8.1 Introduction Liquids have a definite volume but not shape. there will be free surface separating the ee from ai inside i racted by large number of molecules sur! 1 ie eatees is tidied aa by a few molecules inside the liquid and on the other ie of it there is air. Therefore, the molecule near the surface has less potential energy comp to the deeper molecule. Hence, a surface is energetically unfavourable for a liquid of solid, This is the reason why liquid drops are spherical in shape and always tend to the minimum surface area. There are many more such consequences that we come in our day-to-day life. i.e., water sticks to glass whereas mercury does not, water in and plants rises upwards against the force of gravity as oil rises up-a cotton wick, greased needle placed cérefully on a water surface does not sink but creates as depression on the surface and rests there. These are all based on the suriace fG of the liquids. All these phenomena mentioned above, clearly shows that the surface a liquid behaves like a stretched membrane and has a tension which is called the si tension of the liquid. When a liquid is poured into a air in the vessel. A molecule ding it, whereas a molecule n 8.2 Molecular forces in liquids Since the surface tension of a liquid is basically a molecular phenomena, the force acting between the molecules of a liquid are molecular in nature. There are two type of molecular forces, namely, adhesive forces and cohesive forces. (i) Adhesive force: \t is the force of mutual attraction between the molecules of differen substances. Adhesive force is different for different substances. ‘ (i) Cohesive force: \t is the force of mutual attraction between the molecules of thé same substance. This force is different {rom the ordinary gravitational force and does not obey the inverse square law. It probably varies inversely as the eighth po of the distance between two molecules and thus decreases rapidly with distal The magnitude of this force is greater in the case of solids thar: in the liquids ana is negligible in gases. ; The forces of adhesion and cohesion are effective only when the distance betwee the neighbouring molecules is extremely small. ie., of the order of 10-9 m, The greate' distance at which the molecules can attract each other is called molecular range. A sphef drawn around a molecule with the molecule at its centre and the molecular range as il tadius is known as the sphere of influence (or sphere of molecular attraction or spher of molecular activity). The central molecule is attracted by all other molecules within tt sphere of influence. The molecules beyond the sphere of influence or molecular rangé are unaffected by the central molecule inside the sphere. It was Laplace (1806 AD) aNdSION ar 173 30 AD), who first gave the theo . wo surface tension, "Y of molecular cohesive force to explain the d gurtace Tension has the least ; if cl least surface aie “Therelr for a given volume. That is, a liquid always 965 On property of a liqu Tefore, a liquid surface always acts like a stretched jmorane. The property Of a liquid by which the free surface of a liquid behaves lik ¢ iquid behaves like g membrane is known as surface tension. This i . F 3° jquid. The following are a few experiments which Rest STI eee oo " a0 vse its surface area, illustrate the tendency of a liquid i) Consider a wire-ring with a loop cation thread, dipped in a soap son. When it is taken out of the fon, it can be seen that the wire-ring ig covered with @ Soap fun, with the gop of thread floating randomly in the ap film, as shown in fig (8.14). But ithe film inside the loop is punctured, tte film inside the loop disappears and ten immediately the loop get stretched into the form of a circular ring, as shown (a) in fgure (8.1b). This is because the Fig. inward forces become zero and all tatward forces act normally at all points on the loop in the film. It is known that for agen perimeter, a circle encloses a maximum area which means that the area of the loop is maximum and the film encloses the minimum area. This shows that the film tends ‘contract due to the tension in it. i) Consider a greased sewing needle kept on upward tension 2 bbting paper. Now if we gently put this paper on 42 surface of water, the blotting paper will soon sink "water whereas the needle will remain floating on 8 surface. Careful observation will show that there 8. small depression on the surface of water below around the needle. Also, it will be found that the "= surtace of water is slightly extended. Here the weight he needle is obviously supported by the resultant nin the depression, acting upwards, 2s shown visaa ' t “Toure (@.2), veg when a camel-hair paint brush is immersed in water all is Nay wil spread ou, si te of water, all the hair come @ bushy appearance. But when the brush is taken Out 6f WEEN egy obether in ea compact manner as if they are bound by some kind of contracting ‘brane, tretched membrane ‘sig these experiments show that the liaulé pe era eee lca membrane lingo (eNdency always to contract. The tensiCOLLEGE Prysiggl va dividing a liquid surface into wo parts, There is a mutual pull between the molecules on iter side Pr the line. If really the liquid surface has to be = eee it is stored as the arts, work has to done and it is st A esiquid. Therefore, to increase the area of the free surface, it's ‘reuied to increase the potential energy and consequent acquires