD, DO' pH, TDS,
and Salinity) will be insignificant. However the salinity ofgroundwater is already high'
Air: The only source ofpollution.ofair environment will be the motor vehicle exhaust'
It is anticipaied that the CO, HC, NO, and SO" Ievels will rise However, these are not
likelyro eiceed the permissibie limits for residential and commercial area'
Lanal Pollution & Erosion: Allthe effluents from the hotels and commercialestablishments
shall be treated before releasing it on land. Portiofl ofthe waste water will be disposed
into municipal sewer lines No waste water or hazardous waste will be applied directly
on Iana. Therefore. there will be no adverse impact oI1 land environmeni The soil
 I
I
176 ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managernent
T
erosion will be reduced due to plantatiotr arld paving
quality l\'iil improve.
ofthe roads. Hetrce, the envto seDral
I
Solial Wastes: Ah.ri ro
roffLol[ solidlasJqs is likely to be geflerated everyday from
ihis hd€r oornplex. The paper, plastic, glass, inetat! etc. shall be separately collected
anal sold off ao the cont.actols. The wet garbage fto; the khcda and leftovers ftom T
the restaumnt shall be collected separately, stored in a cold rooE and uitimarebsoid to
the contractor for coDPostiBg.
' Noise: The noise levels iD the area will rise at road iictersections. The aircraft ooise is
I
ofvery higl itrtensity but for shor! duration. Noise car be tak€D iDto accouDt at plalning
aDd design stages ofthe various buildings.

Aesthetics
Aesthetics of the area 'will be greatly eDhanced due to this ptoject. At presetrt it is a
barren wasteland where it is scary to go iD the tright. The poachels are usitrg the site
for fuel wood. Clandestitre stone miEiDg has disfigured the t.rPography. The alea is
also us€d for dumping solid wastes creating odour and sanitation problems. Presetrtly
it is a heakh and security risk. The overall impact of the hotei project oB aesthetics
will be positive.
Human lntetest
Population: The.e will be a margiDal increase in the residertial population due to this
p.oject. The hotel guests will constitute a tramitory populatiotr. The eEployees need
not Decessarily live at the site itself.
Traftic and Tratrsport: Proper managemenl of trallic, adequate Provision ofparking
space atrd providing grade separators at busy iDtersections can loitigale the impacl or
traffic arld traDsport due to this ptoject. The overall impact oD enviroDmental quality
due to traffic \r'ill be Degative.
Energy: Energy requirements are predicted to be ofthe order of 20 to 40 MW Suitable
measures are needed to augment this projected requircment.
EmploymeDt, Ecotromy and Education: The idpact of this Project oo EQ, due to
empioymerlt, economy and education will be significaDtly high and positive. Is fact
there will be multiple aDd ripple effect extendhg over a wide area arouEd the site
Eistorical and Archaeological Sit€s, Cultural Eeritage and Sociel InieractioDs:
Ttis project will greatly boost the environmeDtal quality due to greater appreciation of
India's historical, archaeological atrd cultural heritage. This will also provide greatel
opponunities for pleasaDt socjal interactions and leisure activities. The Det effect oD
environmental qualities due to all these thre€ factots will be positive.

Environmental EvalLration: Overall

The results ofenvirotrmental evaluatioD are suEmarized iD Table 7 10. Thiq tatrle reveals
that for the 'No Prcject' case the Ecology ofthe aroa has already degraded ftom Good
(EIU = 180) to almost 50% ofGood (EIU = 89). The 'No Project' option is lherefore
ruied out.
 Envircnfienlal lmpacl Assesszrenl 1Tf

TheEQduetoAeslbeticsaDdHumaDlBrelestwitbiEPlementalionoflheplojtct
qualrty wrll lunner
n"rJi.lJ i.rna to ;.prove due ro this projecl The environmenlal
various positive aspecls ofihe
*".'"* *itr' trr. i-rrimentatioo of IMP ihis is 'lue to Ecoromv rhe etrvironmeDtar
ff:T;;. il*#;;,;;;i;;, EmProvtue.t' ao'r
:^;i;;;"-;,. qorsen bur caD be coDtrolled with suitable deasures
on the edvirotrmetrtal qualitv is positive'
";;::"';"t1;;;;"i-* "tt.,p"'"-t"rs iDPacr' e g' emplovment' econoEv'
s"#1i,1. i""r.i"r"re a sigDificadtly high Positive will become sigrificaDtl) Posilive
rl"ioii"n..."i r,;"r- rana uit erc sorne orler factorsplaq e g' solid rlasles Inarasemetrt'
L]fi;; #if,;;ntxi;o of "o'oi'oorn"otul t*agemeat
codmunity health etc.
T,ble ?'10: Envirof,lrental Evallration: Overali
8.8. eith E-8. vith Change in
E,Q-
E.8. \|ithott E.Q. with
Assigned PIU .EMP EMP
EMP
(En, (Eru) (EIr, (EII' (Ellr)
(Pru) C_A
B C
+26 +46
Ecology (I80, 89 115

326 +19
(500) 34',7 269 -38
Poliunon +u +24
63 63
(70) 39
211 +19 +E7
Huma! interesr (2s0) t73
'135 +t76
Total o000) 559

Environmental Managemeni Plan

lhe public are oE accouDt of two
Neealive impacls on EQ. of crilical coDcern 10
an Enr ironmental MaDageo:ent ?lan
;'":,ilil;.'g. *";;;i rraffrc' This necessirates Table 7' 11.
'1EiH;X ;,il;;fu; p,opo""a o"uitoo*"otul Matragement Plan is showr iD
Table 7.11: BriefourliDe ofE M P

l. Augmentatior of Water Resour'es (, Water Hawesting (Dilches, Lake).

(i,
2. Required upsrading of lr:ansPon
(, Grade separalors al cnlical junctiotrs'
(ii)
(,i,) No parkiag or roads.
(rr) SegregaEoo of slow t'a.6c.
(,) No oD-sEeet Bus PasseDger handlitrg'
3. DeveloPmeDt of GIeetr Areas and (4 Gtee! BeI! Plantatiotr.
(,0 Roadside Honiculture.
Noise Barriers
(ii, Noise Bar.iers.
4. Etrergy
(, Electric subslations.
(,,) Augmenralion of Power
(ri, \on-colveltional eoer$ souces. e'g solar eDelgv'
(,v) Etrergy conseft ation sYstems-
5. Solid Wasre Management
(, Coll€criou and DisPosal systems'
(i, Hazartlous {astes 10 be properly disposed'
6. Motritoring ard lmPiementarion
(, Establisbsenr of Ervironmental Manageme Cell
 I
I
174 A Textbook of Solb Wastes Management I
This case srudy presents a methodology ofELd iD actual practice. It also reveals the
necessity ofa proper management plaB for eDsurhg sustailable developmeDt. Th€ cost of
this management plan should tlerefore be included in the overall cost ofthe project.
I
EVALUATION OF LANDFILL SITES IN DELHI: CASE STUDY
PreseDtl, the aDount ofsolid wastes produced in Dethi is 5300 ioDs. This cor$ists ofwasks
ftoD residential, commercial and industrial areas. Disposal in sanitar-y la[dfiIls is commody
I
practiced without any atiempt for material tecovery. Solid \raste is brougtrt to these sites
with the help oftrucks. Afrer tippitrg over the waste is leveled by bulldoze.s. I urther compaction
is achieved by trucks plyiDg over the progessively extending surface. past attempts at conversiol
I
ard production ofeDergy haveDot beea successful. Incineration \yas also attempted a few
years back, but at present such platrts are notfurlctiodlg. CompostiDg is preselltly car.ied
out at one ofthe platts in SoulhDelhi.
I
Dueto non-processing there is large deoaod on landfordisposal in sanitary landfills. A
survey ofall the three current landfill sites (Table 7.12) ir Dehi v,as carried out to evaluate
their impact on environment. The phvsical and chemical composiiion ofsolid wastes id
I
these laod{ilis is presented i! Table 7.13 add 7.i4. Air qualit), monitored ar the landfill
sites is presetrted in Table 7.15. Groundq'ater analysis ofsamples collected ftom tle vicir:ity
oflandfill sites is preseDted in Table 7.16.
I
Tabl€ 7.12:Details ofSelecred Sanitarf Landfill Siies
I
(acres) (tonsiday) (KE)
s1
s2
70
32
1200-2000
1000-r800
r0-15
10-20
I
s3 40 1200-2000

Tabl.7.13: Physical A llsis ofMSW

10-15
I
Food 25.22
I
Card Board
Plastics
3.62
3.08
4.17
I
Tedile o.52
Rubb€r 1_83
0.37
21.85
I
Glars
Merals
t.72
o.49
0.,15
I
Othss4lel1 36.56
sp. wt. (rE) 0.504
32.16 I
I
I
I
 E irc nental lnpact Assessme l?g
Table 7.I4r CheEical Charact€ristics ofMSW at LaEdfill Sites

(by Dry Weight)

oryanic Carbor 14.82

Nin'oger 0.65
0.27
0.91
CA.] 22.80
lrw€r Calorift Value (Kcal4ag.) 528.5

T! blc 7.15: .AfibieEr A; Qualiry ai LaldEll S ires

SPM SO,
fue/-3) Gglnl (id.'3)
Site S1 1800-4000 0-60 5-36
Sile 32 450-1300 6-16 12-47
Sites3. 560-1140 6-2r 6-3E
Naticnal Ambient Ai. Qualiry Stmdrrds 200 80 80

Table 7.16: Grcund watei amlysis oi samplcs Dear s€lected lardfilt sites

Units EPA Linirs ,11 s2 SJ

Dislac! noE Site 20-50 20-50 20-50
PH 6.5-6.8 7.0-E.8 '1.2-8_0 6.5-7.5
D.O. Msl s (mix) 0-3.5 0-3.6 o-3.2
B.O.D. l'rgl }dI 9.0-22.0 5-9.5 3-4.6
ChlcEid:s I{e4 250 2t0-550 300400 400-650
sd&es MEt\ 200 200-300 150-170 150-250
Hddness (as CaCOr) MC, 300 450-780 350480
Al(alhiy
Tuiidity
wNTU
zoo
5
.350-450
5-14
300-360
5--l
300-430
210-260
6-8
TJ,S. rrgl 500 800-1250 650-850 500-620
Cc'du.tniiiy 2250 1100-2400 1100-1400 890-1200
The survey was coDducted ofthese landfill sites to collect the relevant informatiotr.
Evaluation 1{as bas6d upon ttre exaEinatiotr of techniques to Ji"r" a,
".ptoy"a
e[gineered landfill i.e. designed to protect the environo:egt aod promote aesthetics. A
comprehensiv€ checklist was prepared aDd each parameter was given a rating ofGood,
Fair, Poor, or Nil (c, I, B or N). A trume cai index has also bei worked orit for these
sites by assigni[g eDvironmetrtal impact utrit (EIID to each category, as follows:
Raat Synbol EIU Criteria
Good G lm Effective or latest teclEiques beilg used-proper monito.ing aual
control being €xeicised.
Fan F 50 Some &chniques being used bur monitoriag and control ineff€ctive.
Techdques neid to be geally illploved.
PooI P 25 T€.bdques are old or inad.quate, ro moniroring or corrol.
NINO Simply opetr dmpiDg wihout any regEd forthe eryircEmenr
1& ATextbook of Solicl wastes Maragenent

The above rating system has beetr further lefiDed by assigtriDg suitable weighiage
(otr a s cale O to 1 ) to each attribute accordiog to its iBportallce. For hsta[ce glouad$aer
protection is the most importal! parardeter aird is given a weightagc of 1; but compaction
aDal leveling is assighed a weightage of0.5. The assiglment ofr€lative weightages i.e
the parameter importance uni! (PIU) is one of the most controv€rsial decision in
environmental i Pact assessmeDt. No two experts agree on the level of iEporia!ce
(PIU) ofa pa icular attribute as il is highly subjective. Delphitechtrique and other
similar strategies are often employed to remove 'bias' iD assigning weightage. In the
presetrt stud), Delphitechnique has beetr employed for this purPose as it is most colcdonl)-
used in EIA studies.
Environmental Quality (EQ) has been detelmined by using the followilg relatioDshi! :

EQ=PIUXEru
Overall environmedtal quality at Iatrdfill site has been obtained by cuaulating the EQ
for each attribute-
Table 7- 17 preserts aE evaluation ofthe landfill sites based otr the survey and aacordi-trg
io the rating scale defined earlier. A total of 15 parameters have beetr examined and EQ
determined for each attribute as pel the EIU aDd weightage (Pru) assigled to it
Table 7.1?: Evaluatior of selected landfill sites iD Delhi

PIU Sne 52 Sir? 53

Rating EIU EQ Rating EIU EO Ratins EIU Eo

1. 0.E0 N00N00 P?SX

2_ Recycling 0.70 N00N00 N00
Shredding o-70 N N
compaction
& Leveling 0.50 F5025Glm50Ffi25
5- Soil Cov* 0.60 ri{30F5030F5030
6. 1.00 N00r5050P2525
7. Odor
CoEtrol 1.00 N x
Pollution 1.00 )5 25
9_ G. water
1.00 N00N00N00
10. Drainage 0.90 ? ?5 2.5 F 50 45 P 25 v..5
11. Cas
0.80 0

Control 0.65 25 16.25 32.5 t6.25

Bnds
Control 075 18.75 1m '75 E 18.75
1,{. RodeEts
Conrrol 0.60 N 0 0 P25 15 NO 0
15. Motritoring l.mN0 0 P25 u NO 0
112.5 39 _5 zu.5

I
 Envircnmental lmpact Assessment 181

only the Site 52 has a cumulative EQ of397.5 while the other two sites have EQ much'
less. An ideal sire witi uifondly good ratint should have aD EQ of i200.
Tte foilowing observatioN were made:
. Presently, Delhi is rapidly expaDdifg.-New sites have to be selected iD order to limit
ttre loads oD existi.Eg sites and to reduce haul distarces. The large discrepancy bet$€en
the load atrd caPacit! necessitates restarting some ofthe o1d sites.
. Effectiv€ measures treed to be takea to protect grould water. A Ilumber of optioDs
are available e.8. geomembraDes, clay liD€rs, barier walls. Grormdwatel flow pattem
should be carefully studied to adoptpiopet draiaage measules.
. Periodic monitoritrg should be done to check aetrace due to birds, animals, rodents
or flies. Bird oeflace has to be coEtrolled especially as some ofthe areas itr the
South have low altitude flyingclubs.
. The fianagedent ofthese sites is poor, The equipment is ofteo out oforder and in
Deed ofrepair Solid lv?ste disPosal requires ptoper maDagement *'ith adequate equipment
atrdtrahed staff.
. MaDagemeDr of landfill sites can be made much more efficient ifthe site staff is
given a short traiDing in the use otequipdelt, co1rtrol ofvarious opemtions atd
monitoring the €ffectiveness ofvarious m€asures Requirements ofaa engineered
landfill can be expl3ifled thrugh video films, lectures and site visits. T.ainiEg
modules can be developedfor each category ofstafseparately
. The aesthelics at all these siies need to be greatly i$proved UDauihorized rag pickers
fiequently make a mess ofa[ already poor dallaged durrp. TLe €g pickers aEd ot}er
unautborized persons ftequently eldaager &eir o*D health aDd become disease carriers.
lDvisible contracto$ who paytheD1 apittance for their labor usually exploit them'
These aspects Eeedto beProperly maDaged.
. Deep-rooted lrees should be Planted atrd tie sites can be developed as greerl aleas:
parks, sports gouods, parki.ngaleas, bus terminals, etc.
. ! iDally it may be emphasized that the cost estimate for implemetrting tlese measlues
is trot very hi8h but the likelybenefits are great andhave longterm value.