a sha| mi Thus, the face ten: is : i ini 7 , the surface tension is | ir pe of minimum area. ’ ‘ | Let AB be an imaginary line i ting of defined as the force per unit length ac! of tl nee: imaginary line drawn on the liquid surface at rest. The aaa ig 8.3 of the force is tangential to the surface and perpendicular to the line. The surface tension of a liquid is defined a: of the liquid acts on the contour bounding it s the force with which the surface when the length of the contour jg unity. oa : If F is the force due to the liquid surface bounding a contour (or imaginary ling AB) of length L, then the surface tension T is given by Taf (8.1) c The unit of surface tension, in SI units is Nm71 (Newton per metre) and its dimension is MUST. 8.4 Explanation of Surface Tension (Molecular theory) The phenomenon of surface tension can be easily explained by the extension o kinetic theory of gases. This was first attempted by Laplace. Consider the molecules A, B and C of a liquid, woe around each of which a sphere of influence is drawn with the respective molecule being at its centre. The molecule A is well within the liquid and is attracted by all the molecules lying within its sphere of influence as shown in figure (8.4). As a result, there is no net cohesive force acting on the molecule A. The molecule B lies on the surface of the liquid with half of its sphere of influence lying above the surface and the other half within the liquid. The upper part of the sphere of influence contains only a few molecules of the gas or vapour whereas the entire lower part within the liquid conte Foe liquid molecules. Therefore, the res pactif ¢ TENSION fhe 175, f contact fc . The angle of sau of the liquid and the solid in contact with t! diTieices te of the solid with the liquid does not change the ray vary between 0° and 180°. For most liquid sak © and solid interfaces, the angle 6 is less tan 90° and it is about 140° for mercury and glass interface, Consider a liquid contained in a beaker, We en notice that there are three interfaces, namely iqid-air, solid-air and solid-liquid, each of which have an interfacial tension Tuy Tgq and Ts. respectively, as shown in figure (8.5) SL Now consider a liquid drop formed on a flat interface std surface. The shape of the liquid drop depends n the interfacial tension of the three interfaces and fhe force of adhesion (F,) between the solid and ‘gud, as shown in the figures (8.6a), (8.6b) and (86). The molecules in the region where the three Fig 8.5 ‘ilefaces meet are in equilibrium; no net force act on them, Tr Ae Ta io P Ts. Tsa Pp To. Tsa e Ts. Ta STs) (sn? Tov) (Tsa=Tep) F (Tsa Tei. cosd is positive and thus 0 < 90°. Then the solid surtace jg said to be wettable due to the larger spread of the liquid. In this case the adhesive forces will be stronger than the cohesive forces. Example: Water drop on a glass plate. li) Tg, < Tgy, cos@ is negative and thus @ lies between 90° and 180°. The solid surface is non-wettable due to the relatively small spread of the liquid. In this case, the cohesive force is stronger than the adhesive force. Example: Mercury drop on glass plate, ili) When Tgq > (Tia + Ts), there will be no equilibrium and the liquid will sprea: over the solid surface. Example: Water drop on a perfectly clean glass-plale. In general, liquids that wet the glass surface have concave surfaces and that & not wet the glass surface have convex surfaces. Now, consider the case of two non—miscible Jiquids in contact with each other ant with air, as shown in figure (8.7). There are three interfacial tensions. They are i) between air and liquid 1 is Ty ii) between air and liquid 2 is Ty and ii) between liquid 1 and liquid 2 is Ty... 1 At equilibrium, the three interfacial tensions Tay Tat, and Tut must represent the sides of a triangle taken in order. This type of triangle of forces is known as Neumann's triangle. The equilibrium condition is possible only for pure liquids But in nature, we do not come across two pure liquids for which Neumann's triangle can be constructed. It is usually found that one of the surface tensions is always greater than the other two ang therefore, the equilibrium condition is not obtained, *gp tGE TENSION * drop is placed 7 a water on mercury, it , face tension of mercury (0.55 Nmety ;SP"280s all over ) is far greater tha f the surface of mercury since ret surface of mercury is contaminated wi in that of water (0.075 Nm"). ith ¥ pane tay atop th MN grease, its surface tension j drops many stay atop the mercury suri net 4 Nsion is reduced and ie ‘ace making it possible to construct a Neumann's viangle 46 surface film and Surface energy Let AB be the free surface of a liquid taken ina beaker and CD be the line drawn Parallel to Surface 4g, at a distance equal to the molecular range film teow it, inside the liquid. The layer between AB A av CD is known as surface film. All the molecules © in the surface film are acted upon by a resultant downward cohesive force. This makes the liquid suface to contract, spontaneously. (the magnitude d this downward force increases towards the free suface AB). If a molecule from interior has to be brought towards the surface film, work -has to be done against the downward cohesive forces, thus Fig 8.8 increasing the potential energy of the molecule. Therefore, the potential energy of the molecule in the surface film is greater than that ofthe interior molecules. But it is known that the film tends to contract to have minimum suface and minimum number of molecules. Consequently the potential energy of the system lends to have a minimum value. The potential energy per unit area of the surface film is called its surface energy. It is clear that work has to be done to increase the surface area of a liquid, as though a surface under a state of tension were being extended. ‘Vis to be noted that the tension in the surface film is independent of the area of the fim, §7 Surface tension and surface energy a We know that a free liquid surface always tends contact. Free surface energy is associated with a tui niface and work is done to extend the surface area of te quid. relation between surface tension and surface ey can be established. Consider a rectangular frame of wi lure (8.9) with a horizontal wire f dogs 221085 the frame, AB is capable of sliding & ire PRS, as shown AB of weight Wy ip and p s in fig Sohiat'® fame. When this frame is dipped in aie warms i ton, @ Soap film is formed across hoe the fim. i % Pulled up due to the surface tensl a force F Fig 8.9 hag y® the wire AB in equilibrium position, , upward force - ue i pe aeplied downwards, eave © the, vowar y hangng a weight Wr from AB, Then, e'@ Surface tension of the film. “the net downward force F = Wi * SeNS ’B’, through a distance iy 178 ition A the position a dist Let the wire AB be pulled downwards ie fe the lecules from the interior of a film an therefore, ure iS considered to remain constan, This increases the area of the a liquid move into the surface layers. istance then the work done to move AB through 2 4 Work done = Since the film has two surfaces, increase te Then the total increase in the surface area ©! = 2x Area = x is given by area takes place on both the gi des liquid film is aq x 8x) where 1 is the length of the wire , Fxo&x _ F 7 . Work done per unit increase in area = Bx 8x i eal it in potential energy per is equal to the increase in pol ergy Per unit Siar r unit area of the film is calle tial energy Pe! u tension of the liquid film, then the force acting But work done per unit ar area of the film. This increase in poten! the surface energy. If T is the surface on film due to surface tension is given by (21 since the film has two surfaces F=Tx 2 F Gna : (88) Comparing equatidns (8.7) and (8.8), we get Work done per unit area = £ =i : (69) Therefore, the surface tension is numerically equal tc to unit area (or the surface energy of the film) a taal But the temperature does not remain constant thi 4 + roughout. film gets cooled when it is stretched since the intermolecular egret be kd 4 agar the attractive forces, at the expense of work. Therefore, the film ab: rence cs the almosphere to maintain its original temperature. The surface e sorbs heat energy equal to the sum of the mechanical work done and the heat ates ae ot ne ne oe if H is the quantity of heat energy absorbed per unit tee from|ne then area and S is the surface ene! Sx 2 &K = Tx 2K +H x OF Bx where 21 8x is the increase in area. From the above equation Siete we get oT=S_H etl = potenti . Therefore, (S — H) is the cata ee Per unit, area. pylon rast 5 inti : bw emer fey? eng te ae ih ce. e process is adiabatic (or the hi Jy and is called the free 6” ‘| ). Therefore, from (eqn 8.11) we have leat absorbed is negligible) then179 | Tes (8.12) | tension of a liquid j i - | the surface | ‘uid is numerical w= 0. Tho unt of eure cae Y cual '0 the surface energy of the liquid 4s cued liquid surface Forces due to surface ten; utace can be plane, convex Sion act tangential NE, as shi ot conca ly to the surface Of @ liquid. A liquid own in the figures given below. Fig 8.108 Fig 8.105 Fig te () When the liquid surta ice is plane (fig 8.10a), there is 9 component of the force due to surface tension in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the liquid, ‘Therefore, the resultant force of surface tension on a molecule on the surface is zero, (i) When the liquid surface is convex (fig. 8.10b), the direction of the resultant force of surface tension is inwards, When the liquid surface is concave (fig 8.10c), the direction of the resultant force Of surface tension is upwards. Therefore, for a curved liquid surface, the Pressure on the concave side ‘han the is greater at on the convex side, The difference of pressure depends upon the surface tension “the liquid and the radius of curvature of its surface. 89 Pressure difference across a curved liquid surface Consider a small element ABCD of a curved ban = ane having principal radii of curvature Ry and R2 Pect tively of sides AB and BC. This element wil be i rium only if the excess pressure acts on the concay : leggut'® excess pressure balances the effect due to surface “Sen on the convex side of the membrane Suit a yet St AP be the oxcess of pressure on the eee "° tauid membrane. From tho figure (8.11), 8° AB = CD = Rib and BC = AD = Roth " 7 BC Fatt “Area of the film ABCD = AS = AB X ke ~— "180 » AS = Ry0, x Foe ° id by moving it normally upwards by a gig If the surface of ABCD is expande B‘C’D’, then the area of the film A’B‘C'D’ is given by AZ, to the position A‘ | AS’ = AB x BC = (Ry + AZ), x (Ro + A2)02 Therefore, increase in the area of the film, from eqns (8.13) and (8.14), is give 1 (aS’ - AS) = (Ry + AZ)O, x (Re + AZ)0 - Fy0sR202 t 2 2 3 2 > + 2 k a 2 + K a 3 S ° + ees 2 ' 2 = 2 = PyAZ0,0) + RyAZO0, —(‘«" 420400 is very