This study was carried out in 1993. Many implovem€Dt techniques siDce then have
beeD developed and iBplemeIrted.

ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT
EtrviroDEeotal Audit should be canied out for all industdes to ensure enviroDmental
protectioD. An Environmental Audit (EA) is a Periodic evaluation of how well the
syst€m is working. It should be systematic, objective and documented. An audit helps
in achieviDg the following objectives:
(i) Waste minimization;
(ii) Resource oPtimization;
(iir) Public awar€ness ofthe units eavironmetrtal records; and
(iv) Compliance \r ilh l€gal requiremetrl.
Earlier, EA was mandalory for indust es as per the BnviroDpedt (Protection) Rules,
1986 as norified on 19 November 1986. Later ihis provision was amended and the
rcnn '€nvironmental audit'was diluted by 'elviroDmental statemeDt'. The legal requilemeDt
1*. ATexlbook of Solidwastes Maragenent

l1ow is that the industrial utrits should fumishrhe requisite iBfomatioo for each financial
year in the prescribed foimat i.e. Iorm V (See Box 7.2) to the Poliution Control BoarC
before 30 September ofeach Year.

OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMEN1AL AUOIT

The audit may focus on some or all of the several aspects e.g. mat€rial utilizatioo'
\laste minimization. etrergy coDsewation: equiP ent or staff. The objective ofvarious
aspecl are as follows:
1. Matedals UtilizatioD
(i) To delermine the mass balatrce of raw mateiials.
(ir') To detertr]ine the water balance and wastewater output.
(iii) To detemile the energy balatrce e.g. fuel corNumptioD, total energy cotrsumption'
2. Wast€s MinimizatloD
(i) To ensur€ minimizaiion, tlrough recovery and recycling ofwaste compoDenls'
(ii) To determine, quaiitatively and quantitatively, the Dature ofall emissiotrs e g'
solid. liquid wastes and hazaldous wastes. The waste disposal plactices be
examined from enviro[menial considemtiotr.
3. Energy Conservation
4. Equipment OperatioDMaintenaflce
(i) To monitor the performance ofprocess and pollution colllrol equipment
(ii) To monilor the performanie of wasle handliDg equipment.
i. staff Recruitmenr Training
(l) To improve the technical competetrcy and environmental awaleDess of the
sLa[1.
(i/) To develop the right attilude al1C concem for the environdent itr the staf and
employees.

6. Rules and Regulations-to ensure coapliaDce with the rules aid regulations as
per 1aw.

Benefits ol Environmental Audit

The followirlg are the main and ditect beneflts of an eDvironmefltal audil.
(i) Ir enables the manageBenl to rull the unit efficientl], minimizing wastes. atrd
maximizing the output.
(ri) It provides afl up-to-date record ofthe pedormance ofthe equipment. Obsolescence
can be removed ard new technology especially for handling lhe wastes can be
introduced. MainteDance is greaily improved
(ii,) It supplies to lhe managemeDt with tle enviionmenlal database ofthe units'
This will ensure compliance with the legal requirements and avoid the risk of
future litigarion or hidden liabilities.
(iv) Timely aclions can be taken to avei any risk, or disaster in the futute by P.ovidi[g
independent verifi calioD.
 Environfienlal lnpact Assessmenl 183

(v) Ia erabl€s the staff atrd employees lo iDprove th€ir technical capability and
eDviroDmental awareness.
(\i) ft safeguards the etrvirondent, and imPloves goodwill and public iEage of the
compaEy.

Steps in Environmental Audll

\?dous activities of the audit procedure e categoizel ilto three major stages viz'
Pre-audit. At-site activities. and Post_audit. These activities are as follows:
1. Pre-audit
(l) Collection of backgrouDd idforBatiotr.
(ii) Questionnairc based survey ofuDit.
(iti) Idetrtificatiotr of main areas of cotrcerd-
(il') Prepaiatioa of audit team atrd assigEing of specific task'
2. AFsile Activities
til Interviews with slafI
(ti) Tour of various facilities
(iii) Corbputing material balance
(iv) Cotupuling water balsnce
(v) Analysis ofwaste flow quantity atrd quality
('r') CooductiDg monitoritrg, salapling.
(Lii) Preparing and discussing draft report-
3 - Post-audit
Evaluatioa of techrical capability and awareness oi staff to enviroDmeDtal
(i)
concerns.
(ii) Evaluaiion ofwaste generation, treatmen! faciliiies and disposal practices'
(;rii ldeDtification and assessmeDt of €Bergy consumption, waste 'eduction and
recycling measuies
(;v) Preparation offinal report itrcludiDg recoEmefldations alld actiol plan'
()) Follow up ofthe aclion PIan.
.{D etrvironmef,tal aualii is a very valuable technique for conlitluous implovemeDt
of
de practice aDd maintenance of a facility. lt may be coDduc:ed by a team of experts
ass;b1ed fto& within the orgadzatio[ or by ilviting extemal experts' Properly conducted
audits almost invariable result in the inclease ofprofits by oplimization of its material
a!d human resouices,
Tle 'lSO l4OOl Envilonment Management System' of lntemational Olganizatio'
for Statrdardizatio* (ISO) coDtains the guidelines aod general principles for car4 iDg
out an Environmental Audit. It has various clauses aod subclauses e g Environmental
MaMgement System R€quiremetrts, ImPlementation aod OpelatioD. Checkiug and Corrective
Manalement Review. Checklists and queslioEdaires have also been included'
-A.ctio-n,
ask
The Univerial Audit Checklist (UAC) contaids key questions the auditoi may
during atr auilit. Tle cbecklist ensures thal vital information during an €nviroDmental
audit is obtaiDed.
 I
I
$4 A Tenbook of Solid Wastes Management
I
UNIVERSAL AUDIT CHECKLIST
Documelrt control-sample three to four documelts in each aree tudited'
I
Does the procedlte complt itith lhe requirenents?
)," ,t Qitt"ni"g ao""ments control meas res apptied to all rclevant environmental
"
I
(a) thef ca be located
(b) the), are periodicaltj rerie\ted, rctised
i"\ *iy "re opprored:for adequacv bv sathorized Persohnel
I
i aj ti o t"t" ii r"*" nts are promPtly retflove d ol as
o
sure'l against unintended us e
ia aoru-""t"tio" is tegible, and dates aJ revision arc readill identiJiable
Responsibilities aBd authorities-sadpl€ three io four'
I
Are responsibilities and authorities clearly deJined and docunenled?
Environmental policv-sample three to four'
T
h the enviro,lnental polic, naae a|aitable to Personnel (\ahere requited b' Policy)'l
How has the environnental
Training-sample three to four.
poliq been communicaled to all personlel?
I
What rype of training have you received to perform
identifles "fleeds" and significant impacts)?
Har€ -,-ou receited en|ironmenlal aware ess trai ing?
these operations (relevant to
I
Vthar trpe of training haw yor receired rclevant to the requircnents ol ISO 14001
ona apjh"oLt" progi.nes and procedures ofthe Ewilanmehtal Management Systemi
I
llhat tlpe of eneryenq, prepatedness and response training hare yalt receired?
Records-sample three Io four
T
Are environmentai records legible, ideDtifiable' alldtraceable to the activity'!roduct'
or sen ice involved?
Are records and forms used and completed as desigled? T
Sorr.e: ISO 1'1001.
A typical enlironmental audit report for a chemicals manufacturing compan-v is
pr.r.r*.a t.lot . This is prepared as per the proforma laid doqn by the CPCB for an
environmenlal audir.
I
BRTEF ENVIRONMENTAL AUOIT FEPORT
M/s. XYZ Chemicals industries
T
Name and Address of lhe Unit

t
1.
2. Categor) Chloro Alkali
Dates or lvhich Auditing was xx-xxx-xxxx to xx-xxx-xxxx

4. Audit Team Names Dr.A4r.A,Is. ABC. Team Leader

Dr.nvlr. ,Ms. DEF, Expert
Dr./Mr. ,^4s. GHl, Expefi
Dr./Mr. /Ms. JKL, Expefi
I
Dr.,Mr /Ms- MNO. Expert
I
I
I
 Eninnnental lnpact Assassment 185

5- Date ofcommencemedt ofunit

5. Production Details;

S.No- Name of the Product Capacity Actual ProductioD

(Tons/day) (tots/day)
(,) Caustic Soda 400 400
(r, Chlorine 350 350
(rii) Hydrogen l0
(;v) Hydro chloric Acid 156
(v) Sodium h]?ochio te 1t

7. Water Consumptiofl, KLD

(i) Process : 1010
(ii) Cooling : 2200
(iii) DoEestic : 450

8. Raw Material CoDsumption:

S.No. Nade of Rav{ Name of Product co[suEption per

Material Ton of product
(i) Com&od Salt Caustic Soda I.5 T/T
(rD Electricity Caustic Soda 6000 kwH/T
(,iD Water 1.5 m3/T

9. Fuel Consumption: Not Applicable

10. Firsl Eflluent:
( Qusntity, KLD
Domestic 54
Industrial 551

(ri) Quality
S.No. Prescdbed Limit Actiral Discharge

(, PH 5.5-9 10.65
(,, TDS 5704
(iii) SS 100 204
(,v) coD 406
(v) Chloride t755
(v,) Residual Chlorine t 11.9
(v,i) Mercury 0.01 0.008

All values except pH are id og/1.

16 A Texbook al Solid Wastes ManagPment

11. Final Emissionsl

Stack Emission Standards Actual Emission

Chlorine Chlorine 0.09 pprn

stack HCi NT
Mercury NT
ECl Chlorhe 0.08 ppm
slack HCI 2.0 ppm
Mercury 0.007 ppm

I2. Solid Wastesl

S. No. Solid \lhstes Toral Quantity

(i) From Process 14 ?day

(jD From Pollurion Control Facility
(iii) Quantity recycled or reutilized Nil
(,r,) Mode of Disposal Disposed off ai a site 3 km
away from the locality

13, Assessmeot/Recommerdation:
(a) Coolingwaler can be reused for gardeniDs. This will reduce wastewater generation.
(r) House keeping needs to be upgraded.
(.) Sludge disposal arralgements is not satisfactory. The compafiy should make
suitable arrangemerits for disposal of soiid wastes as per the guidelines Iaid
down by CPCB.
(d) Staff training and awareness prograEmes may be orgaflized for minimizaiion
of vvastes and oplimum resources ulilization.
The Central Pollulior Control Board vide its notification of22nd April, 1993 has laid
down new ruies in this regard to amend the EdvilonmeDtal (Prolection) Rules, 1986
Accordingtothis notiflcalion industries are requiredto subfiit an Environmental Sta[emeDt
for each financial year endiDg 31st March in the presc b€d fomat (Form V) Presciibed
therein.
 Envirc nentallmPact Assessmenl 187

Bor Profo.ma for ErvnonEental StateBent

.FORMV"
(Protection) Rules, 1986]
[See Rule 14 of the Envircnmental
Match
EEvirotrmetrtal StateEoent for the fioatrcial year ending the 31st
PART A
(,) Name anil atltlrcss of lhe owner/occupier of the hdustry operation or process
(.ii) Industry category Primary (SIC Code)/ Secondary (SIC Code)
(r,i) Production capacitY _ units -
(iv) Year of establishment
(v) Date of the last eDviroEmeDtal statement submitted
PAR.T B
Water end Raw Material CoDsutrnptioD
(i) Waler consumPtiotr, KLD
Process:
Cooli!g
Domestic

Name of Product F[iiiTat". coo"u.ption per unit of Product output

During the previous During the current
flnancial year fiDancial year
(1) (2)

(1)
(2\
(3)

Raw Material Consumption

N".. R"* C"*".pt' " of Raw Material per unit olltodu"t q]!ut
"f
Material* During the PreviousDuring the current
fiDancial year fiDancial year
(r) (2)
(1)
(2)
(3)
*Uausiry may,-rse codes ifalisclosing details ofrawmaterial would violat€ contlactual
otf;g"tiJ*. otherwise all industries have to name the raw materials used'
i

I
I
18 ATextbook of solid wastes Managenent
I
PART C

Pollutioo discharged !o environmetrt/unit of output

I
(Paramelers as specifled inthe consetrt issued)
of
toltut*$ Quatrlity ofPollutatrts ConceDtmtiotr
Discharged (mass/day) Pollutants in Discharges
Pelcentage of
variation fiom I
(6ass/volume) ?rescribed
Staodards with
Reasons I
(a) Water
(6) An
I
PART I)
EAZAR'OUS WASTES
(as specified uDder Hazardous Wastes (MaaagemeDt & Haodlirg) Rules, 1989) I
Hazardous Wastes Total Quantity (kg)
During the previous During the curreni
flnaflcial year fhancial year I
lA, Irod ptocess
(r) From pollution control facilities
I
PAiT E
SOLID WASTES
lotal QuaDtlty I
During the previous During the current
fitrancial year financial yeat
(a) From process
(b) From pollution control facilities
(c) (i) Quantiry recYcled or
r€utilized within the uDit
(ii) Sold
(iii) Disposed
PART F
Please speciry lhe characteristics (io tetns ofco6position and quaDtity ofhazardous
as well as solid wastes afld indicate disposal practice adoPted for both of these
categories of wastes,
PART G
lmpact ofthe pollution abatement Beasures taketr otr coNeflatioD ofnatutal tesouceS
and on the cost ol production
PA.R'T f,
Additional measures/investhe[t proPosal for etrvircnmenlal Protectio! itrcludi[g abatgac[t
of pollution, preveDtion of polluliofl.
PART I
Any other paniculars for imProving the quality ofthe eEvirotrmcnt
 Enironmental Inpact Assessmgrl 189

EXA"PLES
Example 7.1:
About one miliion vehicles have been added otr Delhi's toads durilg the Iast five
years'
This has increased the SO, level ftom 0. 1 to 0. I 5 ppm. Estimate the impact on Envi1tr1:ntal
this parameter' Assume PIU for SO, is
Quality. Also calculate 6e change in DIU due to
10 (ou1 oftotal 1000 udts).