negligible) (AS’ - AS) = (Ry + Ro) AZ 040, Since the work is done to increase the surface area of the film, we have Work done = (excess of pressure x area of the film) x distance mo = (AP x RyR,0,0,) x AZ Alternatively, work done can also be calculated as es Work done = surface tension x increase in the area of the film. = T x (Ry + RQ)AZ0,0) Comparing equations (8.16) and (8.17), we have, (APRyR040:)AZ = T x (Ry + Ry)AZ0,0 R, +R, Ry Re : 1,4 : ” or | aP tr) 2 . AP. " ee f » ; This is the required relation between the excess pressure inside a curved liquid surf surface tension and the radii of curvature of the liquid surface. This expression is al true for a liquid drop or an air bubble in a liquid. Special Cases: i {)- In the case of a liquid drop or an air bubble inside a liquid, the surtace is phe ¢ and therefore Ry = Ro = R is the radius of curvature of the sphere. It has if one surface and thus equation (6,18) becomes 1.1) _ 42) oi) or o AP = aee we ne case of a Soap bubble o, a ter surface and inner surface) et liquid bubpy ; le in air, it has {wo spherical surfaces = Ro =R. Fey Ay 2 Therefore, from equation (8.18), we get AP = 2x 1,1) taal or ap = 40 R (8.18b) . When the liquid surface is cylindrical, then one of the radii of curvature Ry = R (radius of the cylinder) and for the plane surface, Ry = o. Therefore eqn (8.18) becomes AP = q (8.18) \0 Capillary ascent When a capillary tube of small bore is dipped in water, water rises in the capillary 42 (fig 8.13a) and when it is dipped in mercury, there is a depression of mercury level ihe tube (fig. 8.13b). This property of elevation or depression of a liquid inside a capillary he is called capillarity. The property of capillarity depends on the surface tension of ‘e liquid and the radius of the capillary tube. The liquids that wets the glass, rise inside =. € capillary tube while those do not wet the glass, show a depression inside the capillary she, Mercury Fig 18. Fig 8.13 “leg of capillarity: i t Ma pillarity: to their top most level due to capillaries pregent 4, ; ‘er in plants and trees rises " them,182 COLLEGE Py, 7 is to the capillary acti Blood circulation in human beings and animals 18 ove a . end of the sketch. A sketch-pen tip has number of capiliaries. The ey Gf ink to the tip.” ® dipped in a ink capsule, maintains a continuou: ue to the presence of number of Capillarig, Sub-soil water rises to surface of the soil d f, the soil is ploughed ang i, abe satel present in the sub-soil. To avoid this loss of W the capillaries are covered. illaries present j Oil in the oil lamps and stoves is drawn up through the capi Present jin th, wicks. A blotting paper kept in contact with ink or water absorbs them since the fine pore of the blotting paper act as capillaries. ; e 8.11 Expression for surface tension in the case of capillary ris vertically in water. Water rises in the capillary tube. Let h be the height of water in the capillary tube above the free surface of water, in the vessel. The Water meniscus is concave and the force of surface tension T acts tangential to the surface, at the point of contact with the wall of the capillary tube. The column of liquid of height h in the capillary is held against gravity by the force of surface tension acting all along the contour. at A or B is equal to the surface tension T. This force T can be resolved into two components. Tcos0 along vertical direction and TsinO along horizontal direction, as shown in figure (8.14). The horizontal components, due to all the molecules along the circumference, cancel each other while vertical components alone are effective. Therefore the force per unit length is T cos0 and the circumference (or contour) is 2%R. Then Consider a capillary tube of radius R, dipped x Teost Test The force per unit length acting on a molecule .2., Fig 8.14 the, total upward force due to surface tension, Fy = (Tcost) x 2nR (8.19) The weight of the liquid column in the capita is given by Ty tube eae W = volume of the liquid column x densi sit i % acceleration due to gravity. 'Y of the liquid ie, w= [Volume of liquid in the Vol es cylinder of height h- * intra’, Of liquid inthe meniscus | xPxg where P is the density of the liquid,gabe TENSION 183 he volume of liquid in the Svlinder of height h = aRey (821) volume in the meniscus = (volume of @ cylinder of radius R and height R) 6 : ei Wolume of a hemisphere of rauiee Ree = ARE — Zane = mR? _ Sane = tes fae (8.22) Substituting from equations (8.21) and (8.22) in equation (8.20), we have Weight of the liquid column, W = [prehs apo (oes) But the weight (W) of the water column in the capillary tube Above the free surface the liquid is held against gravity by the upward force (Fy) due to surface tension of tte liquid. Therefore, equating eqn. (8.19) and (8.23), we get 2nRTcosd = [»Rtn gan °g = nh? [n+4] ®g 1 R . Toosd = 4PgR (n+ 3| (a2) 8 the angle of contact @ is very small and negligible. Therefore, as © — 0; cos® = 1. en equation (8,24) becomes R Tae Par (v3) (8.25) 2 measuring the value of h and R, the surface tension of the given liquid can be calculated. by 2 Interfacial surface tension ‘ hase (or a boundary) two immiscible fi e in contact with each other, a new pl te veloped at their imerace. ‘The new interfacial film, thus developed, would have a je ; tensio Surface iving rise to a surface te terfe ; le iietiass ee oes te xtactal tension of aS The surface energy i iquids in ; mleriace n the