Solution:
(a) Bnvironmedtal Qualily
EQ (for SO, = 0.1 PPm) 0.6 (from lig. 7.3a)
EQ (for so, = 0.15 ppm) 0.3 (ftom Fig. 7.34)
chaDge in EQ 0.3 - 0.6
= 0.3
Hence- increase ofone million vehicles has negative impact oD the environmental
qualry.
(r) Change in Eru
Chatrg€ in EIU = Change in EQ x Pru
= -0.3 x 10 :-30
EXERCISE
1. Wtat is the purpose of an EIA study? Discuss various methodology adopt€d for predictior

2 List 30 iEporta!1 paraseiers to be co$idered in lhe EIA for the seleclion of the most
suitable laldfill site.
3. Explain tbe Battetle Ervirormental Evaluation System'
4. SPM level of a locality was 200 ppm. After a landfill was developed in the viciditv
the SPM
construclio, phas€ incrcased to 450 ppm DIa\r a value tuncrion graPh for SPM'
during the
Assu;ing the PIU for SPM to be 50 estiEate the change in EIU-
5. Briefly explain the foilowiDg:
value FuDction Graph, Leopold Matrix, Etrvirondetrtal Audit' Environmer'al StateBeut
 I
I
I
Append.ix-I I
I
Glossary
r
I
An eDvironmeDtal condilion occuring in the presence I
I
ofoxygen.
Anaerolric Environmentai condition occurring in the absence of
oxygen,
Ash

Bacteria
Incombustible residue that is oblained after bumins
a foel or soiid waste.
A shgle-ceL microscopic organism. Some bacteria could
I
be harmful as they may cause disease while pr€sence
ofsome bacteria is desirable !o stabilization ofsolia!
$aste, Bacteria can be aerobic, aDaerobic or facultative.
I
Biodegradation Process in which solid waste or othet compound can
be degraded or transformed to simpler compounds
by microorganisms.
I
I
Carbonaceous Carbon compounds ptesent in solid waste
matter
CarboB dioxide A colorless, odotiess, nonpoisonous gas. Itis produced

Carlron monoxid€
durirg thermal conversion and biodegadation ofsolid
waste and forms carbonic acid $hen dissolved in wate.
A colorless. poisoDous gas with an exceedingiy f,-int
I
meEllic odor k ato p-oduced during rheftDa I conve:lion
and biodegradation ol solid wasies mder limited o!,gen
supplt.,.
I
Collectior of Process ofpicking up \\'astes from its source ofgene-
ralion e-9. households. institutions. business and
commercial centers; hauling it to rhe local transfer
t
stations,
Combustible
mat€rial
Materials presedt in the waste steam containing carbon-
aceous after can be bumie.g. paper, cardboard, food
waste, \trrood, yard waste.
t
I
I
I
 Aryndix'l\Glossartl 191

of oxygeD \xith a substatrce that produces

CombustioB Prccess ofchemical codbining
hea(,
in a cotrtalner'
CodBitrgled Mixtute ofallt)?es ofwaste coltrpooents

densiry aBd reduce

volume of*asle
ComPactor FduiDment used 1o
of solid \ta're' ll is used as manure
Composi in".r.'n"itJ".o *",
"omposthg
CoBPosting
*!**rflli*llt*+:...:l*'-'t*Lffii:l"":r5:
ofgeneratioo' wasle at irs source
CoutaiDer il..*,".nl* ofsolid
Iandfill usual) soil
Cover material il;;;;J;;;;".' ", ""rage
the-coropacted *ast' io a

is useal as cover materiai

or bacterial break ins o r orsanic material
DecomPositioD ;;.; ";;;r''.;i. "t'mical increase lbe specific $eishl ormaleriar
DeDsification ;;;;;;.";;;; "ulIo
and reduce itsvolume,
Dewatering ,."""." *"er cofltent ofsolid waste ol sludge-
"t*O*rt
Energy recoverY ;:;;;';;;;;;;;,rc"1":sft
iilJeT:[d^Ti:;,'.15lilry"i3i['"'[
L*r'e qaste based tuers
"tsorrd
or refuse delived f!els'
flue gases during
Flyash "#TffX1'rtH:;Liii
it.. ."rtan"itu* t'sh, which escaPes with the
:
thermal conversioD of wastes
food '{asle'
Gorb.ge wr.r.. n.o.r",.a i, ftilchen that mainly cool'ains soir
, ;",.;;:;;;;.;.;;;1b ,i,e surrace orearth betwee sarurarEd
Groundwater
or rock,

Eaul distance , ii.,-u"-". u,".r"a ry u coreclrol v:ll*-alli*L1:T":i,]f ::iT,'Jl;:

i e from ooiDt oft\astegEneration to mt
in case orhauled con*iner
il:;"t# il;;;;;fiioe15 21s 516red
system).
nature mav pose a tbreatiilTr"lt$:l*
b! i$
Ilazardous\ aste : \t astes co.pooent rhar
ban0uDg'
or environment duringits storage' authorilies
as hazatdous o) regulatory
^'.'v orher material listed
,he odor or roaeo esgs that is
produced rrom
Eydro!en sulfide ; ;;'*;;;;' ;;.;-.
th; reductiotr of sulfates'
which wastes are bumt and convenedinto
Incineratiod *"
"".*ir"ura**oy
sases and ash.
Oased on a hierarchical consideralion of\a'asre
Integrated ilan""ar.",
solid r aste$ -;;ir"ii", "t-"*a
;..l.ii"e traDsformation anddisPosal
management ll il usuail) conuins
wasles in a landfi
Leachate Liouid thar bas percolated through
i]ll.".i.iu,,ail.*r,'d impunries exrracred from \rasles' disPosal
oursrde the resular
Litter ..ii; *;;;;;,;;""1esslv discarded aod dererioratins aesth€rics
en'ironment
;li;,i;;;'";'i;i;
A

I
r
192 A Textbook of Solicl Wastes Management I
MagEetic
separation
Materi6l balance
Process i! which ferrous &etals are sepatated out
using rl1agnets.
ofsolid wastes by

accou[ting ofmass ofmaterials etrteriEg aad leaving aprocessilg

I
r
AD
unit.
lffrterial recovery Facilities constructed for separation and tecovery ofvarious compoDents
facility

I
ofsolid wastes for their recyclidg aDd proper disposal.
MetheDe A colorless, odorless aDd asph,.(iatiDg gas produced during aDaerobic
decomposition of wastes.

I
Microorganisnrs Geoerally referred to any living thing Eicroscopic ia size, e.g. bacteria,
yeasts, simple Iiulgi, algae. protozolrD.
Moisture content Loss ofweight ofsolid wastes when d.ied to a cotrstaat weight at a

Orgatric Eaterial
Pathogetl
temperature of 100-105 oC.
CoBpouDds contai ng carbon coDbined triih other chemical eleme s.
This is an orgaDism(e.9. bact€ria, viruses, protozoa, atrd helmhthes),
I
Pollution
which call cause disease.
The preseDce ofcontamiDants in soil, water, or the atrDosphere due
to discharge ofrdaste streams or othe! materials,
I
Pyrolysis

RecycliDg
lrocess ofbrcaking down combustible Mstes a! high tempeBture in
the absence ofoxygen. I
I
Process ofsepamtiEg outvatious useful material from waste stleam
and processing it to make it suitable for reuse o! Ea1lufactu og of
products which may or Eay Dor be similarto the origitral product_

I
Refuse It is ofteD interchangeably used for solid wastes.
Reftse derived fuel Solid wastes remaining afler removai ofrecyclable and Don-combustible
materials- It is used for enetgl- recovery from wastes.
Reuse
Sanitary laodfill
Use ofwaste material orproduct tnore than once,
It is refenedto anengineered iaodfiil used fordisposal ofsolid wastes
thar eDsures protecrio0 ofbu.mao bealth aDd €D!iroDoeDt.
I
Screenitrg
Shr€dding
Source reduction
Method used for seg:egatirg solid wastes into different size categories.
Process used for convertitrg iarge size particles into smaller pieces.
The proc€ss ofreducing quaotiqv ofwastes at the source by adoptiog
I
Sou rce leparation
suitable measures.
Separatiotr of differetrt cordpoDeDt ofwastes at the soutce of generatioD
and storingthem in separate containers.
I
1Y!Dsler ofr{!stes

station
Process of traDsfering the wastes fro!1 colieclion vehicles to larger
sized vehicles for transportation to the dispos.l site. I
I
TiaDsfer : A faciiity where collected wastes is temporarily deposited afld then
loaded into large size vehicle for transportatiotr to the disposal site.
TraDsportatiotr of : Process of carryhg wastes fiom transier station lo the disposal sites.

I
I
I
 Appendix.ll6lossadt 1E3

Yadore Loac The zone between thc ground surface and the water table.
Volatile solids The fraction oforgadc solids tbat catr be released as gas wheD orgaoic
Eatbrial is burnt in a lcuffle firmace at 550oC.
voluDe rcduction The process used to decrease the voluEe of*?ste io order to conserve
the space occupi€d duritrg its disposal.
Waste strerE The wasle oulput ofa sowce.
Wrste Theprocess ofcotrverting wastes ftom one phase to another(i.e. solid
trrEsforBation to gas).
Site reBedistiotr The process ofreclaiming a cotrtaminated site by physical, chemical
or biological treatment.
I

I
I
I
Append.i.x-II I
I
Conversion Factotrs I
I
Multiply Bv To obtaitr I
acle
acre
Abbreyiation
acre 4047
Name Abbreyiation
square meler
hectare
m2 I
I
acfe 0.4047 lla
Britishthermal Btu i.05 5 Kilojoule KJ
unit
Britishthermal Bru/ft3 per
I
37 .259 Kilojoule KJ/m3
uDit per cubic cubic meter
foo!
Br;tishthermal Btu,&-ft2

I
23. 15 8 Joules per second ,/s-m2
unit per hour per square meter
per square foot
Briiishthermal Btu&W'h per
I
1.05 5 kilojoules KJ/
u[it per kilowatt- kilowatt-hour kw-h
hour
British lhelmal Kilojoules per

I
2.326 ru&g
unit per pound kiloglam
Britishthermal Btl,totr 0.001 l6 Kilojoules per KJ/kC
uDit per ton kilogram
Cubic fool
Cubic foot
f13
ft3
0.0283 cubic meter
liter
m3
L I
I
Cubic foot f1rlmin 0.0004719 cubic meter per mr/s
per minute
Cubicyard -vd3 0.7 646 cubic meter

I
Day d 86400 s
Degree Ceisius plus 273 Kelvin K
Degree 0.s5s ('F-32) degree celsius
fahre eit

I
a
I
 Awendixll\Conve6ionFacbEl 193

Foot f 0.3048 metet

Fe.tpermiDute fl/Ein 0.00508 Eeters per second m-ls
Galloa gal 0.003785 cubic meler
Gallon 8al 3.785 liter L
eallon gaymin 0.0631 liters pei second Lls
GraiD gr 0.0648 grar:l e
Hon€power hp o.746 kilowatt kw
l{orsepower-hour hph 2.6t4 m€gajoule MJ
Idch in 2.54 centimetel cm
IDch itr 0.0254 meter u1
Kilowatt-hour ktr'h 3.600 eegojoule MJ
PouDd (force) lbr 4.44E N
Pouad (mass) lb, 0.4536 kilograln ke
Pourds per acre lb/acre 0.1t22 grams per gJa2
squar em9ter
Pounds per lb/capita-d 0.4536 kilogram per day kg/
capila pei day capita per capita-d
Pouods per lb/yd3 0.5933 kilogram per ksm,
cubic yard cubic meter
MillioD galloDs Mgayd 0.043E1 cubic loeters mrls
per day Per secotrd
Miles ml 1.609 kilometers lilo
Miles per gallon miA 0.447 meters per second rn/s
Miles per gallon Ei/gal 0.425 kilometers per liter km,/L
Ouuce oz 2E.35 gmrns e
Pouidsper tbtftz 47.88 ne\{tois per N/m2
square foot square metet
Pounds per lb/in2 5.895 kiioEePtons per kN/m2
square inch square meter
Square foot ft, 0.0929 square rDeter m2
Square mile 1.59U square kilometer ksz
Square yard yd2 0.8361 square Dteter m2
Ton (2000 toa (2000lbn) 907.2 kilograd kC
pouDds mass)
watt-hour wh 3.60 kilojoule KJ
yard yd 0.9144
 I
I
r
Append.ix-III I
T
Snlient Featwres of the 1
J
Envir onrnent (Prot e c ti o ro)
Act 1986 II
An Act to provide lor lhe protection and improvement of environment
and for matlers connected lhere [,ith:
WHEREAS the decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference
IJ
IJ
on the Human Environmetrt held at Stockholm in June. 1972, in
'!\hich India pafticipated, to take apptopriate steps for the protection
and improvemetrt of human enviroflment;
AND WHEREAS it is coosidered necessary further to implemeDt
the decisions aforesaid in so far as they relate to,the protection
and improvemeDt of eDvironmelt arld the prevention of hazatds
to human beings, other livitg crealures, plants and prcperty;
GENERAL POWEBS OFTHE CENTRAL GOVEBNMENT
Power of CentralGovernment to iake Measures to protect and
improve Environment
( I ) Subj ect to the provisiods of this Act, the Central eovernment.
/
shall have t]re powertotake all such measures as it deeasflec€ssary