nature of the liqui / mares h the interfacial tension between two liquids between their individual surface tensions. It at liquids A and B respectively, in contact, ‘ tween them is thus given by Ts and Tg are the surface tensions of wo equilibrium the interfacial tension / / (8.26) Tap = TA: TeCOLLEGE Prysicg 184 “cui lly ‘satur But Antonow’s rule is valid only when the two na adion of ‘one liquid wo te is the necessary concition for equilibrium. Otherwise, the addiion of Oe Tau’ incrose™ reduces its surface tension, The interfacial tension is @ small Suey Stich increas with the decrease in the solubility of one liquid into the other ai ature 8.13 Determination of interfacial tension by drop-weight method The apparatus consists of a funnel fitted vertically to a stand with the help of a horizontal clamp. A clean dry glass tube of small bore (about 4 mm) is attached to the end of the funnel by a piece of rubber tubing with a pinch — cock fixed at the centre of the rubber tube. The funnel is filled with one liquid and the glass tube, attached to its lower end through a rubber tube, is dipped into the second liquid contained in a glass jar, so that the drop of the first liquid is formed inside the second liquid. The weight of one drop of the first Fig 8.16 liquid, formed and detached inside the second liquid, r can be calculated by collecting and weighing a known number of drops. Theory: Let P, and P, be the densities of the two [i quids respectively. If m is the mass of the drop of the first liquid, then the Volume of the drop = density pou (8.21) »; , This is also equal to the volume of the second liquid di tion of the liquid drop. Therefore, the a Neplaced due to the formal displaced (or uptrust acting (volume of the Second liquid displaced) on the liquid drop) (density of the second liquid) (acceleration due to gravity) iene Weight of the second liquid | fr) .the apparent effective Then, “weight of the drop 09)“@AFACE TENSION , the dro; lincics nee eas ee wil Raye ulna shape just at the time of being detached Heke ies) interface fanaa ae eae {fross-sectional area as that of the glass . is the i , we ylindrical drop, we know that an © intemal radius of the glass tube, then 185 exe insi : Me given by (from eqn. 8.18) SS pressure inside the drop over that outside =O “30k (8.30) : Then the downward force acting on the drop due to this excess Pressure inside tis = AP x mR? = 3 x mR? = aRT (8.31) : the total downward | _ _ (effective weight of the drop) 7 force onthe drop | = + (downward force due to excess Pressure inside the drop) Substituting from equations (8.29) and (8.31), we get Total downward force = mg ( 3] + ART 1 (8.32) ‘The upward force acting on the drop due to its surface tension is = 2nRT (8.33) Where 2nR is the circumference of the cross section of the drop. At the equilibrium position of the drop, we have total downward force = total upward force ; Py ie, mg 1-—| + RT = 2nRT Py Po _2@nRT - mRT = mg |1-5~ se LP 1-2 = mg |1-7- RT 91-5 (8.34) at the time of its detachment. But the detachment of the drop is dynamical process ime of it . i ic librium after having attained cylindrical tte,_/' ¥@S assumed that the drop attains static equi Re dimensional analysis we get the above relation in be fom atc process. Therefore, by dim p. (8.35) mg ' -| = TROCOLLEGE py 186 = i ional variable | —~ - where @ is an arbitrary function of a non-dimensi [GR°(P; - 9, that the value of this function i Lord Rayleigh showed, from his calculations, | T | 38 lar aah Substituting the value of @ in equation (8.35), we get p mg [-F] = Rx 38 or T The interfacial tension T of two liquids can be calculated by determining the ‘of one drop of liquid formed in the second liquid and the radius of the bore of the tube. az 8.14 Factors affecting surface tension There are various factors that affect surface tension of a liquid such as the of impurities, presence of a dissolved substance in the liquid, change of temperati (i) Presence of impurities: The presence of any kind of impurity on the surface of a liquid contaminates liquid surface. The surface tension reacts immediately and little sharply to any contam of the liquid surface. This brings about a significant change in the value of its tension. The change in surface tension depends on the degree of contamination of t liquid surface. il) Presence of dissolved substance in the liquid: The substance dissolved can be highly soluble or feebly soluble in the liquid. Wi the substance is highly soluble in the liquid, the molecules of the substances are stron attracted by the liquid molecules. When this force of attraction is much greater than i between liquid molecules themselves, the molecules of the substance get concentral in the surface layer of the liquid, resulting in the decrease of surface energy. The decreas in surface energy brings about decrease in surface tension. Example: Water has a surf tension of 0.075 Nm™ whereas aqueous solution of sodium chloride (water + NaCl) h a surface tension of 0.082 Nm‘. But the potential energy of the solution, jike in ot cases, tends to be minimum thereby making the surface tension also to assume minimum value, Therefore, the molecules of the substance gets pulled into the interior of the liqu reducing their concentration in the surface layer and increasing their concentration in lf ll interior.se TENSION a en the substance Is fesbly soluble, the liquid molecules ftom the surtace