J
I
or expedieDt for the purpose of protecting and improving the
quality ofthe enviroDment and preventing controtling and abating
environmentai pollutioD.
(2) In pa(icular, and without prejudice to the geDerality ofthe provisions
of sub-section (1), such measures tr1ay include measures with
respect 10 all or any ofthe followiog matters, namely:
(i) co-ordination of actions b!. the State covemments. officers
and other authorities: )
ia) under this Aci, or the ruies maale thereundet, or
)

/
 Salient Features ol Enironment(Protection) Act, 1986 197

(r) udder any other law for the time being i]I force $'hich is relatable to the
objecls oI this Ac(i
(ii) planning and execution ofanation-wide programde forthe prevention, control
aod abatemeDt of environmetrtal pollution;
(iir) laying do\Itr standards for the quality of etrvironment in its vadous aspects;
(i},) layiDg do\ n standards foi emissior or discharge ofenvironmental pollutants
from various sources \,r'hatsoever:
Provideil that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid dow!
under this clause from differeD! souces having rcgard to the quality or composition
of the emission or discharge of edviroDmeDtal pollutants from such sources;
(r) restriction ofareas itr which ary itrdustries, opemtioDs or processes or class
of industriis, operations or processes shall not be carried ou1 or shall be
carried out subject to certain safeguards;
()i) laying down procedures aEd safeguards for the preventior of accidents which
may cause environmental pollutiod and remedial measures for such accidents;
(1ii) laying dounprocedEes aDd safeguards for the haDdling ofhazardous substarces;
(viii) examination of such manufacturing processes, oalerials and substaDces as
are likely to cause enviionmeDtal pollution;
(7}) carrying out and sponsorilg iDvestigations and research relatirg to problems

I (:)
of en\ ironmeDral pollutioD:
inspection of any premises, plaDt. equipme[t, machinery, maDufacturing or
other processes, mate als or substances add givldg, by order, ofsuch directions
to such aulhorities, officers or persoDs as it may consider [ecessary to take
steps for the prevetrtion, control atrd abatement of envi{onmental pollution;
: (ri) establishmenl or recognition of environmeatal laboratories and institutes to
carry out the functions entrustedto such envirarnmeDtal laboratories and instiotes

I uDder this Act;

(:ii) collectioD aDd dissemination of hformation iD respect of matters relating to
environmedtal pollutiotr;

I
(r.iii) preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention. contol
and abatement of eEvironmeDtal pollution;
(riv) such other maners as the Central Govemmetrt deems Decessary or expedient
for the purpose of securing the effective implementation ofthe provisions of

I this Act.
(3) The Central Go!'emme[t may, if it co$iders it flecessary o, expedient so to do

I
for the purpose ofthis Act, by order, publish€d in the Official Gazette, constitute
aD authority or autho ties by such trame or names as may be specified in the
order for the purpose of exercising and performing such ofthe powers aDd
functions (includilg the power !o issue directions under section 5) ofthe Central

r GoverDment utrder this Act and foi taking measures with lespect to slrch ofthe
nxatt€rs referred to in sub-section (2) as may be mentioned in the order aDd
subjectto the supervisiotr andcontrol ofthe Central Goverrrment aadthe provisions

t ofsuch order, such authoritv or authorities may exercise ard polvers or perforB
the funcliors or take the measures so mentioned in the order as if such authority
or authoriti€s had been €mpowered by this Act to exercise those powers or
perform those functioDs or take such measures.

I
r
I
r
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1* ATextbook of Solidwastes Managenent

Appoinment ot Otricers and their Powers and Functions

I
(1) Without projudice to the provisions of sub-section (3) of section 3, the Central
GoverEment may appoi.Dt oflicers with such desigDation as it thinks fit for the
purposes ofthis Act aDd may entrust to them such ofthe powers and futrctiots
I
uDder rhis Acl as ir may deem fit.
(2) The officers appointed under sub-s€ction (1) shall be subject to tLe general
control and directioo of th; Central GovertrEent or, if so directed ;v that
I
Gov€rnment, also ofthe aut-hority or authorities, if any, cotrstituted unde"r sub-
section (3) of sectioE 3 or ofany other authority or officer. I
I
Power to Give Directions
Notwithstanding a[ything contaifled in any other law Lut subject to the provisions of
this Act. the Central Govemment may, in the exercise of its powe$ aDat pelforoatrce

I
of its functions under this Act, issue ditectiotrs itr qritiEt to any perso;, officer or
any authority and such percon, officer or autlority shall be bound to comply with
sucb directions.s
Eiplatration: For the avoidance of doubts. jt is hereby d€clared that rhe power to
issue directions under this section ircludes the power to direct:
(a) the closure. prohibition or regulatiotr ofany industry, operation o, process; or I
I
(6) stoppage or regulation ofthe supply of electricity or water or atry other service.
Rules to Regulate Envi.onmenial Pollution
(1) The Centtal Govemment 6ay, by notification iD the Official Gazette, make
rules in respect of all or any of the matte$ referred to itr section 3.
(2) Itr particular, atrd wirhout prejudice to the getrerality ofthe foregoing power,
such rules may provide for all or any ofthe followitrg matte$, namely:
I
(d)
(r)
the standards ofquality ofair, water or soil for various areas aDd purposes;a
the maximum allowable limits of concentmtion of various enviion ental I
I
pollulants (including troise) for diff€rent areas;
(c) the procedures aDd safeguards for the handlitrg of hazardous substances;t
(d) the prohibitiotr and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in
different areas;6
(e)

LO
the prohibition and rest ction on lhe location ofitrdusrries and tle carryitrg
oD process and operatioDs in differenl areas;?
the procedures atrd safeguards fo. the prevention of accidetrts which may
I
cause environmental pollutioD and for providing for remedial measures for
such accidents,3
I
I
PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND ABATEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Persons ca.rying on tndugtry Operation, etc., not to allow emission o,
Discharge of Environmental pollutanlg in excess ot the Standards
No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or emit or
permit to be discharged or emitted any environmental pollutants in excess of such
siandards as may be prescribed-e a
a
a
I
 Saliefi Faatures of EnvimnnentlPrcbcnan) Act, 1985 199

P.r3ons Handling Hazardous Subaiances to Comply with Procedural

Ssteguards
No persotr shall hatrdle or cause to be handled aoy hazardous substance except in
accordatrc€ with such proceduie and after complying with such safeguards as may be
presc!ibed.lo

Furnlahing ol lnlormEtion lo Auihorities ard Agencies in Certain Ca9e9

(1) where the discharge ofany eDviroomeDtal pollutant iD excess ofthe prescribed
standards occurs or is apprehended to occua due to any accidetrt or othea ulforeseen
act or event, tle'person respoDsible for such discharge and the persoD in charge
oflhe place at which such discharge occurs or is apprehended to occur shall be
boutrd to prcveit or mitigale the enviroItmenial pollution caused as a result of
such discharge ald shall also forthwith:
(a) iltiftale the fact of such occurrence or applehension of such occurrence;
aDd
(b) be bound. ifcaued upo!, to rellder all assistalce, to such authorities or agencies
as may be prescribed.rr
(2) On receipt of informatio[ with respect to the fact o! apprehension on any occurence
i!
of the dature referred to sub-sectiofl (1), whether through ifltioatiotr uDder
that sub-sectiotr or otherwise, ttre authorities or ageDcies referred to in sub-
section (l) shall, as early as placticable, carse such rQoedial aleasures to be
taketr as Decessary to prevent or mitigate the eavironmeDtal pollutioD.
(3) Tle expenses, if a!y, iocur€d by any authority or ageocy with respect to the
rcEedial measures r€fered to itr sub-section (2), together with irterest (at such
reasodable rate as the Govemmeot may, by order, fix) from the date whell a
demand for the expetrses is made udtil it is paid, may be recovered by such
autlority or agency ftom the pe$oD cooccrDed as alleals oi lard revenue or of
public demaDd.

Povvers o, Entry and lnspectlon

(l) Subject to the provisiotrs ofthis sectioE! atry person eEpowered bythe CeDtral
Govemmetrt in this behalfl2 shall have a right to eDter, at all reasonable times
\r.itb such assislatrce as he considers lecessary, aDy place:
(a) for the purpose ofperformitrg atry ofthe functioas ofthe Central Govemment
entrusted to him;
(r) for the purpose of deterEining wh€ther aDd if so in rxhat maDner, aDy such
firnctions are to be performed or whether any provisions of ihis Act or the
rules Eade tlereunder oratry notice, order, directioD or authorisation served,
Eade, give! or gralt€d under this Act is being or has been complied with;
(c) for the purpose of examinitrg atrd testitrg atry equipBeDt, iDdustrial plant,
record, retister, doc[metrt or a[y ottre! aaterial object or for conducting a
search of atry building in which he has reason to believe thal an offence
unde! this Act or the rules made thereunder has been or is being or is about to
be comruitted and for seizing any such equipment, iDdustrial plant, record,
l-

mO A Texbook of Solid Wastes Managenent

jf
reeister. document or other material objecl he has reason 10 belie\e lhal
it
this
-i'-ir-iJ *,a.".. of the comaissiotr of atr offeDce putrisbable uDder
prevent
Aci ot the rules made thereulder or that such seizure is Decessarr_ to
or Elitigale en\ ironEental pollutioo
(2\ E\erv DersoD carryiDg oD an] indusry. operation or process ofbandlitrg
aDy

tazaidou, subslance stitl be bould to render all assistance to tbe person empo*ereo
iiii" C"n,."f Co*rnnent undet sub'section (1) for carrying out the functions
if fails to do so rxithout atry reasotrable cause or
uid.. th"t .ob-.".tioo aod he
excuse, he shall be guilty of atr offeDce under this Act
Der"on , ilfujli delals or obstrucls any persons eDpo\rered b)
tbe Ceolral
-C*i.ir."irra*
(3) Ifan\
(l) in lhe performance ofhis tunclions he shall
tiru-se;tio!
be guilly of an offence uoder this Act.
(4) iiJir""it.r' oftbe Code of criminal Procedure. I973 or' in relatioo to
Ihe
i.ur"'ot:aomu *a Kashmir. or atr area in whlch tbat Code is nol io force lbe
r.."i.ior. of .o" correspoodiDg law i-D force io thal Srale or area 5hall so far
l. -"r u.. "ooti to ao)'"earch or seizures under lhis section as lbey appl) Io

""r-*"ril
i"t"* .;de uDder lbe authority of a warranl issued uDdet section-
94 of the "i Code or as the case Ea) be. under lhe correspotrdiDg pro\isioD
ot
'aid
tie said law.

Power toTake Sample and Proceduro to be Followed In Connection

fherewith
(1) The Central GovemmeDt or any officer empowered b].ir in-this beh-a]fr1,:?att
have power to take, fo! the purPose of analysis samples of ait'
\laler' soll or
other substance from any factory, premises or other place iD such Elanner as
may be Prescribed.ll
I
rlr Theresuhofanlaoallsi'ofasamPletakeDundersub-section(l)shallD-orbe
uaroit.;Ut" ,n in any legal proceedilg uDless tbe provisions of sub-
"iid.n..
sectioDs (3) and (4) are complied \vith
I
(:) Soij."t to it . pt*isions of sub-section (4), the person taking the sample under
sub-secrion (1) shall:
(a) sen'e on the occupier or his agent or persod in charge of 'he place' a notice'it
I
then and there, in such form as !1ay be prescribed, ofhis iDientiod to
so anal!'sed;
il; in the iresence of the occupier ofhis agent or person' collect a samPle
have

for I
i.r
anaiysis;
' carie tft" sample !o be Placed in a container or conlainers which shall be
marked and sealed and ibail also be signed both by the persoE taking the
sample and the occupier or hls agenl or persoo:
I
rd) sendu'hhouldela).thecoDlainelorlhecontainerslolhelaboraloD eslablished
or recognised 5) rhe Ceolral Govemment uDder seclion l2' I
(4) When a sample is taken for analysis under sub_section (1) and the Person laking
ihe sample ;rves on the occupiea or his agent oi persol, a notice uDder ciause
(a) of sub-section (3). then': I
(a) in a case where the occupier. his agent or person wilfull) -absents. hlmself'
' ' ihe person taking the sample shall collecl the sample for anal) sis lo be placed
I
!
I
 salent Features of Enl/lronmenllProloctionl
Act' 1986 2o1

sealed and shall also

in a coniainer ol contahers Y/hich shall be marked atrd
i",igo"aiv tlt ptt"on takiag tbe samole and
{6)inacasewheretheoccuplelo,iJ"g.o.orpersotr.preseDlatth€.timeof
' "' or conlalDers
illlg tt. ru.ptt'efu ses to sigD the marked and sealed coDtaioer
(3)- the oarked aod
ofthe samDle as requirto *ot"i"*t lc) ofsub_s'clioE
;:#;;;i;;;;;;:""rainerssbailbesigledb)fiePersonrakinsrh-esampres'
bv rhe Person
;;;1;;;;it"t or codtainers shall be sent without delav'
i"totutoty established ot recoglised
takiag ihe sadPle for aaalysls to tn" ADaiyst appointed
ald sucl petsoa suatt inform rle GovemoleDl
rtnder seclion 12
i'
iz *'iti'g' about tbe wi!tull absence of the
H::U;ilil;""ti"' thtl"'e may be' his refusal to sigo the
occupier ot his agetrt ot p"ttoo' oi' "t
cootaidor or conta&ers'
LaboratorieB
-'itjio"
Environmenlal
i! the omcial cazette':
a*", O""ernmentrs may' by notification
Iaboratories:
(4, establish ooe or more en\iroDmenlal
or iEstitutes as eDvironmeDial laboratories
(r, recognise ooe or more laboratotles
io utr eDvironmental laboratory uoder this
to carr) out the iuo"t'oot tot'u""d

in the Otrlcial Gazette' make rules

(2) The CedEat Govemmetrt day' by trotificatior
sPecifYing:
lr) the funclions environmenlal laboratory:l
'r;;;;' ofthe
i"' submissrnn 1o the said laborarorv of
samples or alr'
i;; .i; the
waler.soilorothersubslaDceloranalysisortesls.lhe'folmoftbelabolatory
*rii ii.t."" ""i ttt Iees pay'hle for such reoon:rB
..)suchothelmaltelsasmayDelrecessaryolexpedienttoenablethatlaboratory
to carry oul its functions'

Governmgnt AnalYsis
apPoinr or re'ognrse
il'" i."""-, i"'...."1 ma) b) notificaliotr in tbe ofllcialGazene
the Drescribed oualificarionsr" lo be
Govertrment
sucb DersoDs as il Ibio\s Iit aD'l havlng
il;,fi,;;;;,; fi;* "ti"_11't::|";lTX,fi".i,X[i,l#i';il]llJ,,i:::';X'.Tiii:
sent for analysis to any envlroDmetrIal
tz

secrion tl ) of sectioD 12'

Repofis ol Government AnalYsis be used

signeil by a Girvemmeut.aaal'vs1 may
Any documenl purporling to be a report rhis Act'
I'i",J.r*'"iin.'r""s itated rberein in anv proceeding under
Provisions ot the Act and the Rules' Orders
Penalty for Contravenlion of ihe
and Directions
rl i wt'o"u",,u,r,'o ""'41 I't- 11:""'J",:"fi
or the rules made or orders or ol
::;',#J*J"::f lilil::t#l:l
for a relm
::.n ,";; i"t;; "' enrion' be puni:hable $ ith imprisonment
'"ntra\ to one iakh rupees'
iii"i ."r:.-"tu nve years uith fine which ma) extend
'
 I
I
2n2 Alexbook ofsotd Westes Maragehent
I
I
or with both, atrd itr case the failue or coatravention
conthues, with addilioial
fioe which may extend to frve thousand rupee, fo, *"ry
auy aurire *ii"il
failure or cotrrmventio! coltiaues after thi convictioa ioi
or cotrttaventioo.
A;;ffJ;;;*" "*t
(2) Ifthe failure or coDtraveDtioD lefened !o itr sub-section (1.)
period of one year after the date ofconviclior,
wrrb imprisonneEt for a rerm which Bay extenal
t" on*a"i
,o
coltilues beyord a
.iuir Jp*ii"ur.
--
y."ii. '-.'_
I
Oftences by Companieg
(1) Where aly ofetrce under this Act has b€en coElritted
".r.o

by a corDpatry, every
I
I
persoD who, at the tiee lbe offence was
coomitted, was directly il cf"rg" of
aad was responsible to, the company for the conducr
l.he t'".i""* ii,n"
company._as well as rhe colopany, shall be deerned "fguilty of Ae offeoce
to be
aiorjiagiyf '
I
aDd shall be liabte to be proceeded againsl aDa purislea

Provided that Dothing contaitred iB tbis sub-sectio!

shall reoder aDv such
person liabte to any punishmeDr provided iD this,Lct,
ifte proves itai;;;tr""."
was committed without his krowledge or that he exercisid
prevent rhe commissio! of such offeDce.
(2) Notwithstandilg atr,lhing conraired in sub-sectio! (t),
all d;li[;;; rc

where a! offeDce !trder

I
rhis Acr has.been cornEitred by a corDpaay aDA lt is piovea
DeeD coEmlfted with the coflsent Or cotrrivaDce
Deglect on the part o{ aDy dtector, lraaager, sectetary
tUi oe oifeiclfas
of, Or iS attributable tO aly I
r
or other office, ofthe
compaEy, such directott managerr secretary or otbea
o'fficer shall atso deeoea
to be guitty ofrhat offence atrd shalt be liabl;to
t" pro"."a"a ug"i*i*a pioiJi"a
accordingly.

I
Explanation-For tbe purpose of this section:
lo) _comlan) mears aD) body co4,orale aDd ilcludes a firm or
other associatrotr
ofhdividuals:
(r) "dir€ctor,,, in relatioa to a furE, means a parttrer in the fiftr.
Ollences by Government departmentg
(1) Where an offence uDdet this Act has beetr commilled
I
Govemmeot.
,lhe
onence and shall
by aay Departmetrt of
Head of tbe DeparteeDr suatt ue aeeoea io'ue
be liable to be proceeded agai.Esl ard punished
provided fiar qotbiDg cooraioed
;;til;;io.
ui"o.ili"f,
i! rhis seciior shall render su"t ff."J
I
Departmenr liable to aayputrisbment if he proves
ttat tne offence i;;;;il"d"?ii.
$ithout his knowledge or that he exercise all due dilig."..
of such offence.
,;;;;;; ;;;;;i:;, I
(2) NotwithstandiDg adythiDg co4tained in sub_sectioD (l),
:ll:1" hI been comnined by a D€panmetrr or c"".*r.",
urar rne orrence Das beeD comlnined wiih the consent
atlrjburable ro an\ neglecr on tbe pafl of.
where an offence uador
*i'iij. oil, a
or comivaace oi, or is
I
om"... o,1., itaD ii. H.J
Depanmenr. such officer shalt al;o be deemed "oy to hj
eJi,y ,i"i
"f
shall be Iiable to be proceeded agaiEst anal punishea aicorainet.r,_
"irt.
"ii.#';a
1
1
1
I
 Selieht F€atut6 ol Ehimnmont(Protectionl Acr'
1985 N

HISCELLANEOUS
Protection ol ActionTaken In Good Falth
shall lie agaiDst the GovtTT:',:l:y
No sui! prosecution or othet Iegal Proceeding
constituted utrder this
.ti".t'"1_",1* employee of the Governmeni or aa1 authority
ofsucb authorily i! respect ol an)'tnrag
i.i", -r-r.rt*. "dicer or other enPlovee
iiiJ rJ"* ".-""aed to be dose iE go;d faith io pursuance ofthis Aot ot the rules
*"d" o, ord"r, or dir€ctiotrs issued theleunder'
Cognizancg oI OflencBa
this Act €xoePt otr a ooEPlaiat
No-"ou.t shutl tute cognizance of any offelce utrder
made by:
authorised in this behalf by
(d) the Central Govemaetrl or any authority or ofticer
that Govemaetrt,2o or
days iD lhe maoler
(r) "* *.." *1" has given noticc of not less than sixry to Eake a conplaist' 10
lii.Lri.l. "Iti. ,u.'-*ed offeoce and of his irreDtioo
authorised as aforesaid'
I;: ;;; ;";.;;;r or rhe aurhotitv or oflicer
lnlormatlon, R6Port3 or Rcturna
fuociioo uader this Act' &onr time to
The Central Govemoeut may, h relatio! to its
od"",, st'te Gou"runetrt or oth"' altho'itv to firmish toandit
':;'""':;;;;";;;;oo.
:Tloff;::fi:i;il;''iiv oi oni"' a,,v reDorts' retu.s statistics' accou'rs
h;;iffi;;;; .,.n'pt"oo' oflicer' srare Go'emment or other authoiitv sball
be boutrd to do so.
Constltutsd UndGr Sccllon
Itlembers, Officsrs and EmPloysr! of thr Aulhorlty
3 to be Public Servants
s€ction 3 aod all offioels
e,iiat" .".t"r. of the authority, coostitutetl' if ady' u'ldet in Pu$uaoce
;;;;;; .--;l;** ofsuch authority whe! actilg or purPortiog ro act
issued thercunder
H;":;:;i"[J;;j; a.'-i tr' rut" 'ua" or or<lers or directions
sectior 21 of the Itrdiar
;ffiiil'ffi;;;'ioiri. '"'u*" "tnio the meatrins of
Peml Code (45 of 1t60).
Bar ol Jutisdictlon
Nocivilcou(shallhavejudsdictioDtoetrteltainalysuitolproceeditrgid'esPeclof
issued bv the central Govemoenr or
;;;;;;;;,'*,1";,akio or ortler or rlirection
of any Povrer conferred by or in relalion to
]ii,l l!, o, officer itr
uurloriw Pursuance
its or his functions utrder this Act

Powers to Oelegate
wirh^nrnreiudicetolheDrovisioosofsub-section(3)ofsection3,theCeDttalG-overD$ent
::Y";';:f;";J;ii" ilr"r"r Gazette, subject to sirch coaditioas and
'lelesare'such of its powers and functions
il;1;;i";;;;;;;.'specified in the notificatioos' atr authority uDder sub-sectioD (3) of
under this Ac! lexcept the povrers to constitute
decessarv or exPedietrt'
;;;il;;;;;"i: ,ules uader sectioo 251 as it Eav deem
io -y om".t, state Govemmeot or other authority'
2il ATexhook of Solid Wastes Menagement

Etfect ot Other Laws

(1) Subject to the provisiotrs of sub-sectioB (2), the Provisions ofthis Act aad the
rules or orclers marle thereitr shall have effect rot\ .ithstalldhg atr)'thing ilrcodsisteDt
therewith codaiDed in any eBactmeEt other thatr this Act
(2) Wtrere any act or omissiotr coDstitutes an offence puDishable under tbis Act and
also undei any ottrer Act theo the offeBder found guilfy ofsuch offence shall be
liabie to be putrished utrder the other Act atrd Dot under this Act'

Power to Make Rule6

(1) The Cedtral GovemEeBl may, by [otificatiotr in the Ofiicial Gazette, make rules
for carrying out the purposes of this Act.
(2) In pa(iculai, and without ptejudice to the generality of the foregoing Power,
such rules aoay provide for all or a]]y ofthe follo\T ing matlers, tramely:
(a) the standards in €xcess ofwhich etrviroDmeDtal Pollulatrts shall notbe discharged T
or emitted under seclioo 7;rr
(r) the procedure iD accoldaBce with and the safeguards i! comPiiadce with
whi;h hazardous substances shall be handled or caused to be handled under
seciion 8;22
I
(c) the authorities ol ageDcies to which intimatioD ofthe fact of occurredce or
appr€hettsioD of occuEence of the discbarge of aDy enlironmeDtal pollutatrt
inixcess ofthe prescribed sta[dards shall be giveD and to whom all assistance
shall be bound io be rendered ulder sub_section (1) of sectiotl 9;2r
I
(d) th. a"ooat ia which samPles of air, water, soil or other substance fo-r the
purpose ofanalysis shall be taketr ulrder sub-section (1) of section 11;2r
(e) ile form itr which notice of iDtetrtion to have a sample analysed shall be
I
served under clause (a) of sub sectioD (3) of section 11;15
(D the fimctioN ofthe environoental laboratories,25 the procedure for tbe submission
to such labotatories of samPles of air, water, soil aod other substaDces fol
I
aDalysis or !est;27 the form of laboratory rcpofi: the fees payable for such
r€port aDat othel matters to etrable such laboratories to carry out thei fiDctioDs
under sub-sectioD (2) of section 12;
!
(g) ADalyst aPPoinled or recogaised fot the
'- the qualificatioDs of Govemment
porpo.. of analysis of samPles of air, water, soil or othei substances under
section l3i3
I
(r) the maDtrer i! which Dotice ofthe offeace and ofthe ifltentioD to mal'j a
cofiplaitrt to the Central GovemmeDt shall be given under ciause (b) ofseclion
19;?e
I
(i)the authority of officer to whod any ,epoits, leturns, stalistics, accounts
and other infomalion shall be furDished under section 20;
U) afly other Eatter which is required to be, or EIay be, prescribed' I
Rules made under thls Act lo be laid belore Parliamenl
Every rule made under this Act shall be laid, as sooD as may be aflff it is made' before
each Hose of Parliametrt. while it is itr sessioD, for a total period ofthirty days \T hich
may be comprised itr one session oa in two or more successive sessions, and if, before
 Seti e nt Fe atu tss ot Envi rcn me 1t \P rot49!!i!1y-:y
rhe expiry ortre--sessi* -T",1,"j:,J,j:t',:J'".t"H:::il:T';:';i:""':'Jn'il:::
aforesaid. both Houses as'ee i t*lt Oa\e effecr oDly in
made' t: i#'.i",ii***;,
asree that lbe rule should not be
tlt tuy b"t so' hoEever' that any such
sich modified forE or be of no esect' "' """ to e validiry ofan)ahilg previously
mortificatiotr or anDulEent sUall le 'T tlo'rt Ptejudice
done uDdet that rule.
vide Noliiicatioo
rlt came ioto force io the whole of lDdia ou 19th NoveEber, 1986 No. 525 daied
in tle Gazette of India
No. G.S.R. 1198(E) dated l2-11-86 Published
12-11-86.
:rhe ceorrat covern,re,r has delee:t.g"
-Act to the stale Govemments of Andhfl
t.r#.T. T:,j"..:Jl#:.i;:::Ttilt#;
Madhya predesh. Mizoram. orissa. Rajasthan.
illi*o;ii*J".r,, r"maralca. Kerala.
qr!:1iiti"ni:*ti*:.:",j1;,"x;'JT:[:::'T]:::iT'T::'#,1
rv
revoLe suco u<'Egd'u! wr ' - - provrsrons
the ,'roui"ioo, of tttiioo 5 of Ihe Acl'.if
in,rhe
Govemmeois or ma) itself invoke "l,'l'-lil"- i."i")'"'..*'t. pur
5 course of actioa is necessary ro ""tr.
.i,1. Centtal Covemment sucl' Jutta tO-z'gg puUlished in-Gazefle No 54
of
""tti",
iiterest. (Notilication No. S O I52 ttr Govemmetrts
il'J."-.'i",.i.'ri... ,owers bave been delegared to th; following
sIale