layer ied into the interior of the liquid making the molecules of the substance to concentrate a2P gurface layer. This resulls in the decrease in the suriace tension. Example: In wl of a soap solution, its surface tension is 40 Percent less than that of water * centration of soap molecules on the surface of a soap bubble is very high compared 1 Miterior region. If the surface film gets stretched, fresh liquid molecules are brought wp surface to prevent the Snapping of soap bubble. Therefore, the film or surface of 30a? bubble gets reinforced automatically at just those points where there is a possibility fis rupture. iil) Change of temperature of the liquid: The surface tension of all liquids, in general, decreases linearly with the increase of temperature, for small temperature ranges. At a temperature t, the surface tension T of a liquid is given by | | T=Th-at) (6.37) | pete To is the surface tension at t = O° and it is constant for the given liquid and | is the temperature co-efficient of surface tension for the liquid. The above equation | can also be written in the form. aT we Ty o piting Ta. = K, we have gk (8.38) at The surface tension becomes zero at t =,t,, the critical temperature. At the critical ‘emperature, the interface between the liquid and the vapour disappears. Therefore, the | Ssolule value of the surface tension depends on how far the temperature is from its |tial value. According to van der Waals (1893 A.0.), the surface tension at absolute "werature t, is given by yt T= To (4) (8.39) | Meentating this equation w.tt. ty, we have om el . ST =o, when = & (8.40) ie, a, eto, T and JT are both zero at critical temperature. dt, La188 If Mis the molecular weight of a liquid of density p and the molecules are C to be symmetrical in shape, then the surface area occupied by a gm-molecule is pi to (ey Such a surface is called the molar surface and its surface enorgy is propo p wy to T{“) , called molar energy. e ‘according to Eotvos law, we have 2% M T a = &= Q) where K is a universal constant known as Eotvos constant and approximately K Equation (8.41) was modified by Ramsey and Shields as % t(M) = Kat - where d varies between the values 6 and 8 for most of the liquids. From the above expr it is evident that surface tension T = 0 when t, = (t, — d), i.e., the surface tension critical temperature. 8.15 Force between two plates separated by a thin layer of liquid two glass plates if a liquid drop is squeezed between them. A thin layer (or film) of liquid wets the plates over an almost entire circular area. The layer is concave outside as shown in figure (8.17). If d is the thickness of liquid layer, then approximately (-d/2) is the radius of curvature of the two edges of the liquid layer. Let R be the radius of the circular surface of the liquid film. Then the excess pressure AP inside the liquid film over the outside atmospheric Pressure is, from equation (8.18). where T is the surface tension of the liquid, given by (by putting AP 1.4 P=T(t+4_ (i =] since the radius of curvature of the concave surface, Rp = —d/2 and Ry = of the top circular surface. Therefore, the above eqn. becomes = Teh-2 P= Om 3]yr TENSION 4| (8.43) i 189 fs 1 tla 4 6 radius of the circular surface R >> d, the thickness of the film. Therefore a R “a4 at dy (8.44) om the above equation, we see that the pressure inside the fil eric pressure, as is evident from the negative sign of P, by an amol g outside atmosp! i} This excess of atmospheric pressure on the plates pushes them close together, making a . e value of d still smaller and R more larger. Thi it A is the area of the circular surface over which tt J ve) negligible compared to 2/d. o P= im is less than unt is further increases the value of P. he liquid wets the plates and is the force which squeezes them together then we have .£ , ik apsttuing this in eqn (8.44) we get or P= Fe (8.45) ‘ut grea of the circular surface, A = ah, Therefore, 2nR°T Negative sign is neglected as it | F d ineicates the direction of the fave | l-48) required to be applied perpendioular to the surface of parate This is the amount of force larger is the force required t0 se te plates to pull them apart. Small te plates. ay 16 Force required to withdraw @ plat ced on the surface the plate be pull _ RR ler the value of d, k fe form a liquid surface " Consider a flat plate plat of a liquid of density p, with the horizontal % surface touching the fiquid surface. Let ied upwards, vertically through istance d ag shown in the figure (8.18). _ A considerable amount of force IS required 10 aw the plate from the liquid surface. Let A be te and P be atea of the flat surface of the Plat ure above the plate eat sp eposehere pressure. The press! D 7 net pressure below the plate is then given ang, Pe) where Pad is the pressure due 0 the ty of fquid raised above the ligule surface and Fig 8.18190 COLLEGE PHYSI¢g g is the acceleration due to gravity. Therefore, the difference in pressures just above and A below the plate is given by (ap) = P - (P - Pad) = Pod (8.47) ight to which the liquid is raised before the plate is withdrawn from te Here d is the hei id. But AP = E ® liquid surface completely and depends on the surface tension of the liqui F is the normal upwards’ force acting on the plate. Therefore, we have where F ap = 4 = Pad. or F = PdgA (8.48) The outer edge of the liquid below the plate and above the liquid surface is usual semicircular and