14-4-E8
NotificatioD No s 0 38e (E) dated
*:""ll,il: Tfi:"fifii Unar rradesh videI44'R8:
,riTi.l.l i.,t" c","ne No 205 dared I7-5-88 published iD fie Gazene
ir""'i-^ir." 'ii. N,ificarion No S o 488{E' dated
No 255 dated 17'5-88;
Goa atral JaDmu & KashEir
iiolNo'so ESi (E- dated 22-9- 88; published
!ide Notlllcal
in rhe Gazette No. ?49 dated 22'9 Et published ia the
;":"r;;;;il.r;;ir',,ide Nodficado! N s o 408 (E) dated 6-6-Ee;
GazeBe No 319 daled 6-6'89; i,, thc Gazene No'
id;; il;; i,#;;;o' ir" s o 41s (E) dated 25'7 -st published
414 dated 25-1-91.
rFor issuing ditections see r'4 of ltoviroEaeDt (?rotectiod)
Rules' 1986

aSee r. 3 of Environmedt (Protection) Rules' 1986

and Sch€dules lhereto'

i.schedulelliststhestao.laldsfor€ldissiotroldischargeofetr..,konmentalpollutaats
their maximum allowable liniits
frosr the inalustries, prot"t"t o' Jptiut;oot "nd
of coDcentration;
,, ;;"";;ii;i";;;Deral staDdardsfor tlischarse of effluents and their maxiauo
limits of conceotra!ioo allowable'
iii,Scledulellllistsambieotairqualitystandardsi.drespectofDoiseaoditsmaxidum
_rrt,t
allowable limirs;and
"a'"i"d"i. iv elc' from motor
standards for eEission of smoke' vapour
Jlili.].i ""a ."'.i.,, allo$able limits of rheir emission'
and
ssee r. 13 of Environment (Protectioa) Rules 1986'
Wastes (Manag€ment and Handling)
Rules' 1989;
i. Hazaralous
ffi ATextoook ol Sotd Wast66 Managemanl

ii. MaDufactEre, Storage add lmport of Ilazardous CheEicals Rules, 1989; aad
iii. Rules for the Matrufacture, Use, I&port, Export aDd Storage ofHMaldous Miclo
organisms, Gedetically-engitreered orgaoisms or Cells.
6Rule 13 suPRA.
TSee r. 5 of EDvironEent (Protection) Rules, 1986.
3see r. 12 ofEnvironmetrl (Protection) Rules atrd Schedule 11, and relevaDt Provisious
of Hazardous wastes (ManageBent and Handling) Rules, Manufactule, StoBge and
IElport of Hazardous CheEicals Rules aad Rules for the Manufacture, Use, IEPort
Expoi and Storage ofhazardous Miclo-organisds, Genetically Engineered OrgaEisEs
or Cells.
esee r. 3 of Envirotrment (Protectiotr) Rules, 14t6 atrd Schedule I.
loSee r. 13 of Environrnetrt (Protection) Rules, 1986 atrd

i. llazardous Wastes (MatrageEent and Hatrdlitrg) Rules, 19891

ii. Manufacture, Storage atrd hTlporl of Hazardous Cheaicals Rules, 1989; and
iii. Rules for the Matrufacture, Use ImPon, ExPon and Storage ofHazardous Micro
organisms, Genetically Eogheered organisrns or Cells.
llFor authorities or agencies se€ r. 12 of EnvirotrmeEt (Protection) Rules, 1986 atrd
Schedule
t2The Central Go1t. has eEpowered 60 persotrs listed io the Tabie (p. 251) vide S.O.
t3 (E) published in the Cazette ofLldia No. 66 dated l6-2'87 aDd S.O. 63 (E) published
in the Gazette oflEdia No.42 dated it-l-E8.
lrID excercise of powers cooferred utrder sub-section (i) of section 1l the CentBl
covemtdetrt has empowered 60 officers listed in the Table (p 254) vide S O. 84 (E)
published itr the Gazefte No. 66 dated 16-2-87 atrd S.O. 62(E) publisbed in the Gazctte
No.42 dated 18-l-88.
I4For procedure for takiDg saoples see r. 6 of Environment (Protectiotr) Rules, 1986,

rsTbe Central Govemmeni has delegated ils po\*ers uader clause (b) of sub-section (i)
of sectioD 12 and section 13 ofthe Act to th€ Central Pollution Contol Board vide
Notification No. S.O. 145 (E) dat d 2l-2-91 publishod iE th. Gazette No. 12t da'.rd
27-2-91.
l6The list of laboratories/rtrstitutes recoSlised as environmetltal laboratories: aDd the
pe.sons recogpised as Gol't. AMlysts is giveu in the table (p. 223).
r?See r. 9 of EnvironmeDt (Protection) Rules, 19E6.
leSee r. 8 of Enviroament (Protectio!) Rules, 19t6.
llFor qualifications of Govt. ADalyst see r. 10 ol EnviroElteut (Protectiotr) Rules,
1985.
 Salent F.aaneo ol EnibnnentlPoleltonl Ad, 19,6 2o7

20In exerciseofpowers confered utrder clause (a) ofsecaio! 19, rhe cetrtral_Govemmert
has authorised the ofrcers arld authotilies listed ia the Talle G.238) vide S.O. 394
(E) published in the Gazette No. 1t5 dated i64-t7, s.o. 237(E) published in the Gazette
No. 171 dated 29-3-89 and s.O. 656(E) dated 21-t-t9 published itr the Gazette No.
519 daled 21-8-89.
2lsee foottroto 2 otr Page 213.
22see footnote 3 otr Page 213.
asee footnote I onPag€ 214,
2asee r.6 ofE[virotrmetrt (Protection) Rules, 19t6.
:5see r. 7 ofEtrviro[metrt (?rotection) Rules, 19E6.
26See r.9 ofEavironment (Protectiotr) Rules, 1986
27For the procedure for subnnissioD of saoples to labomto es a[d the form of Iaboratory
repo see r. 8 ofEnvironment (ProlectioD) Rules, 1986.
23see r. IO ofEflviroDE]etrt (Protectiou) Rules, 19t6'
2esee r. 1I of Eivtoooetrt (protection) Rules, 19t6.
il
I
I
I
Append.ix-IV I
I
Listof Hozard.oas and Toxic I
Cheru,icals T
I
Tte Hazardous Wastes (Matragemetrl& Hatrdlilg) Rules, 19t9 have beer
laid dowD by lbe Midstry ofEEviroE&etrt aDd Fotasl. Govemmeot of lDdia.
The followirg cheBicals have beetr declared itrthese Rules, as hazardous.
I
None of the Chenical I
I
2
3
4
Ac.torc Cyaaohydride
Ac.tylc Ctlorid.
Acetylere (EthFe)
I
5 Acrolein (2-Propenal)
6
7 A]dicrrb
8 Al&iD
9 aryl Phthalat
10 AIyl Alcohol
1l Alylaoine
t2 Alpha Naphthyl Thiourca (ANTI,
13 A!:ioodiphenyl4
t4
i5
l6
17
18 AE]-Boniun Nitates i! fenilizas
19 A.EmouiuE Sulfamale
20
21 Aniline
22 Anisidine-p
23 ArtiEony ald Codpourds
24 Antimony Hydride (Stibine)
25 Arseaic Hydride (ArsiDe)
 List ol Hezadous endToxb Chemicals N9

S. No. Nade of the Che ical

s No. Nade of the Chenical
12 Capta!
26 ArseEic ?eotoxide, Ars€dc (v) Ac14 13 Captofol
ald SaLs
74 Carbarvl (sevin)
27 Anenic Tnoxide' Alsedious GO Acids
75 carbofrrfa!
and Salts
16 Calbotr DisuiPhide
28 Carbon Moloxide
77
29 AziDophos'Ilhyl
18 Cdbor TeEachloridc
30 Azinophos'Methyl
79
31
80 Cellulose Nitrate
32
81 Chlorats (used in exptosives)
33 Bellzidim
82 Chlordanc
31 Beuzidhe Salts
83 Cblorf€nvirphos
l5 E4 Chlori.Dated BeMenes
36 Berzoyl Chlonde
85 Chlorine
31 Berzoyl Peroxid€
E6 Cblonine Dioxide
i8 Belryl Cbloride
87 C!]orhe Oxide
39 Berz,I Cyaoide
88 Cblorine Trifluoridc
40 ReNlhuE iPowdets Compouad)
giobeoYl 89 Cblorode$al Cblorid€
41
90 Chtoroacclalchloride
42 B; I2-ChloroEethYD Kerone
Bis i2. 4. 6-TrinilrophFile) Amjne
9l Cb.loroacetatdehYde
43
9Z CbloroaliliE 2
Bis i2, Cbroroethyle sulPt'ide)
93 Chloroadlioe4
15 Bis ( Chloromethyu erher
94
46 Bis Iterl"Bu$ Iletox)) Butaoe_Z 2
I 95 ChlotodiphetrYl
47 Bls r tert-Bulvip6!xy) CJclohex?oFl
Elha8e 96 chloropox)TroPane
48 Bis-1, 2 Tribroxmphenoxy
49 Bis pherol
9l Cb.loroeiharcI
98 Chlorocthyl
50 Boron and CoEPounds
99 ChloroforBat€
5t Bromine
100 Chlorofluorocalbons
52 Bromine PeDlafluoride
101 Cbloroform
53
102 Chloroformyl_4, MerPholiDe
54 Butadine
103 ChloroEethaie
55 Butane
104 Cblorcm€thYl Ether
56 ButanethioL
105 cbloroBethyl Methyl Ether

!t
5l Butanone_2
106 Chlotonitobenzetre
58 Bdoxy Ethanol
t0'l ChloroPreoe
59 Bulyl Glycidal Etber Cltorosolphotric Acid
ter 108
60 Bui)..l Peroxy acelate,
109 Chlorotrinito benzene

II 61
62
63
Buq I Peroxlisobrryrale' tert
Btrr! I Perox\ rsopropll CarboDat€ ten
Butyl Pero4maleate, ten
110
111
tl2
Chloroxuon
Chrodiue and ConPounds
Cobalt aad ComPounds

I
64 Bubl PeroxYPivalate, TCRT Copper and Com?ounds
65 But) MnY1 Ether 114 ColrmafrYI
66 Buty-tr-M€icaPta! 115
67

I
116
68 C-9. Alomalic Hldrocarbotr Flaclion t1l cresots
69 Cadmium and Colnaounds 118 Clrmidine
70 Cadmiunr oxid€ (tunes) Table (contd. onP.210)

I
71 Calciunc)anide

I
rl
zlo ATextbook of Solid Wasles Marwgehent

Table (contd. fun p. 209\

S. No. Nade of the Che tcat
S. No. Nane of the Chenical 165 Dinethylca$onyl
119 166 DimethylnitosamiDe
t20 C}llophos r61 DitriEophenol, Salts
168
t2t ClEothoate
r22 Cya.orrric Fluoride
r69 Dinitso-o-Cresol
123
170 Dioxade
124 Cyclohexarcl
t71 Dioxarhioa
t25 Cyclohexamcuc
172 Dioxslae
t26 CyclohexiEide
t73 Diphaci.noDe
\14 Diphosphoramide Oc&Eethyl
t27 CyclopentadiEetre
t73 Dipropylene Glycol&ethylelher
12t CyclopcDbne
t16 Dsulfotoo
t29 Cyclotetram€thylenetrinitramine
t11 EDdosulfa
130 Cyclotriethyler€ TriuiEamift
17E ED&in
131 DDT
t19 Epi.blorohydrine
t32 Dicarbomodiphenyl Oxide
180 EPN
133 DeEletou
18t Epox)Tropaoe, 1, 2
134 Di-Isobutyl Peroxide
t82 Elhioo
135 Di D-Propyl Peroxydica$onate
183 Ethyl CarbaDate
t36 D;sec-Butyl P€roxydicarbonatc
184 E1hyl ether
131 Dalifos Mazoditritophewl
Diszomethane
185 Ethyl Hexanol -2
t3E
Diberzyl Peroxydicarbomie 186 Ethyl Mercaptan
r39
1.10 Diehloroaeetylene
187 Ethyl Metbacrylate
t4l Diehloroberzeoe-0 188 Ethyl Nitrate
142 Dichlorobeazere-2 189 Ethylrdine
t43 Di-chloro€thaEe 190 Ethylene
144 Dichloroedyl Eiher 191 Ethyiere Chlorohydrine
145 Dichloropherol-2, 4 192 Ethyleie Diamiue
146 Dichtorophenol-2, 6 193 Ethylene Dbroloide
t47 Dichlorophenoxy Ac€tic Acid -2,4 t94 Ethylene Dichloride .
(2,4-D) 195 Ethylene Glycol Didaate
I4E Dichloropropane- I, 2 196 EthyleDe Oxide
149 Dichlorosalicylic Acid, -3, 5 197 Ethyleozmine
150 Dichlorous (DD\ry) 198 Ethylthiocyanate
i5l Dicrolophos 199 Fensulphothior
152 Dieldrin 200 Fluenetil
153 DiAoxybutare 201 Fluoro-4, 2-HydloxfbuE-ric Acid atrd
15,+
155
156
157
Diethyl Peioxydicarbonare
Dierhyl Glycol Didtrate
Diethylele Trialrine
Diethyleneglycol Butyl Ether/
202

203
Salts, Esrers, A-Erides
Fluoroacetic Acid and Sairs, Esters,

Fluorcbuqdc Acid4, md Srlts, EsraE

I
158
1i9
160
Diethyleneglycol Burl Acetate
Diethyleneriamine @ETA)
Digllcodl'l Ether
Dihydroperoxylropane, -2, 2
204

205
Fltrorccrororic Acid4, ad Sal6, E$ers5
I
161
162
163
Diisobuq'r-al Peroxide
Dimethoate
Dimethyl Phosphoraxoido cymide Acid
206
207
GlycoiiEite (Hydroxyacetonitiite)
Guaoyl-1, 4 Nirrosamiroguaryl-1- I
I
164 Dimehyl Phthaiate 208 Heptachlor

t
I
 List of Hazadous andTadc Chafiicds 211

S. No. Nane of th. Chenicot

S- No. Nane of the Chenical
209 }laxachloro CYcloPeE eii'De
?10 HexacLlorocyclohexa$
254 Me{boxyElhsol(2-lvtcthvlcclbsivs)
t{exactrlolocycloaEethaDe
255 Mcthoxy ethYl Eercunc Aoetatc
ii; Hexacblorodibelzo-p'Dioxil-12' 256 MethylAcrylate
3,7,8.9 ?.51 MethylAlcohol
213 HexafluoroProPere
25a Methyl Adylkerore
2I4 Hexatrl€thylPhosphonEide
25g Mcthyl Brodide (Bro6oBethare)
2t5 ttcxalaethYl -3, 3, 6, 6' 9,9, -1,2' 260 Mcthyl Chloride
4. s-Tetroxacyclonooalle
261 MelhYI Cbloroform
216 HexamethylenediaBitre
262 M.thyl Cyclohexere
217 H€xaae
263 Methyl Ethyl Kctorc P€roxide
llE Hexadtrosstibere, _2,2, 4,
:1, 6,5' 264 Methyi HYdrazbe
219 Hexaval€trt Chor,ius 265 Mcthyl Isobutyl Kctotrc
120 Hydrdrne
266 Metnvl lsobutyl Ketore ?eroxide
:2 I H) draziff Nitate Hydrochlot'ic AcId
267 Methyl Isocyaaate
722 Hy&ogen
26A MethytlsothiocYarate
Hvd@aBrcmide (HY&obrcdic Aod) 269 MethYl M€rcaptirl€
1;; H;&;er cuoride Giqui6ed G&s) 210 MethYl MethacryIaie
225 Hy&ogen Cyadd€ 211 MethylParafior
226 ttydrogetr Fluoride 272 Methyl PhosPhodc Dicblonde
221 Hydrogen Seledide a73 MethYlN, 2, 4, 6._TriDiEoaniline
22A Hydros.- SJlPhide 214 Methylene Cbloride
229 HYalroquinone 213 M€&vleftbis,'4,4,(2'c1 oro?oilb€)
230 Iodine 276 MethylEichlorosilaDe
231 lsobenzatr 217 Mevirphos
232 tsodritr 21a MolybdenuE & Coopoulds -..
233 IsoPhorooeDiisooyasate 279 N-MethvI'N.2.4GN-TeE'nitooun
)la IsoDroDvlEther 2ao Naptha (CoaI Tar)
:!s lueroneis'n:droxF+u$aea+t'+ 281 NaPhthyladitr€' 2
282 Nickel & ComPoutrds
116 Lead (inorga-oic fu$es &dusts)
2a3 NickelTetracarbodyl
244 NiEoanilire-O
li7 Lead2,4.6'IriDl'roresorciDoxide
285 Ninoaailine-P
(Lead sqThla1e)
?86
23E Lead Azide
287 NiEochloroberzere_P
239 Lepto!hos
288
240 Li.Ddaoe
zE9 NitIothage
24t Liquified Petoleum Gas (LPG)
290 Nitogen.Dioxide
242 Maleic Arhydride
Matrganese & ConPoulds
29t NiEogen Oxide
213
292 Nirrogen Triflucride
Mercalro Benzothia\'vle
293 NitoglyceriDe
245 Mercur,v ALT1
294 NitophenolP
246 Mercury Fulminate
295 NitroproPane-i
241 Mer.uD'Meihyl
296 Niaropropane_2
218 Methacr]lic Anhydride
291 Nitosodimethylalnine
119 Methacryloni!ite
298
250 MelbacryloYl Chloiide
299 OcrabromoPhenYl Oxide
251 MethanidoPhos
Table (contd. onP.2l2\
252 Mefi anesuhhoryl Iluoride
 I
I
212 ATextbook ol Solid Wast€6 Mahagei,onl
I
'lzble (contd.

i-fr . -iii
fion P 211,
ot,t'" ct
"^i"ot
S-

340
No. Nane of the Chenical
Phospbile (Hydrogen PhosPhide)
I
300
301
302
olel]rn
oleylaliine
OO-Diethy I S-ErhylsutphonvlEcthvl
341
342
Phosphoric Acid ard Estrs
Phosphoric Aci4 Bronethyl BioEo
(22dimethylpropyl) Br@oethvl Ln€r
PhoQhoric Acid- Bronocrhyl Bromo
I
303

304
Phosbhorotiioate
oGDiethyi S-Etbylthio!*thvl Phos'

irGDerhyl S-E&ioBethyl PtosPhe

(z2-Djfletlylptopyl) Cbtoo€tlylEsler
Phosphoric Acid, Cuolo€thyl Brono
(2,2-DimethoxTlpropyl) Chtoroethvl
I
305 OO-Diethyl S-IsopropyljnioEethvt
Phosphorolithroatc
345
345
Ester
Phosporous & CoEPoulds
Phostala! Pircic Acid (2,4,6-
TriniEopheDol)
I
306

307
308
Oo-diethyl s-PtoPYlthiometbYl
Phosphorodithioate
O.yamyl
o^Tdisulioror
347
348
349
Polybronimled Biphenyl

PoassiuE Chlorate
I
309
310
311
Oxygetr Giquid)
OxygeD Diiuo;de
350

351
352
Prorourir (1-(3,,{-Dichlorophenvl)'
3-TnazeDefi ocarboxamid€)
PropanesultoDe- I , 3
Prcpeo,-1, 2-Chloro- 1,3"Do1 Diaceiale
I
I
3t2 Paraoxon (DiethYl 4-NitiophetrYl
353 hopylene Dicbloride
Phosphare)
354 Propytene ordde
313 Faraquat
355 Prcpyleneimire
314 Paraihion

I
356
3r5 Parathion MethYt
351 Sele um Hexaiuond.
316 P is gr€eD (Bis Ac€io Hexe@e@sinito
358 SeEicarbazide Hy&ochlonde
Tenacopper)
359

I
311
360
318 PeDlabroEodiphenyl oxide
36r sodiuE Chlorate
319
362 Sodium Cyaoide
320 ?entacbloro Napbthaletre

I
363 Sodium Picramate
321
364 Sodiunc Selenite
32.2
365 StF€ne, 1, 1, 2, 2-T€tachlorcethate
323 P€ntact thritol TetsaniE'ate
366 Sulfotep

I
324
367 Sulphur Dichloride
325
368 suiphul Dioxid€
326 Perchloroethylele
359 Sulphur Triond€
321 PerchloroEethyl MercaPtEn

r
370 Sulphrric Acid
328 PeEtaDone, 2.4-Methyl
Phetrol
371 Sulphoxide, 3-Chloro!ropyloctYi
329
Phenyl Glycidal Ethei 372 Telulium
330
Phenylene p-Diamine 373 Teluritm Hexafluoride

I
331
332 PheEylmercury Acetate
T.pp
375 Terbufos
333
376 Tetrabromobisphenol-A
Tetrachloro, 2. 2, 5, 6, 2. 5 Cyclo-

I
3',17
3]5
hexadiene- I. 4-Dione
336 Phosfolrn
337 Phosgene (CdbonYl Chloride) 378 Tetrachlorodibenzo-p Dioxin. 2, l.
7, 8 (TCDD)
33E
3-t9 319 Tetiaethyl Lead

I
I
I
I
T
T Listol Hezadous andToxic Chanbals 219

I No. Ndne of th. Chenical

L

S.
S. No. Nane of,he Che'nical
405 TrichloroPhenol, 2, 2' 6
3EO TetrafluoroethaDe
406 Trichlorophe$I,2' 4, 5

I
181 TcrralrethyleredisulphoEEm, e
401 Triethylmise
382 Tetramcthyl Lead
408 Triethylenemelalriae
3E3 TeEaDritrometbaae

t
409 TriEethyl Chlorosilae
3t4 Tha]iu:r & CoEPouds
410 TridethyloploPare Phosphite
385 Thiozitr
411 TriDitromiline
386 Thiodyl Cbloride
4t2 Tri toadsole,2,2,4' 6
3a1 TfPate
413 TndtobeEz€ae
388
I
Toluere
3E9 Toluidieu-2,4Diisosya$te 414 Trhitobesoic Acid
390 Totuidi€rc-O 4t5 Tdnitrocresol
TriniuoDhenetot€. 2, 4, 5
391 Toluetre 2, 6_Diisocyanatc 416
(St)"hic AciO

I 3g2 Traos- 1, 4-Chlorobutm€ 417 Tnnitroes.ninoL 2, 4, 6

1ej Tri. '1 (Cvclobexvl) StaE vll Il l' 418 TriDitotol me

2.4"frczole 419 Triotthoc.essyl Phosphale
394 Triamino, -1, 3, 5' 2,4,6-Triuitro- 420 TriDhenYliD Cbloiidc

I 395
396
TribroEoPhesol, 2, 4' 6
Trichloro Acetyl Cbloride
421

423
.
Turp€Dtine Uranium & coEPounos
va[adiurtr & ConPounds
rr,lyl Chloride

I 391 Tricbloro EthaEe 424 VnylFiuoride

39t Tricbloro Na9htbalen€ 425
399 Trichloro (cbloromeihyl) Silane 426 Xylene
400 TrichloIodicblorolhetrYlsitatre 421 xytdhe

I 401
402
403
Trichloroeth$e, I' l, i
Tdchioroethyl Silarc
T.ichloroethyteDe
TrichtoroBetbarcsdpheryl Chloride
424
429

Saarce: MOEI.
Zinc & ClEPouds
ziconiuD & ComPounds

I
404

I
I
I
II
It
T
 I
I
I
I
References I
I. ADB.1991. Guidelines fot Social Analvsis
ofDevelopnent Ploiects Asian
I
2.
De!elo.Eert B.nk, Madla, Philippires
ii.- 'illirg.
.I
s"ua **,e Marase"oesl Pla! for L'diaoMegacities'
Environnental Protection' l9(2\: 1999 '
hdidz
I
^i". nii,osst
I
Del eloDrtrmr of Software for E,vironf,ellal Managemmt'
3. 'il) .a * r*ircnnehtot chattense'lo' the Nei Mittennnd
'iZ7i^',ii)n"i',' na" nkmohona cenne'NewDeLhi on 25-2TNovenber

I
1999.
4. i1-o"uonnr., *a *aslfall. M' 1988 Selectio' ofHazardous wasle
C.
i*o-r"l"jrft.-"i'. u'i'g M,rhi-attribure Tteor) and Fuzzv Se( Analvsis'
t"*,,t otta'iro"nenat Slrrt'i l8l I ): 69_8{ vater a wa'tevater'
5.

6.
tEi. Gsa. srcaora a"thodsfor the tuanination af
Aeerica! PubIic Health Association' NY'
Tsrru.Vsl-.')""",t B""k al ASrM standords-watet and Ewnon
'i""t
entat
r"t.o.va. tOo Axoerrcan Sociery for Testing andolMarerjals
I
iiili."6nz.. s',,a*a ,e netaod tot detentaalion conpoiiion
7. '""ii"2a

ASTM
al
.**,pa *mvaJ,e' Americ'tr soci€! for Testing arra Matedais'
'""r.it, Method D 5231-92'
sttuction ond Mannotins ofsanitdrv'Landlitt toh"
I
t
Sotrs, NY."r,
wilev &".1;0.
s. ;"*ll;n.l;0. a"', sa cansttuc on ond voano'iry olsan arv randflt'
Wile,t & Soos, NY
-"-*".Ii.
lobn
I
10. ls-t. C--a\arc- bdrotas.zrid edn Mccraw-Hill NY
11. s"ili, i. 1gss.,erd- L stine oJ

t2.
22(121, PP ll97-1399.
i-".*.'c
Soits. En|irondentat Science Technotost'

L. rsel.l,.i,rratorSstens Selecuon and D?rr8z' var NosEald

I
13.
Reilhold. NY.
-s"-,.
U. u. 1988 Lawaer?t RadrcaLlne Wasle Regula!;on: Scieace'
Patnls aad r ea'. Le\4s tublisbers ChelseaVi'h'
I
ar.,"tf"Jl1. W. 'o.n Eavnonnehtal Inpac' As'e'5hent l\4cGra$-H:ll
14.

I5.
i.i*u*ira,t""., ci"lt flgineel-l.os seres' Mccraq'HiI tn( ' N/'
-*"Ji".-i. i.al lsso. rr, /so i a00a Handbook ' A ptocticot conprehensite
*,ae rc tSO t,A\asrc.dard: tnDlene'Q oa aad eawakacatal daaageneat
I
i.,,"- -.,t*, - CLEM l,Iomarion ser\ rce' Jarfax \ irgiDta'
I
I
I
 Relerences 215

M.Kl[,lev, $A7 ' The Geotogicat DBPo'al ofNuctear Waste tl llcv &
16. ChapEar, N. A. aEd
Soff, Chichest.t.
tz.6i"'.iiJ"r',i,lsgo.BiolosicalTr€atm'ltofuazardouswast'sludg$andtrastcwater'
P ollut rcn En grceinq, MaY t99O'
Laodlills. ia
,t. n. *-a Kicidser, P 1984 2 1 Basic Biooiemical Proccsses in
'" ti'i",.""*,i
Ctrl-t *"*'r rf., c*.q'R- a StcgDa'r, P
(edi \' 1a'ita'v Landflling: Process
'
Technolog)

ond Entironnentot lnPacr' Aoademic Press'

LoEdon
wast' var Nostrand
Iq Eomor. r. x. lsso. cre nicat Fita'ion and Solidifrcation of Ha2ardous
Rei.shol4 I'IY
a'id Gruitation ol Env'iondental
ilcli,'iiii. c'a" nes fot Estdbtishnenr Evatuation
'-zo. ;;;;:.';;";.ai;*rvLayticalrectdqucs sc'ies: LArs/e/1ee4-e5' ccuualPollutio.
Cortol Boald, Ncw Delbi'
c'rtal Pollution cTtr-ol9::rd'
u*nt on EosPitat wa'te Manaa€"e" T'clEologies
-' iiiii,'iiooi'.r'a-."loE
zr.
ard series: IMPACTS/2/
iriori"ti", Pol]uti;n AbateEent
1999-2000 March 2000 N€w Dclhi, hdia' 'l'a!er
'ii6i.iwii.-i*,e"nent of Municipat sotidva"' ce'tral Pollution corttol Boar4
N'w
zz.
Delhi.
hdltsttv Dacx'nent on Stdashtet House' Meat and.Seo.Food
"zz. ZlZs. $sz. Co^pbhenire
i""*'"t"i. c.^iirhersive Industv Documert series: coINDs/38/1992 ceatral?ollutiotr
CoDrrol Board NewDelhi'
zq. ZiZ:s iix.'i.i,roaiontrot .tcrs' Notiications ks*s -rhercnder'.P.ottution
Rutes
-- "ad
pcl/2n992 (voltm€ -I) central Pollutiotr Corttol Board' New Dclhi'
i."'"; i".i*,
-- iiii.
zs. isli;. ft,- to.isan;a afHazadous vaste Generation in Kerota' Ltazardors-vaste
,**..* S.t.", td{rlWAMS/8/1996'97' C'Dtral Pollutioa Conuol Boa'(NewDelhi
Haz ardous w*te
,".'i:{cT.';sr;i.-i,""*'is"mnolnaz*ao^wasteGenerutioninPuniob
"" Board' Nevr Delhi
ccntal Pollutior control
;;;;;;;"',IrMrvAMS/1on9e6'97
Loadf s cetu"al Porrution cortor BTld:H:3rdo.a
zt.
' 6ili.n6i.Z,iii^;tutH@aious waste
000-01 rebruar) 2001'NewDelbi hdia--
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tsoo r"* ct'ott"'s"' lo' ctr Lasmcers or De"etoptna-couhttie'
in
Kt-";;;i, H*.;;.i
,,'|iliicii*'-p*ceearlg'orrnelnreialionalConfereoceorgauzedbyiheDepanEenLof
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,rri,nl.halH.andMuddassr.S'MI996En'ircn'nentatlnPoctofLtbansanitaryLandlills'
' ii"r r*-"1. u*-n - .uge looo' \ol' rr \' 1 & 4
leaniu '
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pro.eedEss of!he tnlemddona oorerence orgaDized bv Faculq
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orEni ironmental Managemenr' Ne$ Delhi
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and Lducatton ' Ene'lt'e '.
"'-g' New Dethi'
i".,err .run'iro.un*ial wandsement
iil.i;;.;.';;ai"."r"a.r,.a\*a-'Renorc.,en"ustorEn'troanektatMahasen?n.
^ Venus P;bltshrns House' New Delhi'
olFt/as' HnaPublic'rio's
a;ujoaaio a' t"a i rqse' s scate utitizdtion
s.. iilliq;;,;; 'v^

sci;ce. Ann Arbor.