concave in shape with a radius of curvature approximately equal to (-d/2) Also d/2 << R, the radius of the circular plate. Therefore, the pressure inside the liqui at a point where the horizontal section of the elevated liquid is least, is less than the outside atmospheric pressure by a quantity [trom eqn (8.18): P = T (Bra wher 1 Re R, = R and Ry = —d/2 in the present case] Eee ae =, (aca " 4 = BI= 1 ain et But R>>d, and therefore, 4 is negligible. aia (8.49) If we: compare the rise of liquid with that of the capillary rise, the pressure diferent inside the liquids is given by [trom eqn. (8.25) : T = $ Por th + Fis) 1 (aP), = 5 Pad (850) Comparing equations (8.49) and (8.50), we get 4 ony = 2 2 Pad = - o =o? = AT Pg Neglecting the negative sign, we haveRAN a vt \ dae % (an) ARH AY BON LAR the cequiiod normal UpWaTE pull ty given by Pos ipa x Vit x Bos BA Vit (8.52) Temwrring Fetth the help of a balance, the surtace tension T can al no be dotormined TNS NESS Ody aNpHOriato, Ferguaon gave the correct oxpreasion of the we (8,53) Foe 2A 09 [o-9-Me WORKED EXAMPLES \ Calculate the work done in 5 10 =m into a million drops “aS Nev Sttor: Gren: Radius of bigger drop, R = 10% m; Surface tension T = 550 x 10° Nm praying a spherical drop of mercury of radius of equal size. Surface tension of mercury = 550 (BU, NS — Aprit ‘93) 4 Te votune of the bigger drop = $x RY = 4 x (1039 Votme of the smaller drop of radus r= x? * Volume of the bigger drop = 10° x volume of a smaller drop 3 x (10%)8= 108 x 4 ne 3 1 = 2105 m 10? "crease in surtace area = (10° x surface area of a smaller drop) = (surface area of bigger drop) = 10° x 4 ne - 4 aR? = 4n [10% (10F - (10°) = 4n (104 - 10°)COLLEGE PHYsicg 192 = anx 99x 1oem Work done = surface tension x increase in area = g50 x 102 x 4 x99 X10 = 684x104 J / 2. Two circular glass plates are each 5 x 407? aa i lsd m. thick. Find, by a film of water 0.01 x 10° i Surface tension of pull required to separate the plates. water is 72 x 107 Noy! (BU, NS ~ April 34 R= 5x 10%, Distance of separation d = 0.01 Solution: Given: radius of each plate’ : 0-3 Nm. x 103m, Surface tension T = 72 x 1 2 Direct pull (or force) required, F = eat where A = mR, area of the plates fa et Fos 2nR°q (0.01 x 10%) = 113.04 N = 11.53 kg. wt 3. A mercury drop of radius 1m is sprayed into a million droplets of same size Calculate the energy expended. Surface tension of mercury is 472 x 107° Nm : (BU, NS - April '$5) Solution: Given: Radius of the bigger drop, R = 1 x 102 m. Surface tension, T = 472 x 10° Nm The volume of the bigger drop = $ n RB = Volume of the smaller drop of radius, r = 4 3 Volume of the bigger drop = 10° x volume of a smaller drop 4 ie, 3 m0?) = 10° x 4n8 10? or r = WL io 1 = 14m Increase in surface area = (10° x surface area of a smaller drop) ~ (Surface area of bigger drop) = 108 x an? x an? — an? = 4m [108 x (10-42 _ (10-2)?} = 4m [10% ~ 40-4}& nth TENSION 198 = 4nx 99 x 10% Energy expended = surface tension x increase in area = 472 x 10% x 40x 99 x 10% = 5.87 x 107 J 4 Ca aia in kg. wt. required to detach a horizontal circular late 0! .0 x m* from the surface of a liquid of density 1000 kgm. Surface tension of the liquid = 0.035 Nm and g = 9.8 ms? solution: Given: Area of the plate A = 6.0 x 40°? m2; Density P = 1000 kg m™°; Surface tension T = 0.035 Nm Force required to withdraw the plate from the liquid surface, F = 2AypgT 2x 6 x 10° V1000x9.8 x 0.035 = 0,222 N 0.023. kg.wt cone m in diameter. What is the error 2 Surface tension of mercury = 13600 kgm~ and (Cal. University, 1965) 5. The tube of a mercury barometer is 3 x 10° introduced into the reading because of surface tension’ = 0.465 Nm‘, angle of contact = 128°, density of mercury g = 9.8 ms* Solution: The height to which mercury is depressed in the barometer is the error that can be introduced into the reading. From the capillarty formula, 1 RB T cosd = 3 POR (r+3] vehi 2tcos — R We have, height h= “ion” Given: T = 0.465 Nmn1; 0 = 126% P = 13600 kgm, g = 9.8 ms and R= 15 x 10% m. 15x10 20.465 008 128° 3 h = 75600 x9.8 x 1.5 x 10° _ px 0d6s x 20852) _ 95 x 10° = 13600 x 9.8 x 1.5% 10 “9 x0.465x061588__ 95 x 10 fi 79600 x 9.8% 1.5% 10° _2,96396 x 10° - 05 * 10° or oh = -3.36 x 10% m the bottom of a small hollow vessel. The ar hole at Coe ter to a depth of 0.4 m, before any water 6, * There is a minute sed in wal Vessel has to be immer:MMLEME PHyo 194 if the surface tension and deny ole, id the, radius of the hes * espectivelY (Cal. University iw nd 1000 kgm ure is greater than the exc. hydrostatic press : the hy‘ he limiting condition when the wate iy be equal. That is penetrates inside. Find th of water are 0.073 Nm” 4 Solution: Water penetrate only when pr rf nsion. At tt to surface tension. of pressure due , these two pressure it indri penetrates, these - considering cylindrical shapg Pgh = cof the just incoming water } P aL ie, R= pgh -3 Given: T = 0.073 Nmvt; h = 0.4m and p = 1000 kom”. = 000 x 9.8 x 0.4 = 3.72 x 10% m 7. The interiors of a cylindrical and a spherical soap bubble are put int communication. Determine the ratio of the radii of the sphere and the cylinde in order that the bubbles may be in equilibrium. (Cal. Universi, Solution: The bubbles in communication will be in equilibrium only when the pressure ¢ air inside both the bubbles is same. The excess pressure inside the cylindrical bubble of radius Ry over the outside pressut is given by ar rae e The excess pressure