i2KleeA,J-andca,ruth.D.LgT0,saflpteweightsinsolidwaslecomposiiioDstudies,lof
-'
lr" s*,,. 1," Dt'"Pro''oitbeAScFs6rsAl)
dnd Meastre ents J wilev & sons' NY
,r. ii,"ri. c. iler. R, dntion Dercctioh w hd:ardous wastes donaaehent
ii. ii.".'l,r-" ri" ". c.. & choi. r' s' less MuttNbtec at rhe- m0PacificBdrin
a,otoot ta th? 'tt'nB rcB'"'' ""''^";;"''"
Paperpreseoted
" w No\e;ber reoo Pacrfic Basnconsonium
Honolulu Haqaii
1""*.."." Le'
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t-. ilf[".r."o. ii'"rngr'a'', e r-evaas r'c' and Environmenal Resourc€s Management
"' i,"".iiso. ar,"'doul uane Mo'"ee'eqr \4ccrau Hilllnc NY
;:#J-: ; ;:; i i'*ii'eh'' Jna: c ru'"' 1oaa Ha:ardou\ naste uana.edent
'" Mccra$ _Hill. Inc.. Ne$ York'
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DC'
naDdboor Nariotrar I
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st',d'":r":*"':;#";;;;;i".*ir,,rarr,.io.".rop,*'"r,""'"*
*asle MaDas,eEmr'
and save Mone'. caQ
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,r. XJi.*"', w. n' rsss ' conbustion a.nd-tncinefttion ?rccessls:
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i ;;. ;il,
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P 199Ib' Lardfill
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iir. wl'ri, i. r. rese Hazardolls waste Erahatiot Mcoraw'Hill
lsel
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Oxford Universitv Press'
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I
I
i+i. H. R ied)' Geoen'lironnental
bv the Brilish Geotechlical societv aDd Cardifr schoil
of Engireering'
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r r ee' rtomas leiford' Lordo!
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ut. ii".rri,'i. igso ,ttr Pottttion Modetins rhe; es' cokPulationat Methods' and A\aitohte
So/rwdre Van Nosrra! R€iuhold, NY'

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Ind.ex

Cardboard, 3, 5, 6. 8'9. l1'12'

l5-16'
18, 22.24. 37. 40. 50'52. 190
aerobic coEposti-ug, 45
Ae'obic dec;Epositior. 62 61 87 case sEdies, 167, 170
c.[.65-66.6t' ?l'?2,80 82' 85 E9'
Aerobic phase of ladfiltSts' l1-l- -- 165,17?, 190
o / 100. 134, 159,
Aesthetic cotrsideratioEs ir laEdnus' 87 92
CharacFnstics of l€achate
Agricultual waste' 3 of solid wasl€s. 7,64.
Characreristics
AkctassiEerc,33
Air Dollutiotr coEtrol i[ incine€tors'
4l 16
90
Chetdical coEpositiotr ofwaste'
5?
monilori.Dg. I 65 '
An ;ualtr
qualitY staadards. 160, L79 cheEical EansforEahoo. 50
Air
.l6rue o{lJdfius, 68
An requirenent, 47 2?
Colleclrotr of*astes. 20 31

ComDosiliotr of laDdfl gas lI0

Aluslnum.125. 140 rv
i! la!d!x- s c@Dosition offlEjcipal solid *?ste
Araerobic decoloPosrtior
lJ)'r /'-o-r
CoEDostins,5' 7,9, l1-I2 18 21 26'
ash lalso s€e Flyasb)' 132'13' rt at lot tco'
rr-re. c5'19. SO.
tiz-+t 173. 175. 188
AuxiliarY tuel, 39' 43 19'
Contaminateal site. 155,
B
D
Backvard collectio& 3 73'
DecoEDosilio!, 1' 43 49' 62-63
Bani;rs for tandflll gas, 74 'lo. iz. go' too'oz. ttt't2'
BEES. 169-70' 175
Belt conveyot, 3 3, DcEolitior waste, 3, 5_6,20' 31
ReDto e.94 rrensificatiotr. 3 3 ' 34 191
Biodesradatiotr. 13.46'47'66
89 1I l' ;etrsiw. 20, 22'23' 25 33'34 5E-59'
12. 144, 146, 190
rr- i.z. e t-tl, as. gs. g l. t t2-tt:'
B iof,edical waste, 13 6. 155 ri8, 131, 143, 151' 158, 173
BidscontIol,2 DcositY scParatioE 33
Dcstructiv€ distittatioD' 43
Diccstior. ?. 13. 15.21 49 80'12r
C
Dioxi[s fi]Ials, 109
aad
Carbotr analysis, 13
Disc so.etr.36
Carbor coDteDt, 111
Disposal ofwasre l. 7' 62' 64
71 t9'
carboD motroxide, ior'10 152'
165
131
carbon'dtIogetr ratio, 46
 I
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ZZ2 A Tenbook of Solid Waste Managament r
DrailaCe faciiities for

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lar nlls,70 60,63-64, 109-12, llE-119. 125, 165,
L9t- 2t0-t2
qydlo8eo aDalysis, 13
1E5,
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Eaerey recovery, 7. 11, 32, 35. 64, 66,'70. 77.
113, 116-19, 131, 141, 191-92
EnvnorEeotal audit, 126, 181-85, 189
I
hcinelalioD,7, q. 14. J8.30.41-42. 128, r33-
31, r47, 17E, t91,
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EDviroErental impact assessmeEt (EIA), 2 1, 68-
69, 129, 156,57. i59-60, 172, 180 IrdBtriat waste, 3-4, 20, 81
Envnonmeftal ioaDagemeEr plar, 15 7, 16i, 164, Iustitutional wastes, 3
168, t70,114,177 lnregrated solid wasre mznagemeot, 6
Etrviionmenral monilodrg. 67-6E, E6, 128,131, h-v€ssel composting, 48

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F Junt dealers. 27
Field capacit), 8.9. 10,25, 89-90
Final cove!, 66, 72-75. 82. 84, 86, 114, 131
x
Flare burtrer, 119 Kjeldahl Eethod, 13-la
Fleing oflarldfill gar,
Floatatioa sepalatioo, 33
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Fluidiz€d bed incina'atioL 39

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LaDdIill cov€r,74,76,89, 114, 117 I
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Flyash, 3. 75, 128.142"43,191 La!df1ll gas, 1 3, 7 6-77, 83-8,1, 90, 93, 109-120,
Food waste, 190,91 t22
Forklifr.36 LaDdfill gas cortrol, 83, 109
Fiesh leachate- 87-88 La.odEll gas Eigratioa, 109, 113-15, 122
fronl

G
end loade! 11 Lad6[irg methods, 6E
Larxdfills, 10, 18, 28-29, 38, 62-67,71,75-76.
89. 93-95. 97- I0l. I I l- 13, I I 8,19, 124, 128-
3:, 134-35, t4r, t44. 141,151. t62. t72-
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Gas cortrol. 62, 68, 73. 83, 109, 115, 119, 173,
GasEigatioE,75, 109, 113-16, 122
73,118
Layout of larxdfi li. 69:70
Gasifica.io& 7, 38, 44, 61
Leachare. 72. 88. 90. 92. 98. 106-0?
Ger€ration ofsolid wastes, 4
Oeographic IrforEatior Systern, ?.32. 171
GeomeD:brane, 66, 83, 92-97, 99,98, 107-08
Georerlile, 04
Glass, 3, 5, 6. 8-9, 12. 15,32-35,37-39,51,
Leachare collectio!, 98
Leachat€ cort'ol,68
t0r, 104, 106, 108
Leachate treatmetrl, 67,
Legal ftahework. 156-5?, 171
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56-5'.60,10, r28, r3r, r'6,
GovernEelt Euidelhes. 19
Groundwdter laonitoritrg, 7 7-7E,
r78
Lhers,68, 92-95. 97. 99, 173. 181

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Magreti. separatiotr, 33
E Material recovely, 6,9, 132, 178, 192
Mcchaaical size reduction. 34-3 5
HaDrr1erEilis, 34 Metals.5-?.9. 12. lS. lE..26-27,32, 35, 38-

Haui distarce,29. 52-53,60. 67. 191,
Hazardous wastes. 3. 16. 72, 81, 92, 197. 123-
29, t3t-32. t43-44, t5t, 154, 164
HELP nodel, 90-91
Hois: truck collectioE. 3 1
Hospital wasre, 3. 134, 136
Hurus,45,74
Hydrogen, Il-13. 15,24-25, 43-44. 41, 50, 59-
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178 39, 48, 51. 50, 100-01, 2, t25, t34,137,
1 43-47. 162, t65, 17 6, 11 8, 192
Methane, 43, 45, 50, 63-64, 83-84, 100, 104,
109-13, tt7-22, t47,165, 173,192
Mekic conversioD factors, 194-95
Moisiure content, 8-9. 1 1 . 22-25 , 42. 45 -4a. 58-
89-90, 94, 9?. 100-01, 111-12,144, t46, 17E.
a
a
192

a
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Residentral $as(e.43
Molrtori4 o{lardfill gas' 71 -- -^ .. Residues.7,2l,36. 39. 62. 82 128, 132 136
I{u,crpalsolid waste 4 S'19'I/
rr' --
)r')u' 6
R esource tecovery, 26, 3
39.4?,51, 108 Rotathg biological cotrtactors, 102_1 03

NiF6pen. l1-13. 15, l4_15 45-4? 58

63_64' S
- l37 l44 i60 l62 to)' Ialdfi[s,
is] too. t,o',:' Sarlitar)' t 7E

179.211 ScreeDing,7,35. 192

Nitroge! atralYsis' I3
Seami.Dg of geom€Bbrane, 96
SelectioD oI equiP6etrt, l7
o sele.tioD olsile (also see site selecttotr)' 69' l29'
151
oil nod P}folysis, 43-44 SeDaratioE of solrd waste. 32'35
old Ieachate, 87-8 8 S;eddiEg. 7. 33-3a, 4s. 66. 180, 192
oDeraliEg aJea at landfills
Tl
Sire remediaiioq 123, 143, 193
Size reduction, 7, 34, 36, 49' 70
e';"'ilri j' :i
ir ;1i1, i l'i; ;'.1 Size seDaratiotr,7.35
ir;i:ril
190'92. 211
Soii covers, a9, 66-67. 85'86. 173 180
162, 16'7 . Solid wate EranagemeDI. I9. 26,61 177
Source reduction, 192
P
Soolce separatioD, 192
Scurces ofwasies geoerahoD. 2'4
P2;icle size dist burion.a-1o l4 s6ecific weighr, 7-8, 21-22, 51,85, ll) l9t
p,.i.,:tare m"ne.. ll. to st tg; tor S;ecificatiotrs for landfllls, 81
Pathogenic oiganistns, 139 Sutfur aDalYsis' 14
'".**iliitr. ol' -s' s:-t'1' Ea' ol-e4 9'7' ol' Stack Eodroring, 81, 173
Standdds for leachate disPosal, 89
107- 112_16. 14',1_46, Srationery container system' 31
oHcotrtrol,46 Suctiotr lysimeter, 77
it vsk al compositLon ofwase'
u'Ll
Surface \rarer draiMge,66' 75

H]:"l",,.ili:a,i: I i 31:11 ;1;?t ;i;, T

.IemDerarrre, 9,
'-7i Il-I4. 3o. 4 I.4:.,14.48. 50. 51'
l1",ff"1i!.'i}lill';il,, t. t6t'62' t6s' 167' or. so. so-st, 95'96, l06-07 I12'll9'
188 tzt:zl. tzt,135-38, 144-46, 158' 192
Post'closure Plan, 131 Thermal DrocessiDg, 32, 38
PubticDaniciPation l7I T.xicin.123'24, 126,144. 146 148 162
lc2
P!roly;is 7. i8,4l-44' 61 l2E Trace compoutrds, i09-10
Transfer ofwaste, 31
R Tralsfe! srations, 27-32. 190
Traasformatiotr of$aste, 38' 47, 50
Reactors,128
Transponadon of wasre, 20
Reco!er] ofldare al' 21
Tretrch f,ethod of landfilliDs, 64
tli"'.,*,"":::;l'!; 1Ti.1\,, 0,,0.,u.,,u, Troflnel screen,56-57
), lar 183. 191-91
rq' tsl
reirse derived fuel' i2'3r' 39 U
ResiatioE,l30. 198 UltiBate analysis, 11, 13. 24
R.;ote SensiBs. T. 69, l65 1ll' I /r
24 A Textbook ot Sotictwaste Manag€ment

ryasle disposat, t0, I9,62-63,69,

E2. 117. 15l.
Vadoze zoEe moritori.ug, 77 157. 159, 173, rEl. r82
Vegetstion hlandfill cover. 73-74 Vast€ generatiotr, 20, 31, 129,
Vehicles used h tratrsportation ofMSW
t5l. 183. 191
3l Waste qriadrities, 68
Venicat gas well, 116 weighirs f&iliries. J6
volul,e reduclior, 6-7, 3 8, 126, 193 Wood, 3. 5, 8-9, 12, 15,22-24,34-35. 40. st.
70, t76, 178,190
Wood gritrders, 34-3j, 70
\l'aste chaiacreristics, 134. 136
Y
ll'as1e corqposition, 7
Yard wasre, 5, 35, 5E, 17E, 190