inside the spheri it enna p Pherical bubble of radius Ry over the outside presse" g Py 2 iz +. At equilibrium, we have Py = Pp at _ aT Ry ~ Ro Re oR 2 it the 8, Molecular weight of ether is 74 a ind Its densi 1 ty at 0°C Is 0.737 gmi/cei surface tension of ether at 0°C is 1 9.2 dyne: calculate approximately the critical tempanin Pipe enos constant sag ether, Solution: The Eotvos formula is 2 Mi *(F] = K (te - ta)Solution: For an air bubble inside a liquid, is i 24 AL 0°C, we have §, (°) = Kt ~ 4) i meat butt = o*¢ Substituting the given Values, we get = 19.2 = 04 22 ceo 216 ( = 192°¢ The lower end of a Capillary tube of fadius 1.25x 10-3 m, i F Oo” m. 2 below the free surtac m. Is dipped 7.5 x 102 m "@ Of water in a In the tube to blo: qa hemispherical bubble at its end of water = 0.072 Nm-', 4 atmospheric pressure = of water = 1000 kgm ang g Vessel. What is the Pressure required in water. Surface tension 1.01 x 10° Nm, density = 98 ms*. Calculate the excess pressure. , since it has only one surface, the excess pressure is = = where T is the Surface tension and R is the radius of the bubble. Since the bubble is hemispherical, the radius of the bubble is equal to the radius of the capillary tube. Now the Pressure outsidé the bubble is given by Pow = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to height of water above the bubble. = 1.01 x 105 + 0.075 x 1000 x 9.8 = 1.01735 x 108 Nm? This is the Pressure required to blow the bubble. The pressure inside the bubble 5 pressure inside Pin = Poy + excess pi ar 1.01735 x 10° + 2x 0.072 1.25x 10° + 115.2 5 = 1.01735 x 10° + 5 = 1.01735 x 10 2 4.0185 x 10° Nm 5 2x 0.072 Xcess, Pressure 20 J 25x10° " R -2 = 115.2 Nm™-COLLEGE p, 196 of radius 2.5 x 193 10. Calculate the pressure inside @ drop ore isl die the drop. Given, e¢ room temperature. What is the oer nd the atmospheric presay tension of mercury is 472 1.01 x 10° Nm? : ss pressure inside _ __ . Total pressure spheric pressure + exce Solution: “fare Grop {= Atmose = 101% 10 + 5, 2x0.472 = 1.01 x 10° + “9.9025 = 1,01 x 10° + 377.6 = 1037.6 Nm? _ aT , 2x0.472 Excess pressure = Ff = “> oq95- = 377.6 Nm? 11. A soap bubble A of radius 5 x 10m. and another bubble B of radius 4x10" are brought in contact with each other. The combined bubble forms a comm interface XY of radius R as shown in the figure (8.19). Calculate the rad R. Solution: Let P; and Pz be the total pressures inside the by bubbles A and B respectively. If P is the atmospheric pressure and T is the surface tension | of the soap solutions, we get 4T y x Py = P+ ond 1 R08 at ers. Pp +h where Py > Pz as Ry < Rp. Le, the pressure is more on the B side. Therefore, the interface j Fig concave towards B. The pressure difference acr : the bubble is therefore” given by eg P,-P,= 40_ 47 20 Ry TOR, SAT me 2 The net excess pressure acting on the concave side of the interface XY ©? intet Pr-Py= Comparing equations (1) and (2), we getr e950" # ite > th 1 . 197 R- Rw or r= JiRe _ 0.04x 0,05 Re-Ry 0.04-0.05 = 02m two soap bubbles of radii 2.5 2 it x 10° m and 5.0 x 10 m respectively in vaccum, coalesce under isothermal conditions, cal - ined, , calculate the radius of the bubble sutton: Given: Ry = 2.5 x 10 m and Ry-= 5.0 x 102 m. Let T be the surface tension of soap bubbles and R be the radius of the resultant bubble. Then the work done to form the bubble is given by ee Work done = T x surface area T x 2 (4nR®) (since the bubble has’ two: surfaces) T x 8nh? een) This work done is equal to the sum of the work done to form the individual bubbles. ie., Work done = T x 8nRf + T x any =Txer (+R) 0 (2) Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get 2 Re = AE + RS Ace \RE+ RG = @exio7e+ Ox 107 = 625425 x 10° R = 559 x 107 m. or p of radius 6x10~m. into up a water dro} 0.07 Nm, o-%m, Surface tension of water = =6x10%m. ; om. Ratius of the smatter drop of water, = 12% 1 ; Volume of the bigger drop of smaller drops formed = Volumeofa smallerdrop Ann? x10? 3— = poe = 4 (1.2% ye ' on Calculate the work done to break drops of water, each of radii 1.2%1 Sout lion: Radius of the bigger drop of water, 38 -216x10%. . 125 = T728x 10°198 — 4nF? (12 x 10° = 1440 x 10° ? Increase in the area = 125 * 4m op — an x (6 x 10% 425 x 4n = 720m x 10° = 576n x 10° 6 1908.64 x 10° ™ i in area Work done = surface tension X increase In 6 = 0.07 x 1808.64 x 10 = 127 x 104 J 4 ple of radius 3 x 10-3 m. Surfe ie Iso calculate the surface ener aoa (BU, NS — Nov '95, IAS - 18 14. Calculate the excess pressure inside a soap bub! tension of soap solution = 20 x 10 Solution: Given: R = 3 x 10° m; T = 20 x 1073 Nm“ , at _ 4x20x 10° -2 i. Excess pressure = 42 = “X#°*—— = 26.66 Nm ° R 3x10 ii, Surface energy = surface tension (numerically) Since the bubble has two surfaces, we have Surface energy = 2 x surface tension (numerically) = 2x 0.02 = 0.04 dm? 15. Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 0.02 m. What addition work should be done in order to increase its radius to double the value. Surfa‘ tension of the solution is 28 x 10° Nm“, (Bu, NS-April '$ Solution: Given: T = 28 x 10 Nm‘; Radius of the bubble to be blown, R = 0.02m i. Surface area of the bubble = 4nR? x 2 (." it has two surfaces ) Work done to blow the bubble = T x smh? = 28 x 10% x 8x x (0,02) 2.813 x 104 y, " il, Increase in area when R is 0.04 m = 2 x an [(0,04)2— (0,02)2 = 8n x vie oa "] 30.144 x 10-3 mp2 Work done = 0.028 x 30,144 x 49-3 8.44 x 10-4 y "